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74-682: The World Popular Song Festival ( 世界歌謡祭 , Sekai Kayōsai ) , also known as Yamaha Music Festival and unofficially as the "Oriental Eurovision" , was an international song contest held from 1970 until 1989. It was organised by the Yamaha Music Foundation in Tokyo , Japan from 1970 until 1989. The first edition of the World Popular Song Festival (WPSF) took place on 20, 21 and 22 November 1970 with 37 participating countries from all continents. The concert

148-431: A cheat sheet . A test developer's choice of which style or format to use when developing a written test is usually arbitrary given that there is no single invariant standard for testing. Be that as it may, certain test styles and formats have become more widely used than others. Below is a list of those formats of test items that are widely used by educators and test developers to construct paper or computer-based tests. As

222-558: A computer , or in a predetermined area that requires a test taker to demonstrate or perform a set of skills. Tests vary in style, rigor and requirements. There is no general consensus or invariable standard for test formats and difficulty. Often, the format and difficulty of the test is dependent upon the educational philosophy of the instructor, subject matter, class size, policy of the educational institution, and requirements of accreditation or governing bodies. A test may be administered formally or informally. An example of an informal test

296-405: A computer (as an eExam ). A test taker who takes a written test could respond to specific test items by writing or typing within a given space of the test or on a separate form or document. In some tests; where knowledge of many constants or technical terms is required to effectively answer questions, like Chemistry or Biology – the test developer may allow every test taker to bring with them

370-476: A large number of participants. A test may be developed and administered by an instructor, a clinician, a governing body, or a test provider. In some instances, the developer of the test may not be directly responsible for its administration. For example, in the United States, Educational Testing Service (ETS), a nonprofit educational testing and assessment organization, develops standardized tests such as

444-551: A national number 1 hit with his entry. Winner of the 1st WPSF was Israel with the duo Hedva & David. More than 2 million copies of their winning entry "Ani Holem Al Naomi" ("I Dream Of Naomi") were sold worldwide, giving a serious credibility boost to the new Festival. Well established names as well as new talents tried their fortune at the WPSF: a very young ABBA under the name Björn & Benny with uncredited backing vocals by their partners Agnetha and Anni-Frid performing

518-411: A period of times as a reading section or a given exercise in were the most important part of the class was summarize. However, a simple quiz usually does not count very much, and instructors usually provide this type of test as a formative assessment to help determine whether the student is learning the material. In addition, doing this at the time the instructor collected all can make a significant part of

592-632: A result of the French Revolution but it collapsed after only ten years. Germany implemented the examination system around 1800. Englishmen in the 18th century such as Eustace Budgell recommended imitating the Chinese examination system but the first English person to recommend competitive examinations to qualify for employment was Adam Smith in 1776. In 1838, the Congregational church missionary Walter Henry Medhurst considered

666-425: A result, these tests may consist of only one type of test item format (e.g., multiple-choice test, essay test) or may have a combination of different test item formats (e.g., a test that has multiple-choice and essay items). In a test that has items formatted as multiple-choice questions, a candidate would be given a number of set answers for each question, and the candidate must choose which answer or group of answers

740-433: A specific set of skills. For example, a test taker who intends to become a lawyer is usually required by a governing body such as a governmental bar licensing agency to pass a bar exam . Standardized tests are also used in certain countries to regulate immigration. For example, intended immigrants to Australia are legally required to pass a citizenship test as part of that country's naturalization process. When analyzed in

814-450: A student to write a freehand response. Marks are given more for the steps taken than for the correct answer. If the question has multiple parts, later parts may use answers from previous sections, and marks may be granted if an earlier incorrect answer was used but the correct method was followed, and an answer which is correct (given the incorrect input) is returned. Higher-level mathematical papers may include variations on true/false, where

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888-434: A student's proficiency in specific subjects such as mathematics, science, or literature. In contrast, high school students in other countries such as the United States may not be required to take a standardized test to graduate. Moreover, students in these countries usually take standardized tests only to apply for a position in a university program and are typically given the option of taking different standardized tests such as

962-403: A test taker to write a response to fulfill the requirements of the item. In administrative terms, essay items take less time to construct. As an assessment tool, essay items can test complex learning objectives as well as processes used to answer the question. The items can also provide a more realistic and generalizable task for test. Finally, these items make it difficult for test takers to guess

1036-401: A tool to select for participants that have potential to succeed in a competition such as a sporting event. For example, skaters who wish to participate in figure skating competitions in the United States must pass official U.S. Figure Skating tests just to qualify. Tests are sometimes used by a group to select for certain types of individuals to join the group. For example, Mensa International

1110-401: A wide range of difficulty, and can easily diagnose a test taker's difficulty with certain concepts. As an educational tool, multiple-choice items test many levels of learning as well as a test taker's ability to integrate information, and it provides feedback to the test taker about why distractors were wrong and why correct answers were right. Nevertheless, there are difficulties associated with

1184-449: Is a high-IQ society that requires individuals to score at the 98th percentile or higher on a standardized, supervised IQ test. Assessment types include: Criterion-referenced tests are designed to measure student performance against a fixed set of criteria or learning standards. It is possible for all test takers to pass, just like it is possible for all test takers to fail. These tests can use individual's scores to focus on improving

1258-508: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about a music organization is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Test (assessment) This is an accepted version of this page An examination ( exam or evaluation ) or test is an educational assessment intended to measure a test-taker's knowledge , skill , aptitude , physical fitness , or classification in many other topics (e.g., beliefs ). A test may be administered verbally, on paper, on

1332-432: Is a reading test administered by a parent to a child. A formal test might be a final examination administered by a teacher in a classroom or an IQ test administered by a psychologist in a clinic. Formal testing often results in a grade or a test score . A test score may be interpreted with regards to a norm or criterion , or occasionally both. The norm may be established independently, or by statistical analysis of

1406-429: Is an item that provides a defined term and requires a test taker to match identifying characteristics to the correct term. A fill-in-the-blank item provides a test taker with identifying characteristics and requires the test taker to recall the correct term. There are two types of fill-in-the-blank tests. The easier version provides a word bank of possible words that will fill in the blanks. For some exams all words in

1480-636: Is correct. There are two families of multiple-choice questions. The first family is known as the True/False question and it requires a test taker to choose all answers that are appropriate. The second family is known as One-Best-Answer question and it requires a test taker to answer only one from a list of answers. There are several reasons to using multiple-choice questions in tests. In terms of administration, multiple-choice questions usually requires less time for test takers to answer, are easy to score and grade, provide greater coverage of material, allows for

1554-480: The ACT or SAT , which are used primarily to measure a student's reasoning skill. High school students in the United States may also take Advanced Placement tests on specific subjects to fulfill university-level credit. Depending on the policies of the test maker or country, administration of standardized tests may be done in a large hall, classroom, or testing center. A proctor or invigilator may also be present during

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1628-591: The GCE A-levels or Cambridge Pre-U . In contrast, universities in the United States use an applicant's test score on the SAT or ACT as just one of their many admission criteria to determine whether an applicant should be admitted into one of its undergraduate programs. The other criteria in this case may include the applicant's grades from high school, extracurricular activities, personal statement, and letters of recommendations. Once admitted, undergraduate students in

1702-615: The Joint Entrance Examination or to secondary schools . Types are civil service examinations , required for positions in the public sector ; the U.S. Foreign Service Exam , and the United Nations Competitive Examination. Competitive examinations are considered an egalitarian way to select worthy applicants without risking influence peddling , bias or other concerns. A single test can have multiple qualities. For example,

1776-476: The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) uses Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) to evaluate certain skills and knowledge of students from different participating countries. Standardized tests are sometimes used by certain governing bodies to determine whether a test taker is allowed to practice a profession, to use a specific job title, or to claim competency in

1850-596: The SAT but may not directly be involved in the administration or proctoring of these tests. Informal, unofficial, and non-standardized tests and testing systems have existed throughout history. For example, tests of skill such as archery contests have existed in China since the Zhou dynasty (or, more mythologically, Yao ). Oral exams were administered in various parts of the world including ancient China and Europe. A precursor to

1924-777: The United Kingdom itself, and in other Western nations. Like the British, the development of the French and American civil service was influenced by the Chinese system. When Thomas Jenckes made a Report from the Joint Select Committee on Retrenchment in 1868, it contained a chapter on the civil service in China. In 1870, William Spear wrote a book called The Oldest and the Newest Empire-China and

1998-466: The bar exam for aspiring lawyers may be a norm-referenced, standardized, summative assessment. This means that only the test takers with higher scores will pass, that all of them took the same test under the same circumstances and were graded with the same scoring standards, and that the test is meant to determine whether the law school graduates have learned enough to practice their profession. Written tests are tests that are administered on paper or on

2072-572: The chanson "Prends L'Amour" and ended up 13th in the Grand Final (the contest had two semi-finals and one final). The Netherlands delegated world-known jazz singer Rita Reys with the song "Just Be You", a composition by her husband Pim Jacobs. Czech singer Helena Vondráčková sang "Uncle Charlie" a novelty song inspired by Charlie Chaplin . Other famous 1970 participants were 1969 Eurovision winner Frida Boccara for France , Jacques Michel for Canada and Ted Mulry for Australia , who scored

2146-494: The imperial examinations ( keju ). The bureaucratic imperial examinations as a concept has its origins in the year 605 during the short lived Sui dynasty . Its successor, the Tang dynasty , implemented imperial examinations on a relatively small scale until the examination system was extensively expanded during the reign of Wu Zetian . Included in the expanded examination system was a military exam that tested physical ability, but

2220-420: The "evidence is not very clear." In Prussia , medication examinations began in 1725. The Mathematical Tripos , founded in 1747, is commonly believed to be the first honor examination, but James Bass Mullinger considered "the candidates not having really undergone any examination whatsoever" because the qualification for a degree was merely four years of residence. France adopted the examination system in 1791 as

2294-602: The Chinese exams to be "worthy of imitating." In 1806, the British established a Civil Service College near London for training of the East India Company's administrators in India. This was based on the recommendations of British East India Company officials serving in China and had seen the Imperial examinations. In 1829, the company introduced civil service examinations in India on a limited basis. This established

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2368-413: The Chinese had "perfected moral science" and François Quesnay advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese. According to Ferdinand Brunetière (1849-1906), followers of Physiocracy such as François Quesnay, whose theory of free trade was based on Chinese classical theory, were sinophiles bent on introducing "l'esprit chinois" to France. He also admits that French education

2442-545: The English "did not know that it was necessary for them to take lessons from the Celestial Empire." In 1875, Archibald Sayce voiced concern over the prevalence of competitive examinations, which he described as "the invasion of this new Chinese culture." After Great Britain's successful implementation of systematic, open, and competitive examinations in India in the 19th century, similar systems were instituted in

2516-667: The United Kingdom or United States may be required by their respective programs to take a comprehensive examination as a requirement for passing their courses or for graduating from their respective programs. Standardized tests are sometimes used by certain countries to manage the quality of their educational institutions. For example, the No Child Left Behind Act in the United States requires individual states to develop assessments for students in certain grades. In practice, these assessments typically appear in

2590-671: The United States , in which he urged the United States government to adopt the Chinese examination system. Like in Britain, many of the American elites scorned the plan to implement competitive examinations, which they considered foreign, Chinese, and "un-American." As a result, the civil services reform introduced into the House of Representatives in 1868 was not passed until 1883. The Civil Service Commission tried to combat such sentiments in its report: ...with no intention of commending either

2664-632: The advancement of men of talent and merit only." Both Thomas Babington Macaulay , who was instrumental in passing the Saint Helena Act 1833 , and Stafford Northcote, 1st Earl of Iddesleigh , who prepared the Northcote–Trevelyan Report that catalyzed the British civil service , were familiar with Chinese history and institutions. The Northcote–Trevelyan Report of 1854 made four principal recommendations: that recruitment should be on

2738-421: The annual average figures are a necessary artifact of quantitative analysis. The operations of the examination system were part of the imperial record keeping system, and the date of receiving the jinshi degree is often a key biographical datum: sometimes the date of achieving jinshi is the only firm date known for even some of the most historically prominent persons in Chinese history. A brief interruption to

2812-401: The basis of merit determined through standardized written examination, that candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, that recruits should be graded into a hierarchy, and that promotion should be through achievement, rather than 'preferment, patronage, or purchase'. When the report was brought up in parliament in 1853, Lord Monteagle argued against

2886-572: The compass, gunpowder, and the multiplication table, during centuries when this continent was a wilderness, should deprive our people of those conveniences. Standardized testing began to influence the method of examination in British universities from the 1850s, where oral exams had common since the Middle Ages . In the US, the transition happened under the influence of the educational reformer Horace Mann . The shift helped standardize an expansion of

2960-709: The content of the examinations focused on the Confucian canon and ensured a loyal scholar bureaucrat class which upheld the throne. The Confucian examination system in Vietnam was established in 1075 under the Lý dynasty Emperor Lý Nhân Tông and lasted until the Nguyễn dynasty Emperor Khải Định (1919). There were only three levels of examinations in Vietnam: interprovincial, pre-court, and court. The imperial examination system

3034-418: The context of language texting in the naturalization processes, the ideology can be found from two distinct but nearly related points. One refers to the construction and deconstruction of the nation's constitutive elements that makes their own identity, while the second has a more restricted view of the notion of specific language and ideologies that may served in a specific purpose. Tests are sometimes used as

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3108-539: The correct answers and require test takers to demonstrate their writing skills as well as correct spelling and grammar. The difficulties with essay items are primarily administrative: for example, test takers require adequate time to be able to compose their answers. When these questions are answered, the answers themselves are usually poorly written because test takers may not have time to organize and proofread their answers. In turn, it takes more time to score or grade these items. When these items are being scored or graded,

3182-403: The curricula into the sciences and humanities , creating a rationalized method for the evaluation of teachers and institutions and creating a basis for the streaming of students according to ability. Both World War I and World War II demonstrated the necessity of standardized testing and the benefits associated with these tests. Tests were used to determine the mental aptitude of recruits to

3256-614: The examinations occurred at the beginning of the Mongol Yuan dynasty in the 13th century, but was later brought back with regional quotas which favored the Mongols and disadvantaged Southern Chinese. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the system contributed to the narrow and focused nature of intellectual life and enhanced the autocratic power of the emperor. The system continued with some modifications until its abolition in 1905 during

3330-566: The examinee to respond in a particular way, for example by describing or defining a concept, or comparing and contrasting two or more scenarios or events. Some command words require more insight or skill than others: for example, "analyse" and "synthesise" assess higher-level skills than "describe". More demanding command words usually attract greater mark weighting in the examination. In the UK, Ofqual maintains an official list of command words explaining their meaning. The Welsh government 's guidance on

3404-477: The final course grade. Most mathematics questions, or calculation questions from subjects such as chemistry , physics , or economics employ a style which does not fall into any of the above categories, although some papers, notably the Maths Challenge papers in the United Kingdom employ multiple choice. Instead, most mathematics questions state a mathematical problem or exercise that requires

3478-413: The form of standardized tests. Test scores of students in specific grades of an educational institution are then used to determine the status of that educational institution, i.e., whether it should be allowed to continue to operate in the same way or to receive funding. Finally, standardized tests are sometimes used to compare proficiencies of students from different institutions or countries. For example,

3552-410: The grading process itself becomes subjective as non-test related information may influence the process. Thus, considerable effort is required to minimize the subjectivity of the grading process. Finally, as an assessment tool, essay questions may potentially be unreliable in assessing the entire content of a subject matter. Instructions to exam candidates rely on the use of command words , which direct

3626-623: The hereditary system during the Samurai era. The examination system was established in Korea in 958 under the reign of Gwangjong of Goryeo . Any free man (not Nobi ) was able to take the examinations. By the Joseon period, high offices were closed to aristocrats who had not passed the exams. The examination system continued until 1894 when it was abolished by the Gabo Reform . As in China,

3700-878: The history of the WPSF, the United Kingdom has been the most successful, winning the "WPSF Grand Prix" 5 times in the seventies (even three times in row). The United Kingdom is followed by the United States with 4 Grand Prix victories. Smaller countries won as well: Jamaica in 1972 with Ernie Smith , Norway in 1974 with Ellen Nikolaysen , Cuba in 1981 with Osvaldo Rodríguez and Hungary in 1983 with Neoton Família . Yamaha Music Foundation The Yamaha Grade Examination System has been developed to enable students and teachers to ensure their own progress and thereby obtain self-confidence in their own music studies. The Yamaha Grade Examination System consists of nine grades, Grade 9 to Grade 1. The examination evaluates

3774-423: The imperial examinations were often discussed in conjunction with Confucianism, which attracted great attention from contemporary European thinkers such as Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz , Voltaire , Montesquieu , Baron d'Holbach , Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , and Friedrich Schiller . In France and Britain , Confucian ideology was used in attacking the privilege of the elite. Figures such as Voltaire claimed that

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3848-487: The implementation of open examinations because it was a Chinese system and China was not an "enlightened country." Lord Stanley called the examinations the "Chinese Principle." The Earl of Granville did not deny this but argued in favor of the examination system, considering that the minority Manchus had been able to rule China with it for over 200 years. In 1854, Edwin Chadwick reported that some noblemen did not agree with

3922-531: The last years of the Qing dynasty. The modern examination system for selecting civil servants also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. Japan implemented the examination system for 200 years during the Heian period (794-1185). Like the Chinese examinations, the curriculum revolved around the Confucian canon. However, unlike in China, it was only ever applied to the minor nobility and so gradually faded away under

3996-568: The later Chinese imperial examinations was in place since the Han dynasty , during which the Confucian characteristic of the examinations was determined. However these examinations did not offer an official avenue to government appointment, the majority of which were filled through recommendations based on qualities such as social status, morals, and ability. Standardized written examinations were first implemented in China. They were commonly known as

4070-587: The measures introduced because they were Chinese. The examination system was finally implemented in the British Indian Civil Service in 1855, prior to which admission into the civil service was purely a matter of patronage, and in England in 1870. Even as late as ten years after the competitive examination plan was passed, people still attacked it as an "adopted Chinese culture." Alexander Baillie-Cochrane, 1st Baron Lamington insisted that

4144-468: The military exam never had a significant impact on the Chinese officer corps and military degrees were seen as inferior to their civil counterpart. The exact nature of Wu's influence on the examination system is still a matter of scholarly debate. During the Song dynasty the emperors expanded both examinations and the government school system, in part to counter the influence of hereditary nobility, increasing

4218-618: The military. The US Army used the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale to test the IQ of the soldiers. After the War, industry began using tests to evaluate applicants for various jobs based on performance. In 1952, the first Advanced Placement (AP) test was administered to begin closing the gap between high schools and colleges. Tests are used throughout most educational systems. Tests may range from brief, informal questions chosen by

4292-599: The number of degree holders to more than four to five times that of the Tang. From the Song dynasty onward, the examinations played the primary role in selecting scholar-officials, who formed the literati elite of society. However the examinations co-existed with other forms of recruitment such as direct appointments for the ruling family, nominations, quotas, clerical promotions, sale of official titles, and special procedures for eunuchs . The regular higher level degree examination cycle

4366-581: The performing ability of the music lovers in general; the performing ability and the musical knowledge and techniques required for the instructors of the fundamentals stage; and also the performing competence of the professional musicians . The foundation is known for its organizing of the World Popular Song Festival which it organized from 1970 until 1989. This article about an organization or organization-related topic in Japan

4440-591: The principle of qualification process for civil servants in England. In 1847 and 1856, Thomas Taylor Meadows strongly recommended the adoption of the Chinese principle of competitive examinations in Great Britain in his Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China . According to Meadows, "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in

4514-480: The process, perceive these items to be tricky or picky. Finally, multiple-choice items do not test a test taker's attitudes towards learning because correct responses can be easily faked. True/False questions present candidates with a binary choice – a statement is either true or false. This method presents problems, as depending on the number of questions, a significant number of candidates could get 100% just by guesswork, and should on average get 50%. A matching item

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4588-466: The religion or the imperialism of China, we could not see why the fact that the most enlightened and enduring government of the Eastern world had acquired an examination as to the merits of candidates for office, should any more deprive the American people of that advantage, if it might be an advantage, than the facts that Confucius had taught political morality, and the people of China had read books, used

4662-422: The skills that were lacking in comprehension. Competitive exams are norm-referenced, high-stakes tests in which candidates are ranked according to their grades and/or percentile, and then top rankers are selected. If the examination is open for n positions, then the first n candidates in ranks pass, the others are rejected. They are used as entrance examinations for university and college admissions such as

4736-540: The teacher to major tests that students and teachers spend months preparing for. Some countries such as the United Kingdom and France require all their secondary school students to take a standardized test on individual subjects such as the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) (in England) and Baccalauréat respectively as a requirement for graduation. These tests are used primarily to assess

4810-470: The testing period to provide instructions, to answer questions, or to prevent cheating. Grades or test scores from standardized test may also be used by universities to determine whether a student applicant should be admitted into one of its academic or professional programs. For example, universities in the United Kingdom admit applicants into their undergraduate programs based primarily or solely on an applicant's grades on pre-university qualifications such as

4884-534: The track "Santa Rosa" with little success (later relegated to the B-side of their second single "He Is Your Brother"), Céline Dion (Outstanding Song Award in 1982), Bryan Adams (Participating in 1982), Bucks Fizz (Best Song Award in 1981), Tina Charles , Eros Ramazzotti , Daniela Romo , Gianna Nannini , Demis Roussos , Bonnie Tyler , B.J. Thomas , La Toya Jackson , Erasure , Cissy Houston , Italian singer-songwriter Alice , Mia Martini and many others. In

4958-458: The use of command words advises that they should be used "consistently and correctly", but notes that some subjects have their own traditions and expectations in regard to candidates' responses, and Cambridge Assessment notes that in some cases, subject-specific command words may be in used. A quiz is a brief assessment which may cover a small amount of material that was given in a class. Some of them cover two to three lectures that were given in

5032-739: The use of multiple-choice questions. In administrative terms, multiple-choice items that are effective usually take a great time to construct. As an educational tool, multiple-choice items do not allow test takers to demonstrate knowledge beyond the choices provided and may even encourage guessing or approximation due to the presence of at least one correct answer. For instance, a test taker might not work out explicitly that 6.14 ⋅ 7.95 = 48.813 {\displaystyle 6.14\cdot 7.95=48.813} , but knowing that 6 ⋅ 8 = 48 {\displaystyle 6\cdot 8=48} , they would choose an answer close to 48. Moreover, test takers may misinterpret these items and in

5106-550: The word bank are used exactly once. If a teacher wanted to create a test of medium difficulty, they would provide a test with a word bank, but some words may be used more than once and others not at all. The hardest variety of such a test is a fill-in-the-blank test in which no word bank is provided at all. This generally requires a higher level of understanding and memory than a multiple-choice test. Because of this, fill-in-the-blank tests with no word bank are often feared by students. Items such as short answer or essay typically require

5180-758: Was accused of atheism and forced to give up his position at the university. The earliest evidence of examinations in Europe date to 1215 or 1219 in Bologna . These were chiefly oral in the form of a question or answer, disputation, determination, defense, or public lecture. The candidate gave a public lecture of two prepared passages assigned to him from the civil or canon law, and then doctors asked him questions, or expressed objections to answers. Evidence of written examinations do not appear until 1702 at Trinity College, Cambridge . According to Sir Michael Sadler , Europe may have had written examinations since 1518 but he admits

5254-585: Was cancelled in 1988 due to the illness of the Shōwa Emperor ; the final year was a charity concert for UNICEF , after which the contest was formally ended. Belgium was represented at the 1970 edition by Daliah Lavi , famous for her role in Casino Royale (1967), the James Bond parody featuring Woody Allen as well with Samantha Gilles in 1987 ending second with the song Hold Me. Lavi performed

5328-409: Was decreed in 1067 to be 3 years but this triennial cycle only existed in nominal terms. In practice both before and after this, the examinations were irregularly implemented for significant periods of time: thus, the calculated statistical averages for the number of degrees conferred annually should be understood in this context. The jinshi exams were not a yearly event and should not be considered so;

5402-583: Was known to Europeans as early as 1570. It received great attention from the Jesuit Matteo Ricci (1552–1610), who viewed it and its Confucian appeal to rationalism favorably in comparison to religious reliance on "apocalypse." Knowledge of Confucianism and the examination system was disseminated broadly in Europe following the Latin translation of Ricci's journal in 1614. During the 18th century,

5476-566: Was really based on Chinese literary examinations which were popularized in France by philosophers, especially Voltaire. Western perception of China in the 18th century admired the Chinese bureaucratic system as favourable over European governments for its seeming meritocracy. However those who admired China such as Christian Wolff were sometimes persecuted. In 1721 he gave a lecture at the University of Halle praising Confucianism, for which he

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