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67-537: Santalum spicatum , the Australian sandalwood , also Waang and other names ( Noongar ) and Dutjahn ( Martu ), is a tree native to semi-arid areas at the edge of Southwest Australia , in the state of Western Australia . It is also found in South Australia , where it is protected and listed as a vulnerable species . It is traded as sandalwood , and its sandalwood oil has been used as an aromatic and

134-426: A combined area of over 1,000,000 acres (4,047 km ) by T. H. Pearse, who stocked the property with sheep. Between 1925 and 1928 more eastern states pastoralists scores of leases were established, and over £1,500,000 was invested in properties in the northern and eastern goldfields. In three months of 1925 over 40,000 sheep were railed to the area and in one month of 1927 seven trains carrying sheep arrived. By 1934

201-602: A contraceptive effect. As early as 10,000 BP local people utilised quartz , replacing chert flint for spear and knife edges when the chert deposits were submerged by sea level rise during the Flandrian transgression . Before the arrival of Europeans , the Noongar population has been variously estimated at between 6,000 and some tens of thousands. Colonisation by the British brought both violence and new diseases, taking

268-589: A food source over history. S. spicatum is one of four Santalum species occurring in Australia. S. spicatum has been used sustainably as a source of bush food and medicine for thousands of years by Aboriginal Australians , who also use it in smoking ceremonies . Soon after the arrival of Europeans in Western Australia, colonists began harvesting sandalwood trees to export overseas for incense production. This decimated sandalwood populations in

335-474: A hard shell forms the bulk of the fruit; the shell is smoother than S. acuminatum's deeply pitted surface. Germination occurs during warm and moist conditions. Once found across the southwest of Australia, at the Swan Coastal Plain and inland regions of low rainfall, the impact of over-harvesting and land-clearing for wheat and sheep since the 1880s has greatly reduced the range and population of

402-404: A heavy toll on the population. The Noongar, like many other Aboriginal peoples, saw the arrival of Europeans as the returning of deceased people, often imagining them as relatives who deserved accommodation. As they approached from the west, the newcomers were called djaanga (or djanak ), meaning "white spirits". Initially, relations were generally cordial. Matthew Flinders recognised

469-467: A judgment which recognised native title in an area over the city of Perth and its surrounds, known as Bennell v State of Western Australia [2006] FCA 1243. An appeal was subsequently lodged and was heard in April 2007. The remainder of the larger "Single Noongar Claim" area, covering 193,956 km (74,887 sq mi) of the south-west of Western Australia, remains outstanding, and will hinge on

536-522: A living by hunting and trapping a variety of game, including kangaroos, possums and wallabies; for people close to the coastal zone or riverine systems, spear-fishing or culling fish in traps was customary. An extensive range of edible wild plants were also available, including yams and wattle seeds. Nuts of the zamia palm , eaten during the Djeran season (April–May) required extensive treatment to remove their toxicity , and for women, they may have had

603-500: A whole. The economy of the Goldfields sub-region is based on the extraction and processing of various mineral resources, primarily gold and nickel . In 2012 the mining of gold, nickel and platinum yielded just under A$ 9 billion. Pastoralism in the northern goldfields commenced in the early 1900s with Yundamindera Station being established by Dr. Laver. In 1923 Yundmindera was purchased along with Mount Celia Station with

670-439: A year is primarily sourced from wild stands of the remote rangelands and Goldfields region of Western Australia. The harvest of naturally occurring trees is reduced when compared to the industry of the 19th century. Exports of over 50 000 tonnes in the last decade were related to agricultural expansion by increased access and harvesters. According to the research and development corporation AgriFutures Australia in 2020,

737-420: Is also severe, and has resulted in a high proportion of plants and animals being included in the categories of rare, threatened and endangered species. In modern times many Aboriginal men were employed intermittently as rabbiters, and rabbit became an important part of Noongar diet in the early 20th century. The Noongar territory also happens to conform closely with the south-west Indian Ocean Drainage Region, and

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804-532: Is native to semi-arid areas in the Southwest. It has a similar distribution to quandong ( Santalum acuminatum ) and is a hemi-parasite requiring macronutrients from the roots of hosts. It has a shrubby to small tree habit, but can grow to 6 metres (20 ft) and is tolerant of drought and salt. The foliage is grey-green in colour. The fruit of S. spicatum is spherical, about 3 centimetres (1.2 in) in diameter, and orange in colour. An edible kernel with

871-524: Is now classified as the Noongar language is a member of the large Pama–Nyungan language family. Contemporary Noongar speak Australian Aboriginal English (a dialect of the English language) laced with Noongar words and occasionally inflected by its grammar. Most contemporary Noongar trace their ancestry to one or more of these groups. In the 2011 Australian census, 10,549 people identified as indigenous in

938-641: Is now considered a Noongar hero, by many to have been one of the first indigenous resistance fighters. Matters escalated with conflicts between the settlement of Thomas Peel and the Pindjarup people, resulting in the Pinjarra massacre . Similarly, struggles with Ballardong people in the Avon Valley continued until violently suppressed by Lieutenant Henry William St Pierre Bunbury . Notwithstanding this violence, extraordinary acts of goodwill existed. In

1005-625: The El Niño cycle. Success has been reported by placing the kernels in moist vermiculite in sealed plastic bags at room temperature. Once germinated, seeds should be planted next to a (preferably Australian native) seedling, and watered adequately. The main host species is Acacia acuminata , which is used in plantations, which sustains a 15- to 30-year, long-term host species in loamy sands over clay duplex soils. Rock sheaok Allocasuarina huegeliana , wodjil Acacia resinimarginea , and mulga Acacia aneura are also used. The oils produced by

1072-568: The Gibson Desert are found in the northern part of the region, with the Great Victoria Desert in the south east. The climate is mostly hot and dry. Annual rainfall is typically around 250 millimetres (10 in) per year and can be very variable, except in the small area near Esperance and Cape Arid National Park where reliable winter rainfall can give annual totals as high as 635 mm (25 inches) falling mainly in

1139-480: The Wheatbelt area was accelerated by the funds generated by sandalwood found there. Distribution and population of the endemic stands were significantly affected during periods of rural development and economic downturn. The state conservator of forests, Charles Lane-Poole , reported in the 1920s that the export value of the 331205 tons shipped from 1845 to date was £3,061,661; the primary use when imported to China

1206-599: The 2011 award for That Deadman Dance . Yirra Yaakin describes itself as the response to the Aboriginal community's need for positive self-enhancement through artistic expression. It is a theatre company that strives for community development and which also has the drive to create "exciting, authentic and culturally appropriate indigenous theatre". Many local governments in the southwest have developed "compacts" or "commitments" with their local Noongar communities to ensure that sites of significance are protected and that

1273-506: The Australian Government. Noongar The Noongar ( / ˈ n ʊ ŋ ɑːr / , also spelt Noongah , Nyungar / ˈ n j ʊ ŋ ɑːr / , Nyoongar , Nyoongah , Nyungah , Nyugah , and Yunga / ˈ j ʊ ŋ ɑː / ) are Aboriginal Australian people who live in the south-west corner of Western Australia , from Geraldton on the west coast to Esperance on the south coast. There are 14 different groups in

1340-712: The Goldfields and the Great Western Woodlands regions. Despite being protected and listed as a Vulnerable threatened species on the IUCN Red List., it is still being unsustainably harvested from the wild. It is listed as a vulnerable threatened species in South Australia, and there are calls to do the same at the National level and in WA. It is currently being assessed as a Threatened Species by

1407-444: The Noongar are largely urbanised or concentrated in major regional towns, studies have shown that the direct economic impact of the Noongar community on the WA economy was estimated to range between five and seven hundred million dollars per year. Exit polls of tourists leaving Western Australia have consistently shown that "lack of contact with indigenous culture" has been their greatest regret. It has been estimated that this results in

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1474-505: The Noongar but in many cases they are unable to receive appropriate government-agency care. The report that was produced after this gathering also stated that Noongar men have a life expectancy of 20 years less than non-Aboriginal men, and go to hospital three times more often. The Noongar still have large extended families and many families have difficulty accessing available structures of sheltered housing in Western Australia. The Western Australian government has dedicated several areas for

1541-689: The Noongar community constituted a united society which had continued to exist despite the disruption resulting from mixed marriage and people being forced off their land and dispersed to other areas as a result of white settlement and later Government policies. In April 2008 the Full Bench of the Federal Court upheld parts of the appeal by the Western Australian and Commonwealth governments against Justice Wilcox's judgment. Other native title claims on Noongar lands include: Since

1608-415: The Noongar cultural bloc: Amangu , Ballardong , Yued , Kaneang , Koreng , Mineng , Njakinjaki , Njunga , Pibelmen , Pindjarup , Wadandi , Whadjuk , Wiilman and Wudjari . The Noongar people refer to their land as Noongar boodja . The members of the collective Noongar cultural bloc descend from people who spoke several languages and dialects that were often mutually intelligible . What

1675-543: The Noongar language in the general curriculum have been made. In recent years there has been considerable interest in Noongar visual arts. In 2006, Noongar culture was showcased as part of the Perth International Arts Festival . A highlight of the Festival was the unveiling of the monumental "Ngallak Koort Boodja – Our Heart Land Canvas". The 8-metre (26 ft) canvas was commissioned for

1742-496: The Rottnest Island Deaths Group. The changes also removed rights of notification and appeal for traditional owners seeking to protect their heritage. A legal ruling on 1 April 2015 overturned the government's actions on some of the sites deregistered which were found to be truly sacred. Elders are increasingly asked on formal occasions to provide a " Welcome to Country ", and the first steps of teaching

1809-425: The WA sandalwood industry provides about 40 per cent of the international sandalwood oil market. Since 2015, for the first time Aboriginal Australians have been involved in the production of the oil. The Dutjahn custodians, representing the wider Martu community , who are connected to the land in the Gibson Desert where sandalwood is harvested, co-manage the company along with Kutkabbuba Aboriginal Corporation and

1876-701: The Western Australian Youth Orchestra. The Noongar people occupied and maintained the Mediterranean climate lands of the south-west ecoregion of Western Australia, and made sustainable use of seven biogeographic regions of their territory, namely: These seven regions have been acknowledged as a biodiversity hot-spot, having a generally greater number of endemic species than most other regions in Australia. The ecological damage done to this region through clearing, introduced species, by feral animals and non-endemic plants

1943-665: The area along the Great Australian Bight to the South Australian border known as the Nullarbor Plain . The Goldfields–Esperance region is the largest of Western Australia's regions, with an area of 955,276 km (368,834 sq mi). It is mostly a low and flat plateau of extremely ancient Precambrian rocks that have been stable since long before the Paleozoic Era. Because of

2010-457: The bush, or digging vegetables on what had been their own land. It quickly became a "place of torment, deprivation and death", and it has been estimated that there may be as many as 369 Aboriginal graves on the island, of which five were for prisoners who had been hanged. Except for a short period between 1849 and 1855, during which the prison was closed, some 3,700 Aboriginal men and boys, many of them Noongars, but also many others from all parts of

2077-426: The city at night. Goldfields%E2%80%93Esperance The Goldfields–Esperance region is one of the nine regions of Western Australia . It is located in the south-eastern corner of Western Australia , and comprises the local government areas of Coolgardie , Dundas , Esperance , Kalgoorlie–Boulder , Laverton , Leonora , Menzies , Ngaanyatjarraku , Ravensthorpe and Wiluna . It also incorporates

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2144-409: The complete range of everyday speaking situations, and the full resources of the language are available only to a few individuals. The Noongar peoples have six seasons whose time frame is defined by specific observable changes to the environment, with a dry period varying from as few as three to as many as eleven months. Tribes are spread over three different geological systems: the coastal plains,

2211-588: The culture is respected. At the same time, the Western Australian Barnett government, also from November 2014, had been forcing the Aboriginal Cultural Material Committee to deregister 300 Aboriginal sacred sites in Western Australia. Although falling most heavily upon Pilbara and Kimberley sites this government policy also was having an impact on Noongar lands according to Ira Hayward-Jackson, Chairman of

2278-451: The dense rooting systems of the native flora percolates to form extremely saline groundwater , which is very frequently too salty even for adult sheep. In the 1890s the goldfields term was used for country between Southern Cross and Coolgardie ; however, as the gold fields extended to Kalgoorlie and beyond, the term Eastern Goldfields was used for the locations in vicinity of Kalgoorlie at that stage. The Little Sandy Desert and

2345-475: The extreme geological stability and the absence of glaciation since the Carboniferous , the soils are extremely infertile and generally quite saline. Consequently, the region supports the lowest stocking rates in the world: it is considered that one sheep per square mile is the maximum sustainable rate except in the small wetter area near Esperance. There are no rivers; any rainfall that is not absorbed by

2412-498: The festival by representatives of the united elders and families from across the Noongar nation. It was painted by leading Noongar artists Shane Pickett , Tjyllyungoo , Yvonne Kickett, Alice Warrell and Sharyn Egan . October 2021 saw the opening of the first Noongar opera Koolbardi wer Wardong . Written by Gina Williams and Guy Ghouse, the opera was performed at His Majesty's Theatre by members of West Australian Opera , West Australian Young Voices, Noongar Children's Choir and

2479-475: The founders of WA Sandalwood Plantations. The harvesters stay at the tiny outstation of Mungilli , built in the early 1980s by Muntiljarra people. The company has a distillery in Kalgoorlie and markets the oil to some of the biggest names in the industry, such as Estee Lauder . The Dutjahn Sandalwood Oils company is 50 per cent owned by Indigenous Australians. Germination is difficult, and may depend on

2546-403: The goldfields were stocked with over 500,000 sheep and 25,000 cattle. Shearing the same year produced approximately 11,667 bales of wool valued at £243,600. Further south near Esperance , the economy is based on agriculture , with wheat , canola and barley widely grown and making up about 80% of the area's agricultural economy. These crops require huge inputs of fertilisers because of

2613-665: The home of up to one-third of the population. It is estimated that 10 to 25% of Noongar children were forcibly "adopted" during these years, in part of what has become known as the Stolen Generations . Noongar people live in many country towns throughout the south-west as well as in the major population centres of Perth , Mandurah , Bunbury , Geraldton , Albany and Esperance . Many country Noongar people have developed long-standing relationships with non-Noongar farmers and continue to hunt kangaroo and gather bush tucker (food) as well as teach their children stories about

2680-500: The interior of Australia instead of the adjacent oceans. The region has a population of just under 60,000 people, about half of whom live in the City of Kalgoorlie–Boulder . Another quarter live in the Shire of Esperance , and the remaining shires are very sparsely populated. Nearly 10% of the region's population are of Aboriginal descent, which is substantially higher than the state as

2747-574: The island, the Colonial Secretary announced in June 1839 that the island would become a penal establishment for Aboriginal people and was officially designated as such in 1841. From that time until 1903, when the indigenous section was closed, Rottnest Island was used as a prison to transfer Aboriginal prisoners "overseas". To "pacify" the Aboriginal population, men were rounded up and chained for offences ranging from spearing livestock, burning

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2814-723: The kodj. In Perth, the Noongar believe that the Darling Scarp is said to represent the body of a Wagyl , a snakelike Dreamtime creature that is a common deity in Noongar culture, that meandered over the land creating rivers, waterways, and lakes. It is thought that the Wagyl created the Swan River . The Wagyl has been associated with Wonambi naracoutensis , part of the extinct megafauna of Australia that disappeared between 15 and 50,000 years ago. Also in Perth, Mount Eliza

2881-520: The land. In a few areas in the south-west, visitors can go on bush tucker walks, trying foods such as kangaroo , emu , quandong jam or relish, bush tomatoes , witchetty grub pâté and bush honey. The buka is a traditional cloak of the Noongar people made of kangaroo skin. The kodj ( "to be hit on the head" ) or kodja is a Noongar hafted axe . Kojonup, Western Australia and The Kodja Place visitor centre, in Kojonup, are named after

2948-411: The location of the former Swan Brewery which has been a source of contention between local Noongar groups (who would like to see the land, which was reclaimed from the river in the late 19th century, "restored" to them) and the title-holders who wished to develop the site. A Noongar protest camp existed here for several years in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Noongar culture is particularly strong with

3015-540: The loss of many millions of dollars worth of foregone tourist revenue. As a consequence of the Stolen Generations and problems integrating with modern westernised society, many difficult issues face the present day Noongar. For example, the Noongar Men of the SouthWest gathering in 1996 identified major community problems associated with cultural dispossession such as: Many of these issues are not unique to

3082-602: The outcome of this appeal process. In the interim, the Noongar people together will continue to be involved in native title negotiations with the Government of Western Australia , and are represented by the South West Aboriginal Land and Sea Council . Justice Wilcox's judgment is noteworthy for several reasons. It highlights Perth's wealth of post-European settlement writings which provide an insight into Aboriginal life, including laws and customs, around

3149-532: The past 80 to 100 years, and most current plants 100 to 200 years old. This is partly because the current level of harvesting is too high (a government scientist has suggested it should be around 200 tonnes), and partly because of the impact of a number of over-lapping threats such as land clearing; fire; grazing by livestock (sheep and cattle), feral goats and camels, and native herbivores; loss of natural seed dispersers (Boodies and Woylies); and climate change, especially increasing drought and associated poor rainfall in

3216-409: The plateau, and the plateau margins; all areas are characterized by relatively infertile soil. The north is characterized by casuarina, acacia, and melaleuca thickets, and the south by mulga scrubland, but it also supports dense forest stands. Several rivers run to the coast, and lakes and wetlands provided the Noongar people with their distinctive food and vegetation resources. Generally, Noongar made

3283-639: The purpose of building communities specifically for the Noongar people, such as the (now closed) Swan Valley Noongar Community . The Noongar themselves are tackling their own issues; for example, the Noongar Patrol, which is an Aboriginal Advancement Council initiative. It was set up to deter Aboriginal young people from offending behaviour and reduce the likelihood of their contact with the criminal justice system. The patrol uses mediation and negotiation with indigenous youth in an attempt to curb anti-social and offending behaviour of young people who come into

3350-522: The same year, 1834, the Swan River Noongar couple, Migo and Molly Dobbin, alerted to the fact a European child had gone missing, covered 35 kilometres (22 mi) in 10 hours tracking his spoors , and saved him, at the point of death. From August 1838, ten Aboriginal prisoners were sent to Rottnest Island ( Nyungar : Wadjemup , possibly meaning "place across the water" ). After a short period when both settlers and prisoners occupied

3417-498: The south west agricultural zone, and pushed harvesting out into the arid and semi-arid interior. Millions of trees have been exported since the 1840s, pushing the species towards extinction in the wild. The Noongar peoples know the plant as uilarac , waang , wolgol , or wollgat , while the Martu people of the Gibson Desert call it dutjahn . It is one of four species of the family Santalaceae to occur in Western Australia, and

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3484-431: The south-west of Western Australia. By 2021, this number had increased to 14,355. The endonym of the Noongar comes from a word originally meaning "man" or "person". At the time of European settlement, it is believed that the peoples of what became the Noongar community spoke thirteen dialects, of which five still have speakers with some knowledge of their respective versions of the language. No speakers use it over

3551-433: The species. The marsupial species Bettongia penicillata , known as the woylie, is known to consume and cache the seeds of this species, and is thought to have played a significant role in its dispersal before their decline in the twentieth century. The harvest and export of S. spicatum has been an important part of the Western Australian economy, at one time forming more than half of the state's revenue. Settlement of

3618-679: The state, were imprisoned. A notable incident for the Noongar people in the Western Australian Colony was the arrival of Rosendo Salvado in 1846. Salvado was an advocate for the humane treatment of the Australian Aboriginals at the mission he created at New Norcia , in the territory of the Yued . He provided refuge for the Njunga and he defended many on charges of theft, arguing from church doctrine that theft

3685-475: The success of his three-week sojourn as due in good part to Noongar diplomacy, and Noongar rituals celebrated their reception of the newcomers in a ceremonial form. When settlement became more firmly established, however, misunderstandings over the obligations of reciprocity—some of the most productive land was being taken, especially on the Upper Swan—led to sporadic clashes. An example of such misunderstandings

3752-434: The time of settlement in 1829 and also into the beginning of the last century. These documents enabled Justice Wilcox to find that laws and customs governing land throughout the whole Single Noongar Claim (taking in Perth, and many other towns in the greater South West) were those of a single community. The claimants shared a language and had extensive interaction with others in the claim area. Importantly, Justice Wilcox found

3819-456: The tiny settlement at Mandurah for almost half a decade. In June 1832, a Whadjuk leader, Yagan , formerly of good standing among the settler authorities and known in the colony for his handsome bearing, "tall, slender, well-fashioned..of pleasing countenance", was, together with his father Midgegooroo and brother Monday, declared an outlaw after undertaking a series of food raids and a retaliatory murder. Caught and imprisoned, he escaped and

3886-539: The tree and the properties of its wood and nuts. Replanting has occurred at some properties as a land restoration strategy, a food crop and in the long term for harvest. Oil valued at A$ 1,000 per 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) is produced at Mount Romance in Albany, Western Australia . The area of commercial plantations rose from 7-square-kilometre (2.7 sq mi) to 70-square-kilometre (27 sq mi) between 2000 and 2006. The export of 2 000 tonnes of sandalwood

3953-579: The tree contain a great complexity of chemicals, many of which have antimicrobial qualities, and contains ximenynic acid . Scientists have warned for many years about the decline and over-harvesting of Australian sandalwood in the wild in Western Australia, with present harvesting and management under the WA Forest Products Commission allowing 2,500 tonnes to be harvested annually. Recent research has shown that wild populations have decreased dramatically, with no regeneration over

4020-462: The use of these water resources played a very important seasonal part in their culture. The Noongar thus have a close connection with the earth and, as a consequence, they divided the year into six distinct seasons that corresponded with moving to different habitats and feeding patterns based on seasonal foods. They are: On 19 September 2006 the Federal Court of Australia brought down

4087-581: The winter months. Most rainfall is produced by thunderstorms in spring or summer or by cloudbands from the northwest in autumn and winter, but sometimes cyclones from the Pilbara decay into rain depressions and produce heavy rainfall. Climate change has already had a major impact : in the Kalgoorlie – Eucla – Wiluna – Giles area annual rainfall has increased by over 40 percent since 1967 – probably due to lower frequencies of anticyclones located over

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4154-619: The written word. The plays of Jack Davis are on the school syllabus in several Australian states. Davis' first full-length play Kullark , a documentary on the history of Aboriginals in WA, was first produced in 1979. Other plays include: No Sugar, The Dreamers, Barungin: Smell the Wind, In Our Town and for younger audiences, Honey Spot and Moorli and the Leprechaun . Kim Scott won the 2000 Miles Franklin Award for his novel Benang and

4221-399: Was an important site for the Noongar. It was a hunting site where kangaroos were herded and driven over the edge to provide meat for gathering clans. In this context, the "clan" is a local descent group – larger than a family but based on family links through common ancestry. At the base of Mount Eliza is a sacred site where the Wagyl is said to have rested during its journeys. This site is also

4288-421: Was let alone, as though informally reprieved as a native version of William Wallace . His father was caught and killed without trial by a military firing squad. Yagan himself, with a bounty on his head, was ambushed soon afterwards by an 18-year-old settler youth, after he had stopped two settlers and asked for flour. His corpse was decapitated, and the head was sent to England for display in fairgrounds. Yagan

4355-607: Was not criminal if dictated by dire necessity. While intent on converting, he encouraged the Noongars to maintain their traditional culture. From 1890 to 1958, the lives and lifestyles of Noongar people were subject to the Native Welfare Act. By 1915, 15% of Perth's Noongar had been thrust north and interned at the Moore River Native Settlement . Carrolup (later known as Marribank ) became

4422-504: Was the Noongar land-management practice of setting fires in early summer, mistakenly seen as an act of hostility by the settlers. Conversely, the Noongar saw the settlers' livestock as fair game to replace the dwindling stocks of native animals shot indiscriminately by settlers. The only area that successfully resisted the usurpation of native land for any time was the area around the Murray River , which effectively blocked expansion of

4489-533: Was the manufacture of incense . However, Poole also notes the development of an oil extraction industry and use as an effective medical product. A much smaller, but economically significant, source was in the Quorn region of South Australia , reported in 1928. Research by the Forestry Products Commission (WA), state universities and private industry was undertaken into the cultivation of

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