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102-474: Wi-Fi Protected Access ( WPA ), Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 ( WPA2 ), and Wi-Fi Protected Access 3 ( WPA3 ) are the three security certification programs developed after 2000 by the Wi-Fi Alliance to secure wireless computer networks. The Alliance defined these in response to serious weaknesses researchers had found in the previous system, Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP). WPA (sometimes referred to as

204-405: A i , j ) ≠ a i , j {\displaystyle S(a_{i,j})\neq a_{i,j}} , and also any opposite fixed points, i.e., S ( a i , j ) ⊕ a i , j ≠ FF 16 {\displaystyle S(a_{i,j})\oplus a_{i,j}\neq {\text{FF}}_{16}} . While performing the decryption,

306-490: A Feistel network . AES is a variant of Rijndael, with a fixed block size of 128 bits , and a key size of 128, 192, or 256 bits. By contrast, Rijndael per se is specified with block and key sizes that may be any multiple of 32 bits, with a minimum of 128 and a maximum of 256 bits. Most AES calculations are done in a particular finite field . AES operates on a 4 × 4 column-major order array of 16 bytes b 0 ,   b 1 ,   ...,   b 15 termed

408-645: A passphrase of 8 to 63 printable ASCII characters . This pass-phrase-to-PSK mapping is nevertheless not binding, as Annex J is informative in the latest 802.11 standard. If ASCII characters are used, the 256-bit key is calculated by applying the PBKDF2 key derivation function to the passphrase, using the SSID as the salt and 4096 iterations of HMAC - SHA1 . WPA-Personal mode is available on all three WPA versions. This enterprise mode uses an 802.1X server for authentication, offering higher security control by replacing

510-402: A brute-force search increases exponentially with key length. Key length in itself does not imply security against attacks, since there are ciphers with very long keys that have been found to be vulnerable. AES has a fairly simple algebraic framework. In 2002, a theoretical attack, named the " XSL attack ", was announced by Nicolas Courtois and Josef Pieprzyk , purporting to show a weakness in

612-560: A conditional XOR with 1B 16 should be performed if the shifted value is larger than FF 16 (overflow must be corrected by subtraction of generating polynomial). These are special cases of the usual multiplication in GF ⁡ ( 2 8 ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {GF} (2^{8})} . In more general sense, each column is treated as a polynomial over GF ⁡ ( 2 8 ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {GF} (2^{8})} and

714-433: A custom server that used OpenSSL 's AES encryption. The attack required over 200 million chosen plaintexts. The custom server was designed to give out as much timing information as possible (the server reports back the number of machine cycles taken by the encryption operation). However, as Bernstein pointed out, "reducing the precision of the server's timestamps, or eliminating them from the server's responses, does not stop

816-418: A minute. Many modern CPUs have built-in hardware instructions for AES , which protect against timing-related side-channel attacks. AES-256 is considered to be quantum resistant, as it has similar quantum resistance to AES-128's resistance against traditional, non-quantum, attacks at 128 bits of security . AES-192 and AES-128 are not considered quantum resistant due to their smaller key sizes. AES-192 has

918-438: A new related-key attack was discovered that exploits the simplicity of AES's key schedule and has a complexity of 2 . In December 2009 it was improved to 2 . This is a follow-up to an attack discovered earlier in 2009 by Alex Biryukov , Dmitry Khovratovich , and Ivica Nikolić, with a complexity of 2 for one out of every 2 keys. However, related-key attacks are not of concern in any properly designed cryptographic protocol, as

1020-547: A new wireless adapter or appliance to a network. These methods include pushing buttons on the devices or entering an 8-digit PIN . The Wi-Fi Alliance standardized these methods as Wi-Fi Protected Setup; however, the PIN feature as widely implemented introduced a major new security flaw. The flaw allows a remote attacker to recover the WPS PIN and, with it, the router's WPA/WPA2 password in a few hours. Users have been urged to turn off

1122-957: A new, higher-speed variant endorsed the IEEE 802.11b specification to form the Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA) and branded the new technology Wi-Fi. The group of companies included 3Com , Aironet (acquired by Cisco ), Harris Semiconductor (now Intersil ), Lucent Technologies (the WLAN part was renamed as Orinoco, become part of Avaya , then acquired by Extreme Networks ), Nokia and Symbol Technologies (acquired by Motorola , Zebra Technologies , and now Extreme Networks ). The alliance lists Apple , Comcast , Samsung , Sony , LG , Intel , Dell , Broadcom , Cisco , Qualcomm , Motorola , Microsoft , Texas Instruments , and T-Mobile as key sponsors. The charter for this independent organization

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1224-469: A number of certification programs by Wi-Fi alliance: The 802.11 protocols are IEEE standards, identified as 802.11b, 11g, 11n, 11ac, etc. In 2018 The Wi-Fi Alliance created the simpler generation labels Wi-Fi 4 - 6 beginning with Wi-Fi 5, retroactively added Wi-Fi 4 and later added Wi-Fi 6 and Wi-Fi 6E. Wi-Fi 5 had Wave 1 and Wave 2 phases. Wi-Fi 6E extends the 2.4/5 GHz range to 6 GHz, where licensed. Listed in historical and capacity order. See

1326-509: A paper which described a practical approach to a "near real time" recovery of secret keys from AES-128 without the need for either cipher text or plaintext. The approach also works on AES-128 implementations that use compression tables, such as OpenSSL. Like some earlier attacks, this one requires the ability to run unprivileged code on the system performing the AES encryption, which may be achieved by malware infection far more easily than commandeering

1428-464: A poorly specified part of the standard. Software patches can resolve the vulnerability but are not available for all devices. KRACK exploits a weakness in the WPA2 4-Way Handshake, a critical process for generating encryption keys. Attackers can force multiple handshakes, manipulating key resets. By intercepting the handshake, they could decrypt network traffic without cracking encryption directly. This poses

1530-412: A properly designed protocol (i.e., implementational software) will take care not to allow related keys, essentially by constraining an attacker's means of selecting keys for relatedness. Another attack was blogged by Bruce Schneier on July 30, 2009, and released as a preprint on August 3, 2009. This new attack, by Alex Biryukov, Orr Dunkelman , Nathan Keller , Dmitry Khovratovich, and Adi Shamir ,

1632-511: A protected environment for authentication without requiring client certificates. Originally, only EAP-TLS ( Extensible Authentication Protocol - Transport Layer Security ) was certified by the Wi-Fi alliance. In April 2010, the Wi-Fi Alliance announced the inclusion of additional EAP types to its WPA- and WPA2-Enterprise certification programs. This was to ensure that WPA-Enterprise certified products can interoperate with one another. As of 2010

1734-768: A risk, especially with sensitive data transmission. Manufacturers have released patches in response, but not all devices have received updates. Users are advised to keep their devices updated to mitigate such security risks. Regular updates are crucial for maintaining network security against evolving threats. The Dragonblood attacks exposed significant vulnerabilities in the Dragonfly handshake protocol used in WPA3 and EAP-pwd. These included side-channel attacks potentially revealing sensitive user information and implementation weaknesses in EAP-pwd and SAE. Concerns were also raised about

1836-532: A secure RNG. By doing so, Hostapd running on Linux kernels is not vulnerable against this attack and thus routers running typical OpenWrt or LEDE installations do not exhibit this issue. In October 2017, details of the KRACK (Key Reinstallation Attack) attack on WPA2 were published. The KRACK attack is believed to affect all variants of WPA and WPA2; however, the security implications vary between implementations, depending upon how individual developers interpreted

1938-451: A shared key (it has 40 bits of vectored key and 24 bits of random numbers). Decryption involved reversing this process, using the IV and the shared key to generate a key stream and decrypt the payload. Despite its initial use, WEP's significant vulnerabilities led to the adoption of more secure protocols. The Wi-Fi Alliance intended WPA as an intermediate measure to take the place of WEP pending

2040-703: A strength of 96 bits against quantum attacks and AES-128 has 64 bits of strength against quantum attacks, making them both insecure. The Cryptographic Module Validation Program (CMVP) is operated jointly by the United States Government's National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Computer Security Division and the Communications Security Establishment (CSE) of the Government of Canada. The use of cryptographic modules validated to NIST FIPS 140-2

2142-441: A very small gain, as a 126-bit key (instead of 128 bits) would still take billions of years to brute force on current and foreseeable hardware. Also, the authors calculate the best attack using their technique on AES with a 128-bit key requires storing 2 bits of data. That works out to about 38 trillion terabytes of data, which was more than all the data stored on all the computers on the planet in 2016. A paper in 2015 later improved

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2244-402: A widely implemented block-cipher encryption algorithm was against a 64-bit RC5 key by distributed.net in 2006. The key space increases by a factor of 2 for each additional bit of key length, and if every possible value of the key is equiprobable; this translates into a doubling of the average brute-force key search time with every additional bit of key length. This implies that the effort of

2346-461: A wireless network have support for using WPA, WPA2, or WPA3. WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) was an early encryption protocol for wireless networks, designed to secure WLAN connections. It supported 64-bit and 128-bit keys, combining user-configurable and factory-set bits. WEP used the RC4 algorithm for encrypting data, creating a unique key for each packet by combining a new Initialization Vector (IV) with

2448-417: Is a certification program based on its Multi-Access Point specification for creating Wi-Fi meshes from products by different vendors, based on IEEE 1905.1 . It is intended to address the problem of Wi-Fi systems that need to cover large areas where several routers serve as multiple access points, working together to form a larger/extended and unified network. Formerly known as Carrier Wi-Fi, Wi-Fi Vantage

2550-518: Is a certification program for operators to maintain and manage quality Wi-Fi connections in high usage environment. It includes a number of certification, such as Wi-Fi certified ac (as in 802.11ac), Passpoint, Agile Multiband, and Optimized Connectivity. Wi-Fi Multimedia (WMM) or known as Wireless Multimedia Extensions is a Wi-Fi Alliance interoperability certification based on the IEEE 802.11e standard. It provides basic quality of service (QoS) features to IEEE 802.11 networks. Wi-Fi Home Design

2652-583: Is a non-profit organization that owns the Wi-Fi trademark . Manufacturers may use the trademark to brand products certified for Wi-Fi interoperability. It is based in Austin, Texas . Early 802.11 products suffered from interoperability problems because the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) had no provision for testing equipment for compliance with its standards. In 1999, pioneers of

2754-425: Is a protocol that would enable easily establishing connections via QR code . Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS) is a network security standard to simply create a secure wireless home network , created and introduced by Wi-Fi Alliance in 2006. Miracast , introduced in 2012, is a standard for wireless display connections from devices such as laptops, tablets, or smartphones. Its goal is to replace cables connecting from

2856-495: Is a security mechanism based on IEEE 802.11i amendment to the standard that the Wi-Fi Alliance started to certify from the year of 2003. IBSS with Wi-Fi Protected Setup would enable the creation of ad hoc network between devices directly without central access point. Wi-Fi Passpoint, alternatively known as Hotspot 2.0 , is a solution for enabling inter-carrier roaming. It utilizes IEEE 802.11u . Wi-Fi Easy Connect

2958-441: Is a set of guidelines released by Wi-Fi alliance for inclusion of wireless network in home design. Wi-Fi HaLow is a standard for low-power wide-area (LPWA) connection standard using sub-1 GHz spectrum for IoT devices. It is based on IEEE 802.11ah . Advanced Encryption Standard The Advanced Encryption Standard ( AES ), also known by its original name Rijndael ( Dutch pronunciation: [ˈrɛindaːl] ),

3060-561: Is a specification for the encryption of electronic data established by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 2001. AES is a variant of the Rijndael block cipher developed by two Belgian cryptographers, Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen , who submitted a proposal to NIST during the AES selection process . Rijndael is a family of ciphers with different key and block sizes. For AES, NIST selected three members of

3162-423: Is a type of Wi-Fi positioning system , and the certification could help providing accuracy to in-door positioning. TDLS , or Tunneled Direct Link Setup, is "a seamless way to stream media and other data faster between devices already on the same Wi-Fi network" based on IEEE 802.11z and added to Wi-Fi Alliance certification program in 2012. Devices using it communicate directly with one another, without involving

Wi-Fi Protected Access - Misplaced Pages Continue

3264-547: Is a vulnerability in the WPA2 protocol that abuses the shared Group Temporal Key (GTK). It can be used to conduct man-in-the-middle and denial-of-service attacks. However, it assumes that the attacker is already authenticated against Access Point and thus in possession of the GTK. In 2016 it was shown that the WPA and WPA2 standards contain an insecure expository random number generator (RNG). Researchers showed that, if vendors implement

3366-420: Is against AES-256 that uses only two related keys and 2 time to recover the complete 256-bit key of a 9-round version, or 2 time for a 10-round version with a stronger type of related subkey attack, or 2 time for an 11-round version. 256-bit AES uses 14 rounds, so these attacks are not effective against full AES. The practicality of these attacks with stronger related keys has been criticized, for instance, by

3468-494: Is an open source 802.1X server. WPA-Personal and WPA2-Personal remain vulnerable to password cracking attacks if users rely on a weak password or passphrase . WPA passphrase hashes are seeded from the SSID name and its length; rainbow tables exist for the top 1,000 network SSIDs and a multitude of common passwords, requiring only a quick lookup to speed up cracking WPA-PSK. Brute forcing of simple passwords can be attempted using

3570-485: Is available in many different encryption packages, and is the first (and only) publicly accessible cipher approved by the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) for top secret information when used in an NSA approved cryptographic module. The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is defined in each of: AES is based on a design principle known as a substitution–permutation network , and is efficient in both software and hardware. Unlike its predecessor DES, AES does not use

3672-548: Is challenging to achieve both technically and fiscally. There is a standardized battery of tests as well as an element of source code review that must be passed over a period of a few weeks. The cost to perform these tests through an approved laboratory can be significant (e.g., well over $ 30,000 US) and does not include the time it takes to write, test, document and prepare a module for validation. After validation, modules must be re-submitted and re-evaluated if they are changed in any way. This can vary from simple paperwork updates if

3774-471: Is described further in the article Rijndael MixColumns . In the AddRoundKey step, the subkey is combined with the state. For each round, a subkey is derived from the main key using Rijndael's key schedule ; each subkey is the same size as the state. The subkey is added by combining of the state with the corresponding byte of the subkey using bitwise XOR . On systems with 32-bit or larger words, it

3876-401: Is faster than brute force by a factor of about four. It requires 2 operations to recover an AES-128 key. For AES-192 and AES-256, 2 and 2 operations are needed, respectively. This result has been further improved to 2 for AES-128, 2 for AES-192, and 2 for AES-256 by Biaoshuai Tao and Hongjun Wu in a 2015 paper, which are the current best results in key recovery attack against AES. This is

3978-491: Is on average around 7 minutes, compared to the 14 minutes of the original Vanhoef-Piessens and Beck-Tews attack. The vulnerabilities of TKIP are significant because WPA-TKIP had been held before to be an extremely safe combination; indeed, WPA-TKIP is still a configuration option upon a wide variety of wireless routing devices provided by many hardware vendors. A survey in 2013 showed that 71% still allow usage of TKIP, and 19% exclusively support TKIP. A more serious security flaw

4080-524: Is possible to speed up execution of this cipher by combining the SubBytes and ShiftRows steps with the MixColumns step by transforming them into a sequence of table lookups. This requires four 256-entry 32-bit tables (together occupying 4096 bytes). A round can then be performed with 16 table lookup operations and 12 32-bit exclusive-or operations, followed by four 32-bit exclusive-or operations in

4182-544: Is required by the United States Government for encryption of all data that has a classification of Sensitive but Unclassified (SBU) or above. From NSTISSP #11, National Policy Governing the Acquisition of Information Assurance: "Encryption products for protecting classified information will be certified by NSA, and encryption products intended for protecting sensitive information will be certified in accordance with NIST FIPS 140-2." The Government of Canada also recommends

Wi-Fi Protected Access - Misplaced Pages Continue

4284-417: Is that their attack requires substantially more time to execute: approximately 18 minutes and 25 seconds. In other work Vanhoef and Piessens showed that, when WPA is used to encrypt broadcast packets, their original attack can also be executed. This is an important extension, as substantially more networks use WPA to protect broadcast packets , than to protect unicast packets . The execution time of this attack

4386-601: Is then multiplied modulo 01 16 ⋅ z 4 + 01 16 {\displaystyle {01}_{16}\cdot z^{4}+{01}_{16}} with a fixed polynomial c ( z ) = 03 16 ⋅ z 3 + 01 16 ⋅ z 2 + 01 16 ⋅ z + 02 16 {\displaystyle c(z)={03}_{16}\cdot z^{3}+{01}_{16}\cdot z^{2}+{01}_{16}\cdot z+{02}_{16}} . The coefficients are displayed in their hexadecimal equivalent of

4488-613: Is what makes WPA2 a robust security standard for wireless networks. In January 2018, the Wi-Fi Alliance announced WPA3 as a replacement to WPA2. Certification began in June 2018, and WPA3 support has been mandatory for devices which bear the "Wi-Fi CERTIFIED™" logo since July 2020. The new standard uses an equivalent 192-bit cryptographic strength in WPA3-Enterprise mode ( AES-256 in GCM mode with SHA-384 as HMAC ), and still mandates

4590-531: The AddRoundKey step. Alternatively, the table lookup operation can be performed with a single 256-entry 32-bit table (occupying 1024 bytes) followed by circular rotation operations. Using a byte-oriented approach, it is possible to combine the SubBytes , ShiftRows , and MixColumns steps into a single round operation. The National Security Agency (NSA) reviewed all the AES finalists, including Rijndael, and stated that all of them were secure enough for U.S. Government non-classified data. In June 2003,

4692-469: The InvSubBytes step (the inverse of SubBytes ) is used, which requires first taking the inverse of the affine transformation and then finding the multiplicative inverse. The ShiftRows step operates on the rows of the state; it cyclically shifts the bytes in each row by a certain offset . For AES, the first row is left unchanged. Each byte of the second row is shifted one to the left. Similarly,

4794-635: The Aircrack Suite starting from the four-way authentication handshake exchanged during association or periodic re-authentication. WPA3 replaces cryptographic protocols susceptible to off-line analysis with protocols that require interaction with the infrastructure for each guessed password, supposedly placing temporal limits on the number of guesses. However, design flaws in WPA3 enable attackers to plausibly launch brute-force attacks ( see § Dragonblood ). WPA and WPA2 do not provide forward secrecy , meaning that once an adverse person discovers

4896-563: The MediaTek out-of-tree drivers, which generate the GTK themselves, and showed the GTK can be recovered within two minutes or less. Similarly, they demonstrated the keys generated by Broadcom access daemons running on VxWorks 5 and later can be recovered in four minutes or less, which affects, for example, certain versions of Linksys WRT54G and certain Apple AirPort Extreme models. Vendors can defend against this attack by using

4998-574: The Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP). WEP used a 64-bit or 128-bit encryption key that must be manually entered on wireless access points and devices and does not change. TKIP employs a per-packet key, meaning that it dynamically generates a new 128-bit key for each packet and thus prevents the types of attacks that compromised WEP. WPA also includes a Message Integrity Check , which is designed to prevent an attacker from altering and resending data packets. This replaces

5100-459: The cyclic redundancy check (CRC) that was used by the WEP standard. CRC's main flaw was that it did not provide a sufficiently strong data integrity guarantee for the packets it handled. Well-tested message authentication codes existed to solve these problems, but they required too much computation to be used on old network cards. WPA uses a message integrity check algorithm called TKIP to verify

5202-408: The state : The key size used for an AES cipher specifies the number of transformation rounds that convert the input, called the plaintext , into the final output, called the ciphertext . The number of rounds are as follows: Each round consists of several processing steps, including one that depends on the encryption key itself. A set of reverse rounds are applied to transform ciphertext back into

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5304-1102: The "Wi-Fi Certified" logo , a registered trademark , which is permitted only on equipment which has passed testing. Purchasers relying on that trademark may have greater chances of interoperation than otherwise. Testing involves not only radio and data format interoperability, but security protocols , as well as optional testing for quality of service and power management protocols. Wi-Fi Certified products have to demonstrate that they can perform well in networks with other Wi-Fi Certified products, running common applications, in situations similar to those encountered in everyday use. Certification employs 3 principles: The Wi-Fi Alliance definition of interoperability demands that products have to show satisfactory performance levels in typical network configurations and have to support both established and emerging applications. The Wi-Fi Alliance certification process includes three types of tests to ensure interoperability. Wi-Fi Certified products are tested for: The Wi-Fi Alliance provides certification testing in two levels: Mandatory: Optional: There are

5406-417: The AES algorithm, partially due to the low complexity of its nonlinear components. Since then, other papers have shown that the attack, as originally presented, is unworkable; see XSL attack on block ciphers . During the AES selection process, developers of competing algorithms wrote of Rijndael's algorithm "we are concerned about [its] use ... in security-critical applications." In October 2000, however, at

5508-700: The AES algorithm. Successful validation results in being listed on the NIST validations page. This testing is a pre-requisite for the FIPS 140-2 module validation. However, successful CAVP validation in no way implies that the cryptographic module implementing the algorithm is secure. A cryptographic module lacking FIPS 140-2 validation or specific approval by the NSA is not deemed secure by the US Government and cannot be used to protect government data. FIPS 140-2 validation

5610-550: The Access Point (AP) via an association request. This is followed by a 4-way handshake, a crucial step ensuring both the client and AP have the correct Pre-Shared Key (PSK) without actually transmitting it. During this handshake, a Pairwise Transient Key (PTK) is generated for secure data exchange. WPA2 employs the Advanced Encryption Standard AES with a 128-bit key, enhancing security through

5712-461: The Alliance began to certify Wi-Fi Direct , that allows Wi-Fi-enabled devices to communicate directly with each other by setting up ad-hoc networks, without going through a wireless access point or hotspot. Since 2009 when it was first announced, some suggested Wi-Fi Direct might replace the need for Bluetooth on applications that do not rely on Bluetooth low energy. Wi-Fi Protected Access

5814-583: The Counter-Mode/CBC-Mac Protocol CCMP . This protocol ensures robust encryption and data integrity, using different Initialization Vectors (IVs) for encryption and authentication purposes. The 4-way handshake involves: Post-handshake, the established PTK is used for encrypting unicast traffic, and the Group Temporal Key (GTK) is used for broadcast traffic. This comprehensive authentication and encryption mechanism

5916-736: The MSCHAPv2 exchange are widely deployed to protect against exploitation of this vulnerability. However, prevalent WPA2 client implementations during the early 2000s were prone to misconfiguration by end users, or in some cases (e.g. Android ), lacked any user-accessible way to properly configure validation of AAA server certificate CNs. This extended the relevance of the original weakness in MSCHAPv2 within MiTM attack scenarios. Under stricter compliance tests for WPA2 announced alongside WPA3, certified client software will be required to conform to certain behaviors surrounding AAA certificate validation. Hole196

6018-547: The Rijndael family, each with a block size of 128 bits, but three different key lengths: 128, 192 and 256 bits. AES has been adopted by the U.S. government . It supersedes the Data Encryption Standard (DES), which was published in 1977. The algorithm described by AES is a symmetric-key algorithm , meaning the same key is used for both encrypting and decrypting the data. In the United States, AES

6120-509: The TKIP standard) became available in 2003. The Wi-Fi Alliance intended it as an intermediate measure in anticipation of the availability of the more secure and complex WPA2, which became available in 2004 and is a common shorthand for the full IEEE 802.11i (or IEEE 802.11i-2004 ) standard. In January 2018, the Wi-Fi Alliance announced the release of WPA3, which has several security improvements over WPA2. As of 2023, most computers that connect to

6222-670: The U.S. Government announced that AES could be used to protect classified information : The design and strength of all key lengths of the AES algorithm (i.e., 128, 192 and 256) are sufficient to protect classified information up to the SECRET level. TOP SECRET information will require use of either the 192 or 256 key lengths. The implementation of AES in products intended to protect national security systems and/or information must be reviewed and certified by NSA prior to their acquisition and use. AES has 10 rounds for 128-bit keys, 12 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 14 rounds for 256-bit keys. By 2006,

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6324-560: The Vanhoef-Piessens attack does not. Neither attack leads to recovery of the shared session key between the client and Access Point . The authors say using a short rekeying interval can prevent some attacks but not all, and strongly recommend switching from TKIP to AES-based CCMP . Halvorsen and others show how to modify the Beck-Tews attack to allow injection of 3 to 7 packets having a size of at most 596 bytes. The downside

6426-536: The WPA and WPA2 security protocols. WPA3 is required since July 1, 2020. Different WPA versions and protection mechanisms can be distinguished based on the target end-user (such as WEP, WPA, WPA2, WPA3) and the method of authentication key distribution, as well as the encryption protocol used. As of July 2020, WPA3 is the latest iteration of the WPA standard, bringing enhanced security features and addressing vulnerabilities found in WPA2. WPA3 improves authentication methods and employs stronger encryption protocols, making it

6528-498: The WPS feature, although this may not be possible on some router models. Also, the PIN is written on a label on most Wi-Fi routers with WPS, which cannot be changed if compromised. In 2018, the Wi-Fi Alliance introduced Wi-Fi Easy Connect as a new alternative for the configuration of devices that lack sufficient user interface capabilities by allowing nearby devices to serve as an adequate UI for network provisioning purposes, thus mitigating

6630-492: The Wi-Fi Alliance, implements the mandatory elements of IEEE 802.11i. In particular, it includes support for CCMP , an AES -based encryption mode. Certification began in September, 2004. From March 13, 2006, to June 30, 2020, WPA2 certification was mandatory for all new devices to bear the Wi-Fi trademark. In WPA2-protected WLANs, secure communication is established through a multi-step process. Initially, devices associate with

6732-603: The Wi-Fi standard, affecting most devices, and programming errors in Wi-Fi products, making almost all Wi-Fi products vulnerable. The vulnerabilities impact all Wi-Fi security protocols, including WPA3 and WEP. Exploiting these flaws is complex but programming errors in Wi-Fi products are easier to exploit. Despite improvements in Wi-Fi security, these findings highlight the need for continuous security analysis and updates. In response, security patches were developed, and users are advised to use HTTPS and install available updates for protection. Wi-Fi Alliance The Wi-Fi Alliance

6834-417: The application of a so-called Super-S-box. It works on the 8-round version of AES-128, with a time complexity of 2 , and a memory complexity of 2 . 128-bit AES uses 10 rounds, so this attack is not effective against full AES-128. The first key-recovery attacks on full AES were by Andrey Bogdanov, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Christian Rechberger, and were published in 2011. The attack is a biclique attack and

6936-469: The attack: the client simply uses round-trip timings based on its local clock, and compensates for the increased noise by averaging over a larger number of samples." In October 2005, Dag Arne Osvik, Adi Shamir and Eran Tromer presented a paper demonstrating several cache-timing attacks against the implementations in AES found in OpenSSL and Linux's dm-crypt partition encryption function. One attack

7038-422: The availability of the full IEEE 802.11i standard. WPA could be implemented through firmware upgrades on wireless network interface cards designed for WEP that began shipping as far back as 1999. However, since the changes required in the wireless access points (APs) were more extensive than those needed on the network cards, most pre-2003 APs could not be upgraded to support WPA. The WPA protocol implements

7140-624: The best known attacks were on 7 rounds for 128-bit keys, 8 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 9 rounds for 256-bit keys. For cryptographers, a cryptographic "break" is anything faster than a brute-force attack ‍ —    i.e., performing one trial decryption for each possible key in sequence (see Cryptanalysis § Computational resources required ) . A break can thus include results that are infeasible with current technology. Despite being impractical, theoretical breaks can sometimes provide insight into vulnerability patterns. The largest successful publicly known brute-force attack against

7242-413: The binary representation of bit polynomials from GF ⁡ ( 2 ) [ x ] {\displaystyle \operatorname {GF} (2)[x]} . The MixColumns step can also be viewed as a multiplication by the shown particular MDS matrix in the finite field GF ⁡ ( 2 8 ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {GF} (2^{8})} . This process

7344-492: The certification program includes the following EAP types: 802.1X clients and servers developed by specific firms may support other EAP types. This certification is an attempt for popular EAP types to interoperate; their failure to do so as of 2013 is one of the major issues preventing rollout of 802.1X on heterogeneous networks. Commercial 802.1X servers include Microsoft Network Policy Server and Juniper Networks Steelbelted RADIUS as well as Aradial Radius server. FreeRADIUS

7446-410: The cipher as a black box , and thus are not related to cipher security as defined in the classical context, but are important in practice. They attack implementations of the cipher on hardware or software systems that inadvertently leak data. There are several such known attacks on various implementations of AES. In April 2005, D. J. Bernstein announced a cache-timing attack that he used to break

7548-617: The device to the display. Wi-Fi Aware is an interoperability certification program announced in January 2015 that enables device users, when in the range of a particular access point or another compatible device, to receive notifications of applications or services available in the proximity. Later versions of this standard included new features such as the capability to establish a peer-to-peer data connection for file transfer. Fears were voiced immediately in media that it would be predominantly used for proximity marketing . Wi-Fi Location

7650-462: The end of the AES selection process, Bruce Schneier , a developer of the competing algorithm Twofish , wrote that while he thought successful academic attacks on Rijndael would be developed someday, he "did not believe that anyone will ever discover an attack that will allow someone to read Rijndael traffic." Until May 2009, the only successful published attacks against the full AES were side-channel attacks on some specific implementations. In 2009,

7752-455: The inadequate security in transitional modes supporting both WPA2 and WPA3. In response, security updates and protocol changes are being integrated into WPA3 and EAP-pwd to address these vulnerabilities and enhance overall Wi-Fi security. On May 11, 2021, FragAttacks, a set of new security vulnerabilities, were revealed, affecting Wi-Fi devices and enabling attackers within range to steal information or target devices. These include design flaws in

7854-433: The individual 802.11 articles for version details or 802.11 for a composite summary. WiGig refers to 60 GHz wireless local area network connection. It was initially announced in 2013 by Wireless Gigabit Alliance , and was adopted by the Wi-Fi Alliance in 2013. They started certifying in 2016. The first version of WiGig is IEEE 802.11ad , and a newer version IEEE 802.11ay was released in 2021. In October 2010,

7956-455: The integrity of the packets. TKIP is much stronger than a CRC, but not as strong as the algorithm used in WPA2. Researchers have since discovered a flaw in WPA that relied on older weaknesses in WEP and the limitations of the message integrity code hash function, named Michael , to retrieve the keystream from short packets to use for re-injection and spoofing . Ratified in 2004, WPA2 replaced WPA. WPA2, which requires testing and certification by

8058-632: The need for WPS. Several weaknesses have been found in MS-CHAPv 2, some of which severely reduce the complexity of brute-force attacks, making them feasible with modern hardware. In 2012 the complexity of breaking MS-CHAPv2 was reduced to that of breaking a single DES key (work by Moxie Marlinspike and Marsh Ray). Moxie advised: "Enterprises who are depending on the mutual authentication properties of MS-CHAPv2 for connection to their WPA2 Radius servers should immediately start migrating to something else." Tunneled EAP methods using TTLS or PEAP which encrypt

8160-470: The non-linearity in the cipher . The S-box used is derived from the multiplicative inverse over GF (2 ) , known to have good non-linearity properties. To avoid attacks based on simple algebraic properties, the S-box is constructed by combining the inverse function with an invertible affine transformation . The S-box is also chosen to avoid any fixed points (and so is a derangement ), i.e., S (

8262-435: The original plaintext using the same encryption key. In the SubBytes step, each byte a i , j {\displaystyle a_{i,j}} in the state array is replaced with a SubByte S ( a i , j ) {\displaystyle S(a_{i,j})} using an 8-bit substitution box . Before round 0, the state array is simply the plaintext/input. This operation provides

8364-432: The paper on chosen-key-relations-in-the-middle attacks on AES-128 authored by Vincent Rijmen in 2010. In November 2009, the first known-key distinguishing attack against a reduced 8-round version of AES-128 was released as a preprint. This known-key distinguishing attack is an improvement of the rebound, or the start-from-the-middle attack, against AES-like permutations, which view two consecutive rounds of permutation as

8466-564: The password. Because of that, it's safer to use Transport Layer Security (TLS) or similar on top of that for the transfer of any sensitive data. However starting from WPA3, this issue has been addressed. In 2013, Mathy Vanhoef and Frank Piessens significantly improved upon the WPA-TKIP attacks of Erik Tews and Martin Beck. They demonstrated how to inject an arbitrary number of packets, with each packet containing at most 112 bytes of payload. This

8568-485: The pre-shared key, they can potentially decrypt all packets encrypted using that PSK transmitted in the future and even past, which could be passively and silently collected by the attacker. This also means an attacker can silently capture and decrypt others' packets if a WPA-protected access point is provided free of charge at a public place, because its password is usually shared to anyone in that place. In other words, WPA only protects from attackers who do not have access to

8670-639: The process of setting up devices with no display interface. WPA3 also supports Opportunistic Wireless Encryption (OWE) for open Wi-Fi networks that do not have passwords. Protection of management frames as specified in the IEEE 802.11w amendment is also enforced by the WPA3 specifications. WPA has been designed specifically to work with wireless hardware produced prior to the introduction of WPA protocol, which provides inadequate security through WEP . Some of these devices support WPA only after applying firmware upgrades, which are not available for some legacy devices. Wi-Fi devices certified since 2006 support both

8772-427: The proposed RNG, an attacker is able to predict the group key (GTK) that is supposed to be randomly generated by the access point (AP). Additionally, they showed that possession of the GTK enables the attacker to inject any traffic into the network, and allowed the attacker to decrypt unicast internet traffic transmitted over the wireless network. They demonstrated their attack against an Asus RT-AC51U router that uses

8874-413: The recommended choice for securing Wi-Fi networks. Also referred to as WPA-PSK ( pre-shared key ) mode, this is designed for home, small office and basic uses and does not require an authentication server. Each wireless network device encrypts the network traffic by deriving its 128-bit encryption key from a 256-bit shared key . This key may be entered either as a string of 64 hexadecimal digits, or as

8976-433: The root account. In March 2016, Ashokkumar C., Ravi Prakash Giri and Bernard Menezes presented a side-channel attack on AES implementations that can recover the complete 128-bit AES key in just 6–7 blocks of plaintext/ciphertext, which is a substantial improvement over previous works that require between 100 and a million encryptions. The proposed attack requires standard user privilege and key-retrieval algorithms run under

9078-508: The space complexity to 2 bits, which is 9007 terabytes (while still keeping a time complexity of 2 ). According to the Snowden documents , the NSA is doing research on whether a cryptographic attack based on tau statistic may help to break AES. At present, there is no known practical attack that would allow someone without knowledge of the key to read data encrypted by AES when correctly implemented. Side-channel attacks do not attack

9180-414: The state are combined using an invertible linear transformation . The MixColumns function takes four bytes as input and outputs four bytes, where each input byte affects all four output bytes. Together with ShiftRows , MixColumns provides diffusion in the cipher. During this operation, each column is transformed using a fixed matrix (matrix left-multiplied by column gives new value of column in

9282-488: The state): Matrix multiplication is composed of multiplication and addition of the entries. Entries are bytes treated as coefficients of polynomial of order x 7 {\displaystyle x^{7}} . Addition is simply XOR. Multiplication is modulo irreducible polynomial x 8 + x 4 + x 3 + x + 1 {\displaystyle x^{8}+x^{4}+x^{3}+x+1} . If processed bit by bit, then, after shifting,

9384-481: The third and fourth rows are shifted by offsets of two and three respectively. In this way, each column of the output state of the ShiftRows step is composed of bytes from each column of the input state. The importance of this step is to avoid the columns being encrypted independently, in which case AES would degenerate into four independent block ciphers. In the MixColumns step, the four bytes of each column of

9486-403: The time to list FIPS 197 validated modules separately on its public web site. Instead, FIPS 197 validation is typically just listed as an "FIPS approved: AES" notation (with a specific FIPS 197 certificate number) in the current list of FIPS 140 validated cryptographic modules. The Cryptographic Algorithm Validation Program (CAVP) allows for independent validation of the correct implementation of

9588-625: The use of CCMP-128 ( AES-128 in CCM mode ) as the minimum encryption algorithm in WPA3-Personal mode. TKIP is not allowed in WPA3. The WPA3 standard also replaces the pre-shared key (PSK) exchange with Simultaneous Authentication of Equals (SAE) exchange, a method originally introduced with IEEE 802.11s , resulting in a more secure initial key exchange in personal mode and forward secrecy . The Wi-Fi Alliance also says that WPA3 will mitigate security issues posed by weak passwords and simplify

9690-533: The use of FIPS 140 validated cryptographic modules in unclassified applications of its departments. Although NIST publication 197 ("FIPS 197") is the unique document that covers the AES algorithm, vendors typically approach the CMVP under FIPS 140 and ask to have several algorithms (such as Triple DES or SHA1 ) validated at the same time. Therefore, it is rare to find cryptographic modules that are uniquely FIPS 197 validated and NIST itself does not generally take

9792-473: The vulnerable WEP with the more advanced TKIP encryption. TKIP ensures continuous renewal of encryption keys, reducing security risks. Authentication is conducted through a RADIUS server, providing robust security, especially vital in corporate settings. This setup allows integration with Windows login processes and supports various authentication methods like Extensible Authentication Protocol , which uses certificates for secure authentication, and PEAP, creating

9894-560: The wireless network's router. The certification of Wi-Fi Agile Multiband indicate devices can automatically connect and maintain connection in the most suitable way. It covers the IEEE 802.11k standard about access point information report, the IEEE 802.11v standard that enable exchanging information about state of network, IEEE 802.11u standard about additional information of a Wi-Fi network, IEEE 802.11r about fast transition roaming between different access points, as well as other technologies specified by Wi-Fi alliance. Wi-Fi EasyMesh

9996-493: Was able to obtain an entire AES key after only 800 operations triggering encryptions, in a total of 65 milliseconds. This attack requires the attacker to be able to run programs on the same system or platform that is performing AES. In December 2009 an attack on some hardware implementations was published that used differential fault analysis and allows recovery of a key with a complexity of 2 . In November 2010 Endre Bangerter, David Gullasch and Stephan Krenn published

10098-522: Was announced by the NIST as U.S. FIPS PUB 197 (FIPS 197) on November 26, 2001. This announcement followed a five-year standardization process in which fifteen competing designs were presented and evaluated, before the Rijndael cipher was selected as the most suitable. AES is included in the ISO / IEC 18033-3 standard. AES became effective as a U.S. federal government standard on May 26, 2002, after approval by U.S. Secretary of Commerce Donald Evans . AES

10200-623: Was demonstrated by implementing a port scanner , which can be executed against any client using WPA-TKIP . Additionally, they showed how to decrypt arbitrary packets sent to a client. They mentioned this can be used to hijack a TCP connection , allowing an attacker to inject malicious JavaScript when the victim visits a website. In contrast, the Beck-Tews attack could only decrypt short packets with mostly known content, such as ARP messages, and only allowed injection of 3 to 7 packets of at most 28 bytes. The Beck-Tews attack also requires quality of service (as defined in 802.11e ) to be enabled, while

10302-581: Was revealed in December 2011 by Stefan Viehböck that affects wireless routers with the Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS) feature, regardless of which encryption method they use. Most recent models have this feature and enable it by default. Many consumer Wi-Fi device manufacturers had taken steps to eliminate the potential of weak passphrase choices by promoting alternative methods of automatically generating and distributing strong keys when users add

10404-497: Was to perform testing, certify interoperability of products, and to promote the technology. WECA renamed itself the Wi-Fi Alliance in 2002. Most producers of 802.11 equipment became members, and as of 2012, the Wi-Fi Alliance included over 550 member companies. The Wi-Fi Alliance extended Wi-Fi beyond wireless local area network applications into point-to-point and personal area networking and enabled specific applications such as Miracast . The Wi-Fi Alliance owns and controls

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