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90-401: The Langusta ( crawfish ) is based on a deeply modernized and re-worked Soviet cold-war era BM-21 launcher. The old petrol Ural-375D truck chassis was replaced with a modern one, and the launcher was fitted with a fire control system . The carrier used is Polish 6x6 Jelcz truck model P662D.35 with low-profile armoured cabin for a whole crew. Also new ammunition Feniks-Z with 42 km range

180-418: A Chinese nuclear reprisal and believed that China's arsenal was too small, rudimentary, and vulnerable to survive a first strike and to carry out a retaliatory attack, China's massive conventional army caused great concern. Nikolai Ogarkov , a senior Soviet military officer, believed that a massive nuclear attack "would inevitably mean world war". Even a limited counterforce strike on China's nuclear facilities

270-428: A K-1 collimator can be used for sighting. Each 2.87-meter (9 ft 5 in) rocket is slowly spun by rifling in its tube as it exits, which along with its primary fin stabilization keeps it on course. Rockets armed with high explosive-fragmentation, incendiary, or chemical warheads can be fired 20 kilometers (12 mi). Newer high explosive and cargo rockets (used to deliver anti-personnel or antitank mines) have

360-529: A Soviet attack on Chinese nuclear facilities, and China "appears to view the USSR as its most immediate enemy". Allen S. Whiting suggested that the Soviets might feel forced to use tactical nuclear weapons against Chinese human wave attacks after a strike on nuclear facilities. The Chinese did not believe that a Soviet nuclear attack was likely until 27 August, when CIA director Richard Helms announced that

450-425: A bank of 40 launch tubes arranged in a rectangular shape that can be turned away from the unprotected cab. The vehicle is powered by a water-cooled V8 180 hp gasoline engine , has a maximum road speed of 75 km/h (47 mph), a road range of up to 750 kilometers (470 mi), and can cross fords up to 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) deep. The original vehicle together with supporting equipment (including

540-635: A barely veiled call for the people of Czechoslovakia to wage guerrilla war against the Red Army . The Chinese historian Li Danhui wrote, "Already in 1968, China began preparations to create a small war on the border." She noted that prior to March 1969, the Chinese troops had twice attempted to provoke a clash along the border, "but the Soviets, feeling weak, did not accept the Chinese challenge and retreated." Another Chinese historian, Yang Kuisong, wrote, "There were already significant preparations in 1968, but

630-628: A conflict. A large Chinese incursion could threaten strategic centers in Blagoveshchensk , Vladivostok and Khabarovsk as well as crucial nodes of the Trans-Siberian Railroad . According to Arkady Shevchenko , a high-ranking Soviet defector to the United States, "The Politburo was terrified that the Chinese might make a mass intrusion into Soviet territory". A nightmare vision of invasion by millions of Chinese made

720-434: A disputed question. According to Robinson, who based his analysis mostly on Soviet sources due to the lack of factual reports from the Chinese at the time of writing, on 2 March around 11:00 Chinese forces ambushed an unsuspecting Soviet border patrol on the island and inflicted heavy losses on the patrol. Shortly, Soviet reinforcements arrived from the nearby outpost and allegedly pinned the Chinese down, surrounded them for

810-631: A group of People's Liberation Army troops engaged Soviet border guards on Zhenbao Island in Manchuria, resulting in considerable casualties on both sides. Further clashes occurred in August at Tielieketi in Xinjiang and raised the prospect of an all-out nuclear exchange . The crisis de-escalated after Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin met with Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in September, and a ceasefire

900-658: A large number of shells impacting over an area for a certain hit rate on specific targets. Because of the short warning time for the impact of the whole volley, the BM-21 is still considered an effective weapon. The Grad saw its first combat use in March 1969 during the Sino-Soviet border conflict . Their use, in conjunction with the M-46 , during Operation Savannah halted the advance of South African troops in 1975. The Valkiri

990-561: A magnesium alloy known to the Russian GOST as ML-5 , filled with a thermite mixture. Each element has a nominal length of 40 mm and a width of 25 mm and a burning time of at least 2 minutes. The effect of these incendiary, as well as conventional lighting munitions (especially at night), outwardly resembles the use of phosphorus munitions. Also Incendiary, Chemical, Illumination, Antipersonnel mines. Sino-Soviet border conflict The Sino-Soviet border conflict

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1080-622: A message to Mao that he wanted to normalize relations with China, especially due to the crisis with the Soviet Union. On 2–3 August, Nixon visited Romania to meet with Ceaușescu and ask him to pass along the same message to Mao. Ceaușescu agreed to do so, and on 7 September, Romanian Prime Minister Ion Gheorghe Maurer , who was in Hanoi to attend the funeral of Ho Chi Minh , took Zhou aside to tell him that Nixon wanted an opening to China. Further border clashes occurred in August 1969, which

1170-631: A preliminary agreement on the eastern section of the border, including Zhenbao Island, which would be handed over to China. In July 1964, CCP chairman Mao Zedong , in a meeting with the Japanese Socialist Party delegation, stated that Russia had unilaterally incorporated vast territories in Siberia and the Far East as far as Kamchatka . He stated that China and Russia still had not resolved this issue. The comments were leaked to

1260-480: A range of 30 kilometers (19 mi) and more. Warheads weigh around 20 kilograms (44 lb), depending on the type. The number of rockets that each vehicle is able to quickly bring to bear on an enemy target makes it effective, especially at shorter ranges. One battalion of eighteen launchers is able to deliver 720 rockets in a single volley. The system has lower precision than gun artillery and cannot be used in situations that call for pinpoint accuracy. It relies on

1350-469: A relief mission of 23 soldiers from the nearby border guard's outpost and conducted a BTR-60 raid into the Chinese rear that allegedly left 248 attackers dead. Junior Sergeant Yuri Babansky assumed command in a battle on 2 March, when the enemy had a 10–1 superiority, and when Senior Lieutenant Strelnikov was killed. Babansky later led combat search-and-rescue teams, which retrieved the bodies of Strelnikov and Leonov. Junior Sergeant Vladimir Orekhov took part in

1440-508: A six tube launcher to be mounted on light trucks. Since 2006 Hamas has fired 122 mm Grad rockets, copies made in Iran, and Eastern-bloc versions modified to expand their range, into Israel. The rockets were believed to be brought into the Gaza Strip via tunnels from Egypt. Some of the rockets were of a Chinese Grad variant. Hamas sources said they were pleased by the performance of

1530-543: A superior range of 45 km (28 mi). Rather than a standard HE-Frag round, the Egyptian military prefers a 23-kilogram (51 lb) cluster munition, which can be extremely effective against lightly armored equipment and troop concentrations. Both rockets, as well as the original Soviet models of course, are fired by locally manufactured rocket launchers like the RL-21 (copy of BM-11) and RC-21 (copy of BM-21, similar to

1620-510: A time and then forced the remaining Chinese to retreat to their side of the bank. The entire battle lasted about two hours. Both sides claimed victory, however, neither force remained permanently on the island after the battle was over, although the Soviets periodically moved off and on at will. Robinson wrote that it is not clear who began a battle of 15 March. Both sides claimed that the other side attacked their early-morning patrol. The battle started around 09:45 or 10:00 with artillery fire from

1710-521: Is a self-propelled 122 mm multiple rocket launcher designed in the Soviet Union . The system and the M-21OF rocket were first developed in the early 1960s, and saw their first combat use in March 1969 during the Sino-Soviet border conflict . BM stands for boyevaya mashina ( Russian : боевая машина – combat vehicle ), and the nickname grad means " hail ". The complete system with

1800-653: Is now along the western section of the Sino-Soviet border in Xinjiang. After the Tasiti and the Bacha Dao Incidents, the Tielieketi Incident finally broke out, with Chinese troops suffering 28 losses. The heightened tensions raised the prospect of an all-out nuclear exchange between China and the Soviet Union. The decisive event that stopped the crisis from escalating into all-out war was

1890-518: Is the 9A52-4 Tornado . Many similar 122 mm MLRS systems are made by different countries based on the BM-21 Grad. The M-21 field rocket system with a BM-21 launch vehicle (122 mm multiple rocket launcher (MRL) system) entered service with the Soviet Army in 1963 to replace the aging 140 mm BM-14 system. The launch vehicle consists of a Ural-375D 6x6 truck chassis fitted with

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1980-708: The Cultural Revolution , which he had begun in May 1966. Despite the official end of the Cultural Revolution, the Congress elected to key positions followers of the ultraleftist factions associated with Mao's powerful wife, Jiang Qing , and Defense Minister Lin Biao . Both Jiang and Lin favored a hard line towards the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, Mao had ordered preparations for a "defense in depth" along

2070-584: The 15 March battle. As a machine gunner, he was part of the first attacking line against the Chinese forces encamped on the island. He destroyed the enemy machine gun nest and was wounded twice, but he continued to fight until he died of his wounds. High military orders of Lenin , the Red Banner , the Red Star and Glory were awarded to 54 soldiers and officers, and the medals " For Courage " and " For Battle Merit " to 94 border guards and servicemen. During

2160-648: The 4,380 km (2,738 mi) border. In May 1962, 60,000 Uyghurs from Xinjiang Province crossed the frontier into the Soviet Union to flee the famine and economic chaos of the Great Leap Forward . Amid heightening tensions, the Soviet Union and China began border talks. Although the Soviet Union had granted all of the territory of the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo to the Chinese Communists in 1945, which decisively assisted them during

2250-718: The 40-inch long, domestically produced Grad MLRS-compatible "Borak" warhead designed to disperse sarin gas. Produced a limited number of FIROS 25 and 30 rocket launchers. They had the same configuration, exactly 40 rockets 122 mm caliber, compatible also with BM-21 launcher. Range about 25–32 km, sold to Libya, United Arab Emirates and probably other customers. About 150 produced in '80s-'90s. Pakistan first obtained these MRLS from China in few numbers (52+ Chinese Type-83) and then reverse engineered to develop these multiple rockets indigenously by KRL (Khan Research laboratories). The new missile system were developed with 16 modernization by Pakistani Engineers. A vertical stabilizer

2340-559: The BM-21 launch vehicle and the M-21OF rocket is designated as the M-21 field-rocket system and is more commonly known as a Grad multiple rocket launcher system. In NATO countries the system, either the complete system or the launch vehicle only, was initially known as the M1964 . Several other countries have copied the Grad or developed similar systems. In Russian service its intended replacement

2430-554: The Chinese Civil War, the Chinese now indirectly demanded territorial concessions on the basis that the 19th-century treaties transferring ownership of the sparsely-populated Outer Manchuria , concluded by Qing dynasty China and the Russian Empire , were " Unequal Treaties " and amounted to the annexation of rightful Chinese territory. Moscow would not accept that interpretation, but by 1964, both sides had reached

2520-437: The Chinese bank. Initially an outnumbering Chinese force managed to make Soviets to either leave the island entirely or withdraw to its eastern extremity. A consequent counterattack by Russian tanks and mechanized infantry supported by three waves of intense artillery fire at 13:00 apparently broke the Chinese positions on the island and the Chinese retreated to their own bank. The battle was over at 19:00. Soviets did not follow up

2610-406: The Chinese had won a clear victory on the battlefield. On 15 March, initial Soviet attacks were repulsed after suffering heavy losses. The Soviet border troops did not fight again, a battalion under Lieutenant Colonel Smirnov from the 135th Motorized Infantry Division went on the attack. The battalion, which came under heavy machine gun fire from the Chinese, sustained heavy losses and withdrew from

2700-684: The Chinese orbit. Kim declined to move away from China, and in a show of support for Mao, North Korea sent no delegation to the world conference of communist parties that was held in Moscow in June. On 17 June, US Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield , who had long been an advocate of normalizing American relations with China, wrote a letter, in consultation with the White House, that urged Mao to allow him to visit China and to meet with Mao to discuss measures to improve Sino-American relations. The letter

2790-471: The Chinese patrol. The Chinese claim the Soviets had opened fire at 09:17. The Soviets responded with tanks, armoured personnel carriers (APCs), and artillery bombardment. Over three days, the PLA successfully halted Soviet penetration and eventually evicted all Soviet troops from Zhenbao Island. During the skirmish, the Chinese deployed two reinforced infantry platoons with artillery support. Chinese sources state

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2880-476: The Chinese retreat with large-scale garrisoning of the island, although they continued intense patrolling. There is an alternative interpretation of the events. The Cultural Revolution increased tensions between China and the Soviets, which led to brawls between border patrols. On 27 December 1968, several Soviet armored vehicles landed on Zhenbao Island, and Soviet soldiers used sticks to beat Chinese soldiers. On 23 January 1969, another violent conflict occurred on

2970-681: The Chinese sphere of influence. Speaking at a banquet held at the Romanian embassy in Beijing on 23 August 1968, Zhou Enlai denounced the Soviet Union for "fascist politics, great power chauvinism, national egoism and social imperialism". He went on to compare the invasion of Czechoslovakia to the Americans in the Vietnam War and more pointedly to the policies of Adolf Hitler towards Czechoslovakia in 1938 to 1939. Zhou ended his speech with

3060-524: The Chinese variants of the BM-21 Grad rocket, which demonstrated a far greater range and blast impact than Palestinian-made rockets, as well as Russian-origin Grads or Katyushas. Hamas have used small man-portable single-tube launchers for rockets in attacks against Israel, designated 122 mm 9P132/BM-21-P. The 122 mm Grad rockets used in Gaza have a range of about 40 km (25 mi), and can reach

3150-449: The Chinese, and it was decided in Beijing to "whet the appetite of the Americans" by making China appear stronger. Zhou argued that a war with the Soviets would weaken China's hand towards the United States. The Chinese were more interested in the possibility of a rapprochement with the United States as a way of acquiring Taiwan than in having the United States ally with them against the Soviet Union. After Kosygin had attended Ho's funeral,

3240-509: The Cultural Revolution with no replacements having been sent). By then, Mao had felt that China's isolation caused by the Cultural Revolution had become a problem since China was now on the brink of a war with the Soviet Union. On 5 May, Kosygin traveled to India, which was strongly against China, to discuss with Prime Minister Indira Gandhi the possibility of a Soviet-Indian alliance against China. Between 14 and 19 May, Nikolai Podgorny visited North Korea to try to pull Kim Il Sung away from

3330-632: The Hadid HM20). The Helwan Machine Tools Company also produces portable systems with one, three, four and eight launch tubes. Also the RAAD 200 which is a BM-21 on a new vehicle. The Homicho Ammunition Engineering Complex produces the rockets while the Bishoftu Motorization Engineering Complex produces the launching tubes and has converted existing trucks to diesel engine. Bishoftu Motorization has also produced

3420-636: The Israeli towns of Ashdod , Beer-Sheva , Ofakim , Gedera , Kiryat Gat , Ashqelon , Sderot , Rehovot , Kiryat Malachi and Gan Yavne . They also published a clip claiming device mounted used as a multi-barrel rocket launcher on vehicle used for first time in Gaza. On 7 April 2011, the Iron Dome system successfully intercepted a Grad rocket launched from Gaza for the first time. The rockets were launched without their dedicated platforms and by untrained operators which causes very low accuracy. Over 50% of

3510-556: The Russians did not come, so the planned ambush was not successful." On 2 March 1969, a group of People's Liberation Army troops ambushed Soviet border guards on Zhenbao Island. According to Chinese sources, the Soviets suffered 58 dead and wounded. The Chinese losses were reported as 29 dead. According to Soviet sources, at least 248 Chinese troops were killed on the island and on the frozen river, and 32 Soviet border guards were killed, with 14 wounded. Both sides have since blamed

3600-530: The Sino-Soviet border increased dramatically after 1964. Militarily, in 1961, the Soviets had 225,000 men and 200 aircraft at the border. In 1968, there were 375,000 men, 1,200 aircraft and 120 medium-range missiles. China had 1.5 million men stationed at the border and had tested its first nuclear weapon ( the 596 Test in October 1964, at Lop Nur basin). Both sides' political rhetoric was increasingly hostile. The key moment in escalating Sino-Soviet tensions

3690-780: The Soviet Union and the White Movement covertly allied with the Ili National Army to fight the Kuomintang in the Three Districts Revolution . Although the mostly Muslim Uyghur rebels participated in pogroms against Han Chinese generally, the turmoil eventually resulted in the replacement of Kuomintang rule in Xinjiang with that of the Chinese Communist Party . Soviet historiography , more specifically "Uyghur Studies,"

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3780-491: The Soviet Union to begin preparations for a possible all-out war. Zhou repeatedly urged Mao to discuss a ceasefire but agreed with Mao's refusal to take phone calls from Kosygin. In an effort to placate Zhou, Mao told him, "Immediately prepare to hold diplomatic negotiations." Between 1 and 24 April, the 9th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party took place, and Mao proclaimed the official end of

3870-567: The Soviet leaders almost frantic: "Despite our overwhelming superiority in weaponry, it would not be easy for the USSR to cope with an assault of this magnitude". China's "vast population and deep knowledge and experience in guerrilla warfare " would nearly certainly cause the Soviets' launching of an attack on China's nuclear program to end in both states being "mired in an endless war". Concerns about Chinese manpower and its people's war strategy ran so deep that some bureaucrats in Moscow argued that

3960-527: The Soviets deployed some 60 soldiers and six BTR-60 amphibious APCs, and in a second attack, some 100 troops backed up by 10 tanks and 14 APCs including artillery. The PLA had prepared for that confrontation for two to three months. From among the units, the Chinese selected 900 soldiers commanded by army staff members with combat experience. They were provided with special training and special equipment and were secretly dispatched to take position on Zhenbao Island in advance. Chinese General Chen Xilian stated

4050-530: The Soviets had asked foreign governments what their reaction would be to a preemptive attack on China. Although Helms did not include the Soviet probe to the US in the announcement, to China the announcement meant that the US took the Soviet probes seriously, so the threat of an imminent Soviet attack must be real. The United States took steps to ready its nuclear bombers. These steps surprised Mao and prompted Chinese leaders to evacuate Beijing. China sought to reduce

4140-488: The Soviets were only willing to persuade China to sign the Partial Test Ban Treaty of 1963. Now the Soviets probed what the US reaction would be if the Soviets attacked the facilities. Whether this was part of an attempt to intimidate China, a real Soviet contingency plan, or both is unclear, but the Soviets approached other foreign governments, and the leadership of Communist parties in several countries;

4230-672: The Uyghur ethnic group. Soviet historiography was not consistent on those issues; when Sino-Soviet relations were warmer, for example, the Three Districts Revolution was portrayed by Soviet historians as part of opposition to the Kuomintang during the Chinese Civil War , not as an anti-Chinese bid for national liberation. The Soviets also encouraged migration of Uyghurs to its territory in Kazakhstan , along

4320-630: The Zhenbao Island clashes with the Soviet Army in March 1969 one Chinese RPG team, Hua Yujie and his assistant Yu Haichang destroyed four Soviet APCs and achieved more than ten kills. Hua and Yu received the accolade "Combat Hero" from the CMC, and their action was commemorated on a postage stamp. On 17 March 1969, an emergency meeting of the Warsaw Pact was called in Budapest by Brezhnev with

4410-453: The aim of condemning China. Romania's Ceaușescu refused, despite considerable Soviet pressure, to sign the statement condemning China. Ceaușescu's intransigence led to no statement being issued, which was widely seen as a Soviet diplomatic defeat. The next day, a meeting of the delegations representing 66 communist parties in Moscow discussed the preparations for a world summit in Moscow on 5 June 1969. A Soviet motion to condemn China failed, with

4500-552: The airplane taking him back to Moscow was denied permission to use Chinese air space, which forced it to land for refuelling in Calcutta. In India, Kosygin received the message via the Indian government that the Chinese were willing to discuss peace, which caused him to fly back to Beijing instead. In the early 1960s, the United States had "probed" the level of Soviet interest in joint action against Chinese nuclear weapons facilities;

4590-579: The border because real fears had arisen of the border crisis escalating into all-out war. On 1 May, in a bid to repair China's image abroad, which had been badly damaged by the Cultural Revolution, Mao invited diplomats from several Third World nations to attend the May Day celebrations in Beijing. To the assembled diplomats, Mao formally apologized for the attacks by the Red Guards on diplomats in China and

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4680-526: The death of Ho Chi Minh on 2 September 1969. His funeral was attended by both Zhou and Kosygin, albeit at different times. Zhou flew out of Hanoi to avoid being in the same room as Kosygin. The possibility of North Vietnam's leading supporters going to war with each other alarmed the North Vietnamese. During the funeral, messages were exchanged between the Soviets and the Chinese via the North Vietnamese. Meanwhile, Nixon's message via Maurer had reached

4770-469: The delegations representing the communist parties of Romania, Italy, Spain, Switzerland and Austria all supporting the Chinese position that it was the Soviet Union that had attacked China, rather than vice versa. On 21 March, Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin tried to phone Mao with the aim of discussing a ceasefire. The Chinese operator who took Kosygin's call called him a "revisionist element" and hung up. Zhou, who wanted to take up Kosygin's ceasefire offer,

4860-405: The fighting and of Red Army units haphazardly committed to action in a piecemeal style, but all of the documents speak of the Chinese as the aggressors. Most Chinese historians agree that on 2 March 1969, Chinese forces planned and executed an ambush, which took the Soviets completely by surprise. The reasons for the Chinese leadership to opt for such an offensive measure against the Soviets remains

4950-582: The first time the ethnic category of a Uyghur people by following the Soviet ethnic policy. That ethnogenesis of a "national" people eligible for territorialized autonomy broadly benefited the Soviet Union , which organized conferences in Fergana and Semirechye (in Soviet Central Asia ) to cause "revolution" in Altishahr (southern Xinjiang) and Dzungaria (northern Xinjiang). Both

5040-682: The help of divers from the Chinese navy , the PLA pulled the T-62 tank onshore. The tank was later given to the Chinese Military Museum . Until 1991, the island remained contested. According to Chinese sources, the Chinese had built barracks and conducted constant presence on the island since August 1969. Ryabushkin claims that the Soviet border guards had continued to thwart all Chinese attempts to land on it until 10 September when they were ordered to cease fire, effectively surrendering

5130-542: The intention was likely to have them communicate the Soviet nuclear threat to China. Noting that "neither side wishes the inflamed border situation to get out of hand", the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in August 1969 described the conflict as having "explosive potential" in the President's Daily Briefing . The agency stated that "the potential for a war between them clearly exists", including

5220-679: The invasion of Czechoslovakia, although he had condemned the Prague Spring as "revisionism". On 21 August 1968, the Romanian leader, Nicolae Ceaușescu , gave a speech in Revolution Square in Bucharest that denounced the invasion of Czechoslovakia. It was widely seen both in Romania and abroad as virtual declaration of independence from the Soviet Union. Romania began to move away from the Soviet sphere of influence , towards

5310-411: The island but at the Soviet territory as well and Major V. Nesov, commander of the 135th Motorized Infantry Division, was forced to order the division and frontier guards to retreat 4–5 kilometers inland to avoid casualties. Maxwell notes that much of academic writing about the Zhenbao incident still argues that it resulted from an unprovoked aggressive action by China and that the USSR was unquestionably

5400-451: The island should remain Russian. The Soviets had possessed nuclear weapons for a longer time than the Chinese and so the Chinese adopted an asymmetric deterrence strategy that threatened a large conventional people's war in response to a Soviet counterforce nuclear first strike . Chinese numerical superiority was the basis of its strategy to deter a Soviet nuclear attack. Since 1949, Chinese strategy, as articulated by Mao, emphasized

5490-444: The island, and 28 Chinese soldiers were reportedly wounded. From 6 to 25 February 1969, five more similar incidents occurred, and shooting broke out in March 1969. According to the Chinese version of events, at 08:40 on the 2 March 1969, 30 Chinese border patrol personnel split into two groups approached the island and were met by about 70 Soviet soldiers along with one truck and reinforced with two armoured vehicles attempting to encircle

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5580-432: The island, and the Soviets withdrew to their positions on the Russian bank of the Ussuri River. Vladimir Gorodinsky  [ ru ] claims that the main group of Chinese troops near the island did not suffer any significant losses as a result of the usage of BM-21 due to a mistake in the calculation by the Headquarters of the Rocket Forces. He claims that after 21:00, the Chinese began firing heavy mortars not only at

5670-423: The island, in preparation for the Kosygin-Zhou talks that happened on 11 September. Five Soviet soldiers were awarded the top honour of Hero of the Soviet Union for bravery and valor during the Damansky conflict. Colonel Demokrat Leonov led the group of four T-62 tanks in a counterattack on 15 March and was killed by a Chinese sniper when he was leaving a destroyed vehicle. Senior Lieutenant Vitaly Bubenin led

5760-427: The island. By the end of 15 March Soviet General Oleg Losik ordered to deploy then-secret BM-21 "Grad" multiple rocket launchers . The Soviets fired 10,000 artillery rounds in a nine-hour engagement with the Chinese along with 36 sorties. Soviet officials believed the attack was devastating for the Chinese troops and materials, which could not be verified by Chinese sources. The Chinese troops left their positions on

5850-445: The matter of the Sino-Soviet border demarcated in the 19th century, originally imposed upon the Qing dynasty by the Russian Empire by way of unequal treaties . Negotiations broke down amid heightening tensions and both sides began dramatically increasing military presence along the border. Sino-Soviet relations worsened further following the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. Border confrontations escalated in March 1969 when

5940-499: The only way to defend against a massive conventional onslaught was to use nuclear weapons. Some even advocated deploying nuclear mines along the Sino-Soviet border. By threatening to initiate a prolonged conventional conflict in retaliation for a nuclear strike, Beijing used an asymmetric deterrence strategy that was intended to convince Moscow that the costs of an attack would outweigh the benefits. China had found its strategic rationale. While most Soviet military specialists did not fear

6030-406: The other for the start of the conflict. However, a scholarly consensus has emerged that the border crisis had been a premeditated act of aggression orchestrated by the Chinese side. The American scholar Lyle J. Goldstein noted that Russian documents released since the glasnost era paint an unflattering picture of the Red Army command in the Far East with senior generals surprised by the outbreak of

6120-409: The public. Outraged, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev refused to approve the border agreement. The border dispute in the west centered on 52,000 square kilometres (20,000 sq mi) of Soviet-controlled land in the Pamirs that lay on the border of Xinjiang and the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic . In 1892, the Russian Empire and the Qing Dynasty had agreed that the border would consist of

6210-542: The range to about 40 kilometers (25 mi). The latest technology development has allowed new Grad rockets to have 52 km range. The range may also vary due to the type of warhead. The 9M22S munition (see below) was developed by NPO Splav during the Soviet era . Instead of a high-explosive fragmentation warhead, the 9M22S rocket carries a warhead containing 180 separate 9N510 incendiary elements. Designed to ignite vegetation, storage facilities, or fuel, these incendiary elements consist of hexagonal prisms made from

6300-474: The re-opening of border negotiations, which continued inconclusively for a decade. Serious talks did not occur until 1991, when an agreement was reached shortly before the fall of the Soviet Union. The border issues were conclusively resolved between China and Russia following a treaty signed in 2003 and an additional agreement in 2008. Under the governorship of Sheng Shicai (1933–1944) in Northwest China's Xinjiang Province , China's Kuomintang recognized for

6390-576: The resupply truck 9T254 with 60 rockets) is referred to by the GRAU index "9K51". The launcher itself has the industrial index of "2B5". In 1976, the BM-21 was mounted on the newer Ural-4320 6x6 army truck. The three-member crew can emplace the system and have it ready to fire in three minutes. The crew can fire the rockets from the cab or from a trigger at the end of a 64-meter (210 ft) cable. All 40 rockets can be away in as little as 20 seconds, and can be fired individually or in small groups in several-second intervals. A PG-1M panoramic telescope with

6480-588: The ridge of the Sarikol Range , but the exact border remained contentious throughout the 20th century. In the 1960s, the Chinese began to insist that the Soviet Union evacuate the region. From around 1900, after the Treaty of Peking (1860) had assigned Outer Manchuria ( Primorskiy Kray ) to Russia, the eastern part of the Sino-Soviet border had mainly been demarcated by three rivers, the Argun River from

6570-459: The river or around the area most suitable for navigation under what is known as the ' thalweg principle'. There is nothing in either the 1858 or the 1860 treaty to suggest the border is anywhere other than the thalweg. China claimed the islands, as they were on the Chinese side of the river if they were demarcated according to international law by using shipping lanes. The Soviets claimed and already effectively controlled almost every island along

6660-588: The rivers. Russia and subsequently the Soviet Union claimed all the islands in both rivers including those that were Chinese according to the thalweg principle. In the 1991 treaty, Russia largely conceded that these islands were Chinese, but Bolshoy Ussuriysky Island , at the confluence of the Amur and the Ussuri Rivers, had become part of the Russian city of Khabarovsk, and China agreed that about two-thirds of

6750-583: The rockets miss entire cities and over 10% end up hitting the sea. D.I.O. from Iran produces copies of the BM-11 and BM-21 systems that can fire the original Soviet rockets as well as the locally developed " Arash " with a range of 20.5 km (12.7 mi). There is also a rocket with a range of 75 km (47 mi). Various 122 mm-type rockets were deployed by Iraq during the Iran-Iraq war, modified to deliver nerve agents to targets. This included

6840-408: The smashing up of the embassies in Beijing in 1967. Mao claimed not to be aware of the fact that the Red Guards had been beating up and sometimes killing foreigners living in China during the Cultural Revolution. Also, Mao announced that for the first time since the Cultural Revolution, he would send out ambassadors to represent China abroad (most Chinese ambassadors had been recalled and executed during

6930-510: The superiority of "man over weapons". Although weapons were certainly an important component of warfare, Mao argued that they were "not the decisive factor; it is people, not things, that are decisive. The contest of strength is not only a contest of military and economic power, but also a contest of human power and morale." To Mao, "non-material" factors like "creativity, flexibility and high morale" were also "critical determinants in warfare". The Soviets were not confident that they could win such

7020-514: The tension and engaged with the Soviet side during Ho Chi Minh's funeral. On 11 September, Kosygin, on his way back from the funeral of Ho Chi Minh, stopped over in Beijing for talks with his Chinese counterpart, Zhou. Symbolic of the frosty relations between the two communist countries, the talks were held at Beijing Airport . Both agreed to return ambassadors who had been recalled and to begin border negotiations. On 23 and 29 September 1969 , China conducted two unannounced nuclear weapons tests, with

7110-523: The tripartite junction with Mongolia to the north tip of China, running southwest to northeast, then the Amur River to Khabarovsk from northwest to southeast, where it was joined by the Ussuri River running south to north: The modern method (used for the past 200 years) of demarcating a river boundary between states today is to set the boundary at either the median line ( ligne médiane ) of

7200-401: The victor. On 16 March, the Soviets entered the island to collect their dead, with the Chinese holding their fire. On 17 March, the Soviets tried to recover a disabled T-62 tank from the island, but their effort was repelled by Chinese artillery. On 21 March, the Soviets sent a demolition team in an attempt to destroy the tank. The Chinese opened fire and thwarted the Soviet attempt. With

7290-564: Was a seven-month undeclared military conflict between the Soviet Union and China in 1969, following the Sino-Soviet split . The most serious border clash, which brought the world's two largest socialist states to the brink of war, occurred near Damansky (Zhenbao) Island on the Ussuri (Wusuli) River in Manchuria . Clashes also took place in Xinjiang . In 1964, the Chinese revisited

7380-449: Was added to the launcher that improved its accuracy. The new indigenously reverse engineered system were named KRL-Ghadab. the range of the indigenously developed rockets were increased to 45 km with <1% CEP. The original "Grad" rocket has a range of about 20 kilometers (12 mi). The first modification called "G-M" increased the range to about 27.5 kilometers (17.1 mi), while the second modification "G-2000" further increased

7470-497: Was adopted. The prototype was made in 2006 and given to the army in 2007, after successful trials. A series modernization of 75 vehicles followed. Another step in the modernization of Polish rocket artillery is project 'Homar', corresponding to HIMARS rocket system, carried on from 2007. This Polish military article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . BM-21 The BM-21 "Grad" ( Russian : БМ-21 "Град" , lit.   ' hailstorm ')

7560-419: Was brought into service in 1977 to counter the Grad. Adaptations of the launcher were/are produced by several countries including China, Czechoslovakia , Egypt, Iran , North Korea , Poland and Romania. The Egyptians domestically manufacture the rockets Sakr-18 and Sakr-36 , with a respective range of 18 km (11 mi) and 36 km (22 mi), and the latest Sakr-45 with

7650-415: Was dangerous, Ogarkov argued, because a few nuclear weapons would "hardly annihilate" a country the size of China, which, in response, would "fight unrelentingly". The Soviet Border Service started to report an intensifying Chinese military activity in the region in the early 1960s. Tensions at first built slowly, but the Cultural Revolution made them rise much faster. The number of troops on both sides of

7740-578: Was increasingly politicized to match the tension of the Sino-Soviet split of the 1960s and the 1970s. One Soviet Turkologist , Tursun Rakhminov, who worked for the Soviet Communist Party , argued that the modern Uyghurs had founded the ancient Toquz Oghuz Country (744–840), the Kara-Khanid Khanate (840–1212), and so forth. The premodern states' wars against Chinese dynasties were cast as struggles for national liberation by

7830-400: Was ordered with a return to the status quo ante bellum . To counterbalance the Soviet threat, the Chinese government sought a rapprochement with the United States. This resulted in a secret visit to China by Henry Kissinger in 1971, which in turn paved the way for President Richard Nixon 's official visit to China in 1972. Sino-Soviet relations remained sour after the conflict despite

7920-530: Was sent to King Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia with the request to pass it on to Mao, and by 26 July, Mansfield's letter had arrived in Beijing. The Chinese reply was harsh, with Zhou giving a speech accusing the US of "aggression" in Vietnam and of "occupation" of Taiwan, which Zhou asserted was rightfully a part of China. On 1 August, US President Richard Nixon visited Pakistan, a close ally of China since both were anti-Indian, to ask General Yahya Khan to pass

8010-406: Was shocked by what he regarded as Mao's recklessness: "The two countries are at war, one cannot chop the messenger." Diplomats from the Soviet embassy in Beijing spent much of 22 March in vain trying to get hold of Mao's private phone number so that Kosygin could call him to discuss peace. On 22 March, Mao had a meeting with the four marshals who commanded the Chinese troops in the border regions with

8100-644: Was the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia on 20–21 August 1968 and the proclamation of the Brezhnev Doctrine that the Soviets had the right to overthrow any communist government that was diverging from what was defined by the Kremlin. Mao saw the Brezhnev Doctrine as the ideological justification for a Soviet invasion of China to overthrow him and launched a massive propaganda campaign attacking

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