107-624: Wageningen University & Research (also known as Wageningen UR ; abbreviation: WUR ) is a public research university in Wageningen, Netherlands , specializing in life sciences with a focus on agriculture, technical and engineering subjects. It is a globally important center for life sciences and agricultural research. It is located in a region of the Netherlands known as the Food Valley . WUR consists of Wageningen University and
214-714: A higher reputation domestically and globally . The University Grants Committee funds eight public universities in Hong Kong . The Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government . There are four self-financing universities, namely Hong Kong Metropolitan University , Hong Kong Shue Yan University , Hang Seng University of Hong Kong , and Saint Francis University . In India , most universities and nearly all research institutions are public. Some private undergraduate colleges exist but most are engineering schools that are affiliated with public universities. Private schools can be partially aided by
321-683: A university institute , and a distance university in Portugal . Higher education in Portugal provided by state-run institutions is not free; students must pay a tuition fee. However, the tuition fee is lower than that of private universities. The highest tuition fee allowed by law in public universities is €697 per year as of 2022. Public universities include some of the most selective and demanding higher learning institutions in Portugal. In Russia , about 7.5 million students study in thousands of universities. Founded in 1755, Moscow State University
428-501: A connection between Varroa destructor mite infestation and CCD, suggesting that a combination of these bee mites, deformed wing virus (which the mites transmit) and bacteria work together to suppress immunity and may be one cause of CCD. Parasites, such as varroa mites (Varroa destructor ), honey bee tracheal mites (Acarapis woodi) , fungal, bacterial and viral diseases, and kleptoparasites such as small hive beetles ( Aethina tumida ), are all problems that have been introduced within
535-544: A contagious condition may be a causal factor. About 60% of all colonies that were reported dead in this survey died without the presence of dead bees in the hive, thus possibly suffered from CCD. Between 2007 and 2013 after CCD was described in the US, annual winter colony losses doubled from 15% pre-CCD to 30%. Such loss rates fell to 24% from 2014 to 2017 and CCD symptoms were not as commonly associated with hive losses. While CCD has increased hive losses, honey bee colony numbers in
642-399: A dying colony) might suggest to an observer that a contagious disease is involved. However, in typical CCD cases, provisions of dying colonies are not robbed, suggesting that toxins do not spread via robbing, thereby mimicking a disease. Additional evidence that CCD is an infectious disease came from the following observations: the hives of colonies that had died from CCD could be reused with
749-539: A few private institutions of higher learning, such as the National College of Ireland . However, none of the private institutions have university status and are highly specialized. Almost all universities in Italy are public but have institutional autonomy by law. The Italian state provides the majority of university funding. Therefore, students pay relatively low tuition fees, set by each university according to
856-547: A fifth and a quarter. "There are still a lot of mysterious disappearances; we are no nearer to knowing what is causing them." The government's National Bee Unit continued to deny the existence of CCD in Britain; it attributes the heavy losses to the varroa mite and rainy summers that stop bees foraging for food. In 2010, David Aston of the British Beekeepers' Association stated, "We still do not believe CCD (which
963-455: A group of scientists announced that they were in the early stages of field testing a bacterium with specifically genetically modified plasmids that both suppressed infection with deformed wing virus but also effectively reduced Varroa mite survival. In 2004, Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV) was discovered in Israel and at one time it was considered the cause of CCD. It was named after
1070-1285: A handful of community colleges. In 2008, the Philippine Congress passed Republic Act 9500, declaring the University of the Philippines as the national university to distinguish it from all other state universities and colleges. Other notable public colleges and universities include the Polytechnic University of the Philippines , Technological University of the Philippines , Philippine Normal University , Batangas State University , and Mindanao State University . There are six autonomous public universities in Singapore , including National University of Singapore founded in 1905, Nanyang Technological University founded 1981, Singapore Management University founded in 2000, Singapore University of Technology and Design and Singapore Institute of Technology founded in 2009, and Singapore University of Social Sciences founded in 2017. In Sri Lanka , there are seventeen public universities. Most public universities are funded by
1177-653: A healthy colony only if they were first treated with DNA-destroying radiation, and the CCD Working Group report in 2010 indicated that CCD-exhibiting hives tended to occur in proximity to one another within apiaries. According to a 2007 article, the mite Varroa destructor remains the world's most destructive honey bee killer, due in part to the viruses it carries, including deformed wing virus and acute bee paralysis virus , which have both been implicated in CCD. Affliction with Varroa mites also tends to weaken
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#17327764574081284-542: A low-interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board; students must pay back the loan after completing their higher education. In Nigeria , both the federal and state governments may establish public universities. South Africa has 26 public universities which are members of Universities in South Africa. These are categorized as traditional or comprehensive universities. In Tunisia ,
1391-644: A national institution in 1926, the Academy of Athens is the highest research establishment in Greece. Private higher education institutions cannot operate in Greece and are not recognized as degree-awarding bodies by the Greek government. In Ireland , nearly all universities, institutes of technology, colleges, and some third-level institutions are public. The state pays the cost of educating undergraduates, although students must contribute approximately €3,000. There are
1498-555: A regular job can also enrol. In these cases a tailored timeline will be agreed upon. The program consists of a research component (conducting research under supervision and writing a thesis) and a smaller education component (30 ECTS or half a year of course load with conference presentations, and some management and teaching tasks can be listed as learning activity). The following research institutes are part of Wageningen Research: Wageningen University and Research has come under fire due to claims of partiality in research. One case regards
1605-606: A research concerning bee colony collapse disorder . Research conducted by Tjeerd Blacquière on the topic has caused controversy due to funding received for the research from the German pesticide producer Bayer , the world's biggest producer of neonicotinoid insecticides, a suspect factor for the colony collapse disorder. In 2018 the Dutch magazine OneWorld went to court in an attempt to demand access to contracts between WUR and Bayer, Syngenta and Monsanto , but OneWorld ultimately lost
1712-565: A significant association with CCD: the virus was found in 25 of the 30 tested CCD colonies, and only in one of the 21 tested non-CCD colonies. Research in 2009 has found that an indicator for an impaired protein production is common among all bees affected by CCD, a pattern consistent with IAPV infection. It is conjectured that Dicistroviridae , like the IAPV, cause degradation of the ribosomes , which are responsible for protein production of cells , and that this reduced ribosomal function weakens
1819-586: A soft fecal matter, half-filled rectums , rectal enteroliths (rectal stones), and Malpighian tubule iridescence . The defective rectum indicates nutritional disruption or water imbalance, whereas rectal enteroliths suggest a malfunction of excretory physiology which might further lead to constipation and poor osmoregulation in CCD bees. These traits express at various degrees across four bee age groups (newly emerged bees, nurse bees, non-pollen foragers, and pollen foragers) and were confirmed not to be associated with age. In addition, there are genetic indications in
1926-415: A total loss of 35.8%. Operations that pollinated almonds lost, on average, the same number of colonies as those that did not. The 37.9% of operations that reported having at least some of their colonies die with a complete lack of bees had a total loss of 40.8% of colonies compared to the 17.1% loss reported by beekeepers without this symptom. Large operations were more likely to have this symptom, suggesting
2033-582: A university, not a college, can issue doctorate degrees in Israel. In Japan , public universities are run by local governments, either prefectural or municipal. According to the Ministry of Education , public universities have "provided an opportunity for higher education in a region and served the central role of intellectual and cultural base for the local community in the region" and are "expected to contribute to social, economical and cultural development in
2140-539: A year and have to retake them, pay a partial or full tuition fee, ranging from €500 to €2000 per year. Private universities have existed in Serbia since 1989 but are held in less esteem because they are generally less academically rigorous than the public universities. Of the 74 universities in Spain , 54 are public and funded by the autonomous community in which they are based. University funding differs by region. However,
2247-416: Is a syndrome defined by a specific set of symptoms that was previously given many different names (among them "disappearing disease", "spring dwindle", "May disease", "autumn collapse", and "fall dwindle disease"). The cause of these historic collapses has never been determined, but CCD has been described as " death by a thousand cuts with the most obvious one being Varroa ". After it was recognized that
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#17327764574082354-448: Is a university or college that is owned by the state or receives significant funding from a government. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country (or region) to another, largely depending on the specific education landscape. In contrast a private university is usually owned and operated by a private corporation (not-for-profit or for profit). Both types are often regulated, but to varying degrees, by
2461-450: Is a four-year program during which PhD candidates are appointed as junior researcher in the universities, building up unemployment and retirement benefits. Such fully paid PhD candidates on a four-year contract can be asked to perform teaching tasks for a maximum of 10% of their time as part of their appointment. Candidates supported by specific grants (usually bestowed upon the candidate by an (international) organisation), or doing PhD next to
2568-789: Is a member of the Euroleague for Life Sciences (ELLS) university network. In 1876 the Rijkslandbouwschool (National Agricultural College) was established in Wageningen. Due to the development of the training to a higher educational level it changed in 1896 to the Hoogere Land- en Boschbouwschool (Agricultural and Forestry College) and in 1904 in Rijks Hoogere Land-, Tuin- en Boschbouwschool (National Agricultural, Horticulture and Forestry College). In 1918
2675-574: Is a public research university and the most prestigious university in Russia. Saint Petersburg State University is a state-owned university that was founded in 1724; it is managed by the government of the Russian Federation . In Serbia , over 85% of college students study at state-operated public universities. Academically well-performing students pay only administrative fees of less than €100 per year. Students who fail multiple classes in
2782-460: Is an abnormal phenomenon that occurs when the majority of worker bees in a honey bee colony disappear, leaving behind a queen , plenty of food, and a few nurse bees to care for the remaining immature bees. While such disappearances have occurred sporadically throughout the history of apiculture , and have been known by various names (including disappearing disease , spring dwindle , May disease , autumn collapse , and fall dwindle disease ),
2889-469: Is classified as CCD. A high rate of Nosema infection was reported in samples of bees from Pennsylvania, but this pattern was not reported from samples elsewhere. Hives of western honey bees infected with Nosema ceranae are wiped out within eight days indicating that CCD may be caused by N. ceranae . A research team claim to have ruled out many other potential causes, however, a 2009 survey of US CCD-affected bee populations found only about half of
2996-452: Is likely to reduce the ability of bees to cope with the others. A bee or bee colony that appears to have succumbed to a pathogen may not have died if it had not also been exposed to a sublethal dose of a pesticide and/or been subject to food stress (which might in turn be due to drought or heavy rain induced by climate change, or competition from a high density of honey bee hives placed nearby). Unfortunately, conducting well-replicated studies of
3103-484: Is now better defined) is a cause of colony losses in the UK, however we are continuing to experience colony losses, many if not most of which can be explained." He feels recent studies suggest "further evidence to the evolving picture that there are complex interactions taking place between a number of factors, pathogens, environmental, beekeeping practices and other stressors, which are causing honey bee losses described as CCD in
3210-533: The Mary Celeste syndrome in the United Kingdom). Losses had remained stable since the 1990s at 17–20% per year, attributable to a variety of factors, such as mites, diseases, and management stress. In the winter of 2004–2005, a spontaneous collapse occurred and was attributed to varroa mites (the "vampire mite" scare), though this was ultimately never confirmed. The first report classified as CCD
3317-458: The Isle of Wight to the rest of the UK in 1906. These losses were later attributed to a combination of factors, including adverse weather, intensive apiculture leading to inadequate forage, Acarine (tracheal) mites , and a new infection, the chronic bee paralysis virus, but during the outbreak, the cause of this agricultural beekeeping problem was unknown. Reports show similar behavior in hives in
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3424-541: The Korea National Open University which offers distance learning. The University of Seoul is a public municipal university. Manas University in Kyrgyzstan is a public higher education institution that offers associate degrees, undergraduate degrees, and graduate and postgraduate degrees. The University of Macau , Macao Polytechnic University , and Macao University of Tourism are
3531-526: The Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research controls public universities and guarantees admission to students who earn a Tunisian Baccalaureate . Using a state website, the students make a wish list of the universities they want to attend, with the highest-ranking students getting priority choices. Universities rank students according to the results of their baccalaureate. There are forty public universities in Bangladesh . They are overseen by
3638-805: The University Grants Commission which was created by the government in 1973. Most universities in Brunei are public. In the People's Republic of China , nearly all universities and research institutions are public. Typically, provincial governments run public universities. However, some are administered by municipal governments or are national , which the central government directly administers. Private undergraduate colleges exist but are primarily vocational colleges sponsored by private entities. Private universities usually cannot award bachelor's degrees. Public universities tend to enjoy
3745-722: The University of Mons in 2009. The state-created university founded in Antwerp in 1971 is now part of University of Antwerp . Hasselt University started as a state-created public institution managed by the Province of Limburg . Similarly, the Province of Luxembourg managed the state-created public university in Arlon which became part of ULiège in 2004. Since 1891, private universities have gradually become state-recognized and funded. Some private, mostly Catholic, organizations are called free institutions, as in administratively free from
3852-437: The constitution of Greece , higher education institutions (HEI) include universities, technical universities, and specialist institutions. HEI undergraduate programs are government-funded and do not charge tuition. A quarter of HEI postgraduate programs are tuition-free. After individual assessments, thirty percent of Greek students are entitled to attend any of the statutory postgraduate programs without tuition fees. Founded as
3959-519: The immune system of the bees. Dr. Ernesto Guzman, an entomological researcher at the University of Guelph in Canada, studied 413 Ontario bee colonies in 2007–08. The presence of Varroa mites within colonies before winter was observed to weaken the immune systems of bees and introduce viruses that led to colony death during the winter. About 27% of hives did not survive the winter, and the Varroa mite
4066-592: The 150 universities in Taiwan are public. Because the Taiwanese government provides funding to public universities, their students pay less than half the tuition fees of those at private universities. Ten public universities were established before the 1980s and are the most prestigious in Taiwan. As a result, most students choose public universities for their tertiary education. In the late 19th century Thailand , there
4173-424: The 1960s, for various reasons including urbanization, pesticide use, tracheal and Varroa mites, and commercial beekeepers retiring and going out of business. However, in late 2006 and early 2007, the rate of attrition was alleged to have reached new proportions, and people began to use the term colony collapse disorder to describe the sudden rash of disappearances (or sometimes spontaneous hive collapse or
4280-459: The 2018 Farm Bill, increased the monetary cap for the annual financial aid for emergency assistance from $ 20 million to $ 34 million. A survey by the University of Maryland and Auburn University published in 2023 found the number of United States honey bee colonies "remained relatively stable" although 48% of colonies were lost in the year that ended April 1, 2023, with a 12-year average annual mortality rate of 39.6%. The previous year (2021–2022)
4387-817: The Code de l'éducation states that " private higher education establishments can in no case take the title of university. " Nevertheless, many private institutions, such as the Catholic University of Lille or the Catholic University of Lyon , use the university as their marketing name. Most higher education institutions in Germany are public and operated by the states . All professors are public servants. Public universities are generally held in higher esteem than their private counterparts. From 1972 through 1998, public universities were tuition-free; however, some states have since adopted low tuition fees. According to
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4494-535: The Ministry of Education controls all public universities. Students enroll after completing a 8-4-4 educational program system and attaining a mark of C+ or above. Students who meet the criteria set annually by the Kenya Universities and Colleges Central Placement Service receive government sponsorship, with the government providing part of their university or college fees. Students are also eligible for
4601-679: The Punjab is the biggest public university, followed by University of Karachi . The public universities receive guidance and recognition from the Higher Education Commission . There are more than 500 public higher education institutions in the Philippines that are controlled and managed by the Commission on Higher Education . Of the 500, 436 are state colleges and universities, 31 local colleges and universities, and
4708-644: The Swiss Bee Research Centre in October 2009, as the first case of CCD outside of the United States. While the incident matched the criteria suggested by prior US hive surveys, analysis of laboratory tests for pathogens found a lack of differentiation in pathogen loads or co-infection levels between CCD and non-CCD hives. The case study further notes that the colonies did not have damaging levels of Varroa destructor or Nosema spp at
4815-541: The US have remained stable or grown since the identification of CCD. Throughout the year in 2017, NASS reported total US hives ranged between 2.63 and 2.99 million throughout the year for operations with more than five colonies, and 35–43 thousand hives for those with fewer than 5 colonies. In the same year, operations with more than 5 colonies lost 77.8 thousand hives (2.6–3.0%) with CCD symptoms and those with fewer than 5 colonies lost 6 thousand hives (14–17%) with CCD symptoms. As of 2022,
4922-505: The US in 1918 and 1919. Coined "mystery disease" by some, it eventually became more widely known as "disappearing disease". Oertel, in 1965, reported that hives afflicted with disappearing disease in Louisiana had plenty of honey in the combs, although few or no bees were present, discrediting reports that attributed the disappearances to lack of food. In the US, the number of colonies maintained by beekeepers had been in decline since
5029-504: The US over the winter of 2013–2014 than in recent years. Total losses of managed honey bee colonies from all causes were 23.2% nationwide, a marked improvement over the 30.5% loss reported for the winter of 2012–2013 and the eight-year average loss of 29.6%. After bee populations dropped 23% in the winter of 2013, the Environmental Protection Agency and Department of Agriculture formed a task force to address
5136-519: The US". Beekeepers in Scotland also reported losses from 2007 to 2009. Andrew Scarlett, a Perthshire-based bee farmer and honey packer, lost 80% of his 1,200 hives during the 2009–2010 winter. He attributed the losses to a virulent bacterial infection that quickly spread because of a lack of bee inspectors, coupled with sustained poor weather that prevented honey bees from building up sufficient pollen and nectar stores. In Germany, where some of
5243-535: The US, at least 24 different states had reported at least one case of CCD. In a 2007 survey of 384 responding beekeepers from 13 states, 23.8% met the specified criterion for CCD (that 50% or more of their dead colonies were found without bees and / or with very few dead bees in the hive or apiary). In 2006–2007, CCD-suffering operations had a total loss of 45% compared to the total loss of 25% of all colonies experienced by non-CCD suffering beekeepers. A 2007–2008 survey of over 19% of all US colonies revealed
5350-473: The United Nation’s FAO calculated that the worldwide number of honeybee colonies increased 47%, reaching 102 million. Colony collapse disorder could cause significant economic losses because many agricultural crops worldwide depend on pollination by western honey bees. According to FAO, the total value of global crops pollinated by honey bees was estimated at nearly US$ 200 billion in 2005. In
5457-619: The United States in February 2008, down from 4.5 million in 1980, and 5.9 million in 1947, though these numbers underestimate the total number of managed hives, as they exclude several thousand hives managed for pollination contracts only, and also do not include hives managed by beekeepers owning fewer than 5 hives. This under-representation may be offset by the practice of counting some hives more than once; hives that are moved to different states to produce honey are counted in each state's total and summed in total counts. In 2007 in
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#17327764574085564-416: The United States, shortages of bees have increased the cost to farmers renting them for pollination services by up to 20%. Declining numbers of bees predate CCD by several decades, however: the US managed hive industry has been shrinking at a steady pace since 1961. In contrast, the bee population worldwide has been increasing steadily since 1975, based on honey production, with China responsible for most of
5671-524: The bee population in the United Kingdom dropped by around 30% between 2007 and 2008, and an EFSA study revealed that in Italy the mortality rate was 40–50%. However, EFSA officials point out the figures are not very reliable because before the bees started dying, no harmonisation was used in the way different countries collected statistics on their bee populations. At that time (2008), the reports blamed
5778-549: The bees' immune systems and may leave them more susceptible to bee viruses. A 2015 review examined 170 studies on colony collapse disorder and stressors for bees, including pathogens , agrochemicals , declining biodiversity , climate change and more. The review concluded that "a strong argument can be made that it is the interaction among parasites, pesticides, and diet that lies at the heart of current bee health problems." Furthermore: Bees of all species are likely to encounter multiple stressors during their lives, and each
5885-436: The bees, making them more vulnerable to factors that might not otherwise be lethal. Some have suggested the syndrome may be an inability by beekeepers to correctly identify known diseases such as European foulbrood or the microsporidian fungus Nosema apis . The testing and diagnosis of samples from affected colonies (already performed) makes this highly unlikely, as the symptoms are fairly well known and differ from what
5992-705: The campus and in the city of Wageningen. Wageningen University was the first Dutch university or school that was allowed to use the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) label. This label is awarded by the European Commission and guarantees the quality of the study program. The university consequently applies this system, thus promoting the mobility of students within Europe and preventing study delay. The university offers 19 BSc programs (2018–2019). For some BSc programs,
6099-447: The central government establishes homogeneous tuition fees for all public universities which are much lower than those of their private counterparts. The highest tuition fee allowed by law was, as of 2010, €14.97 per academic credit, amounting to roughly €900 a year for an average 60-credit full-time course. Tuition fees at private universities might reach €18,000 a year. Colony collapse disorder Colony collapse disorder ( CCD )
6206-512: The collaboration remained problematic. In 2012 it was decided that Van Hall Larenstein would leave Wageningen UR and continue as an independent school once more. In the spring of 2015 the separation was marked by the move of the final Wageningen-based Van Hall Larenstein studies back to Velp . In 2009 it was decided that the university would consistently use the English name in its communication, and that university research could be presented under
6313-721: The colonies sampled, both in CCD and control populations, were infected with N. ceranae . The primary antifungal agent used against Nosema is fumagillin , which has been used in a German research project to reduce the microsporidian's impact, and is mentioned as a possible remedy by the CCDWG. Higes also claims to have successfully cured colonies with fumagillin. A review of these results described these results as promising, but cautioned " N. ceranae may not be to blame for all cases of colony collapse". Various areas in Europe have reported this fungus, but no direct link to CCD has yet been established. In 2007, N. ceranae
6420-401: The country. CCD is not the same as colony decline that can be caused by various issues such as queen health, varroa mite infestation, nutrition, and various diseases. In collapsed colonies, CCD is suspected when it is observed that few adult bees are physically present in the colony. Unlike with other acute causes of die-off such as pesticide exposure, few if any dead bees are found in or near
6527-873: The court case. In the field of life sciences, agricultural and environmental science, the university is considered world-class. According to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings it is the best university in the Netherlands and No. 1 worldwide, in agriculture and forestry for 2017 on the QS World University Rankings charts. [REDACTED] Media related to Wageningen University at Wikimedia Commons 51°58′01.52″N 5°39′30.97″E / 51.9670889°N 5.6586028°E / 51.9670889; 5.6586028 Public university A public university or public college
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#17327764574086634-427: The effects of multiple interacting stressors on bee colonies is exceedingly difficult. The number of stressor combinations rapidly becomes large, and exposure to stressors is hard or impossible to control with free-flying bees. Nonetheless, a strong argument can be made that it is the interaction among parasites, pesticides, and diet that lies at the heart of current bee health problems. Early researchers commented that
6741-1007: The fee was €1,951 in 2015. Non-European Union students and students who want to complete a second bachelor's or master's degree pay a legal school fee. Annually, these legal school fees range between €7,000 for bachelor programs and €30,000 for master's programs in medicine. The Ministry of Education supervises all universities, including private institutions. Almost all universities in Norway are public and state-funded. In Poland , public universities are established by Acts of Parliament. The government pays all tuition fees and other costs of public university students. In contrast, private citizens, societies, or companies operate private universities that charge tuition fees directly to students. These institutions are generally held in lower regard than public universities. A small number of private universities do not charge fees, such as John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin . There are thirteen public universities,
6848-519: The first reports of CCD in Europe appeared, and where, according to the German national association of beekeepers, 40% of the honey bee colonies died, there was no scientific confirmation. In early May 2007, the German media reported no confirmed CCD cases seemed to have occurred in Germany. A case study published in 2012 examined and identified a colony loss incident in Switzerland, surveyed by
6955-596: The former agricultural research institutes of the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture . Wageningen University, as a research university, grants degrees at the BSc, MSc and PhD level in life and social sciences. It focuses its research on scientific, social and commercial problems in the field of life sciences and natural resources. It is widely known for its agriculture, forestry, and environmental studies programs. The university has about 12,000 students from over 100 countries. It
7062-526: The government through the University Grants Commission , which handles undergraduate placements and staff appointments. The top institutions include the University of Peradeniya founded in 1942 and the University of Colombo founded in 1921. Sri Lanka also has a joint service military university, the General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University , which is operated by the Ministry of Defence . One-third of
7169-683: The government. In Egypt, Al-Azhar University was founded in 970 AD as a madrasa ; it formally became a public university in 1961 and is one of the oldest institutions of higher education in the world. In the 20th century, Egypt opened many other public universities with government-subsidized tuition fees, including Cairo University in 1908, Alexandria University in 1912, Assiut University in 1928, Ain Shams University in 1957, Helwan University in 1959, Beni-Suef University in 1963, Zagazig University in 1974, Benha University in 1976, and Suez Canal University in 1989. In Kenya ,
7276-595: The growth. The period of time with the lowest growth in worldwide honey production was between 1991 and 1999, due to the economic collapse after the dissolution of communism in the former Soviet sphere of influence. As of 2020 , the production has increased further by 50% compared to 2000, double the rate of growth in previous decades, notwithstanding CCD. Experts estimate that there are currently more honey bees alive worldwide than at any other point in human history. Several possible causes for CCD have been proposed, but no single proposal has gained widespread acceptance among
7383-439: The gut that suggest the susceptibility of honey bees to CCD. Sixty-five different RNA transcripts have been determined as potential signs for CCD status. Genetic expression of these transcripts were either upregulated or downregulated depending on genes when comparing them to healthy bees. The abundance of unusual ribosomal RNA (rRNA) fragments containing poly(A) -rich 3′ tails was detected via microarray analysis and qPCR in
7490-476: The guts of CCD bees. This evidence suggests that these poly(A)-rRNA sequences play the role of degradation intermediates to help in protein folding and enzymatic activity of rRNA. Furthermore, the presence of deformed wing virus and Israeli acute paralysis virus as well as the expression of poly(A)-rRNA are genetic indications for the appearance of CCD. The National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) reported 2.44 million honey-producing hives were in
7597-502: The high death rate on the varroa mite, two seasons of unusually wet European summers, and some pesticides. In 2009, Tim Lovett, president of the British Beekeepers' Association, said: "Anecdotally, it is hugely variable. There are reports of some beekeepers losing almost a third of their hives and others losing none." John Chapple, chairman of the London Beekeepers' Association, put losses among his 150 members at between
7704-466: The hive, as if the hive had simply been abandoned. A colony that has collapsed from CCD is generally characterized by all of these conditions occurring simultaneously: Precursor symptoms that may arise before the final colony collapse include: Before any symptomatic manifestation of colony collapse disorder, various physio-pathological traits may serve as biomarkers for colony health as well as predict CCD status. Bees of collapsing colonies tend to have
7811-567: The interaction of many agents in combination. The same year, the CCD Working Group published a comprehensive descriptive study that concluded: "Of the 61 variables quantified (including adult bee physiology, pathogen loads, and pesticide levels), no single factor was found with enough consistency to suggest one causal agent. Bees in CCD colonies had higher pathogen loads and were co-infected with more pathogens than control populations, suggesting either greater pathogen exposure or reduced defenses in CCD bees." The second annual Steering Committee report
7918-528: The issue unresolved. In July 2007, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) released a CCD Action Plan , which outlined a strategy for addressing CCD consisting of four main components: survey and data collection; analysis of samples; hypothesis-driven research; mitigation and preventive action. The first annual report of the U.S. Colony Collapse Disorder Steering Committee was published in 2009. It suggested CCD may be caused by
8025-599: The issue. Since 2014, Congress has substantially subsidized the pollinator industry through the 2014 Farm Bill . The 2014 Farm Bill has allowed for up to $ 20 million worth of subsidies every fiscal year to be put toward conservation of honeybees, livestock, and farm-raised fish that suffer losses due to disease, weather events, or adverse conditions. In 2017, Congress implemented additional funding to protect bees from agricultural pesticide spray and dust applications while they are under contract to provide pollination services. The Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018 , also known as
8132-494: The language of instruction is English. Other programs teach in both Dutch and English. The programs start each year in September, last three years, and consist of 180 ECTS credits. The programs are in the field of economy and society, health, life sciences and technology, nature and environment, animals and plants. Wageningen University offers 36 different MSc programs (2017–2018) and two online masters programs. Although formally
8239-445: The last 20 years in the continental U.S., and are faced by beekeepers. When a colony is dying, for whatever cause, and other healthy colonies are nearby (as is typical in a bee yard ), those healthy colonies often enter the dying colony and rob its provisions for their own use. If the dying colony's provisions were contaminated (by natural or man-made toxins), the resulting pattern (of healthy colonies becoming sick when in proximity to
8346-679: The legislation of the national government until higher education was moved to the control of the three communities in 1990. Consequently, the Flemish , the French , and the German communities determine which institutes of higher education organize and issue diplomas. Until the 1970s, Belgium had two state universities: the University of Liège (ULiège) and the Ghent University (UGent), both founded in 1817. These are often referred to as
8453-539: The loss was 39% and the 2020–2021 loss was 50.8%. Beekeepers told the surveying scientists that 21% loss over the winter is acceptable and more than three-fifths of beekeepers surveyed said their losses were higher than in 2022–2023. In 2024, the United States Census of Agriculture reported an all-time high in commercial honey bee hives (mostly in Texas), making them the fastest-growing livestock segment in
8560-544: The mid-Atlantic and Pacific Northwest regions also reported significant losses of more than 50%. Colony losses were also reported in five Canadian provinces, several European countries, and countries in South and Central America and Asia. In 2010, the United States Department of Agriculture reported that data on overall honey bee losses for 2010 indicated an estimated 34% loss, which is statistically similar to losses reported in 2007, 2008, and 2009. Fewer colony losses occurred in
8667-403: The name of the university: Wageningen University (WU) , or under of the name Wageningen University and Research (WUR). On 6 September 2016 Wageningen University and the research institutes became one joint brand: Wageningen University & Research ( WUR ). On 9 March 2018 Wageningen University celebrated her 100 years anniversary. During this year there were many events and festivities around
8774-542: The national or state governments. India also has an "open" public university, the Indira Gandhi National Open University which offers distance education. In terms of the number of enrolled students, it is now the largest university in the world with over four million students. In Indonesia , the government supports public universities in each province. Funding comes through the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology and
8881-738: The number of colonies had reached an all-time high of 3.8 million, rising by 31% since 2007, according to the National Agricultural Statistics Service , largely due to the growth of small producers in Texas. According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), in 2007, the United Kingdom had 274,000 hives, Italy had 1,091,630, and France 1,283,810. In 2008, the British Beekeepers Association reported
8988-556: The pathway of propagation functions in the manner of a contagious disease ; however, some sentiment existed that the disorder may involve an immunosuppressive mechanism, potentially linked to "stress" leading to a weakened immune system. Specifically, according to research done in 2007 at the Pennsylvania State University: "The magnitude of detected infectious agents in the adult bees suggests some type of immunosuppression". These researchers initially suggested
9095-436: The phoretic stage, Varroa prefer to attach to nurse bees as this results in higher fitness leading into the reproductive stage. The mites then feed on larvae during their reproductive stage and increased fitness leads to an increase in mite fecundity (number of female offspring). Due to Varroa ' s ability to feed on all types of honey bees, they are one of the biggest threats to colonies, especially over winter. In 2020
9202-418: The place it was first identified; its place of origin is unknown. In September 2007, results of a large-scale statistical RNA sequencing study of afflicted and unafflicted colonies were reported. RNA from all organisms in a colony was sequenced and compared with sequence databases to detect the presence of pathogens. All colonies were found to be infected with numerous pathogens, but only the IAPV virus showed
9309-468: The provincial and municipal governments. Some of the public universities in Iran offer tuition-free and tuition-based programs. State-run universities are highly selective and competitive. There are nine official universities in Israel , a few dozen colleges, and about a dozen foreign university extensions. The Council for Higher Education in Israel supervises all of these institutions academically. Only
9416-706: The public universities in Macau . There are twenty public universities in Malaysia , funded by the government but governed as self-managed institutions. Tribhuvan University was the first public university in Nepal . It operates through six different institutes and is affiliated with various colleges. There are government-funded Purbanchal University and Pokhara University . There are 107 public universities in Pakistan , compared to 76 private universities. University of
9523-824: The region". This contrasts with the research-oriented aspects of national universities. In 2010, 127,872 students were attending 95 public universities, compared to 86 national universities and 597 private universities in Japan. Many public universities are relatively new; in 1980, there were only 34 public universities in Japan. Since July 2003, public universities may incorporate under the Local Independent Administrative Institutions Law. In South Korea , most public universities are national. There are 29 national universities, eighteen special universities, and ten educational universities. In addition, there are two national colleges and
9630-778: The same MSc program, from 2022 onwards the Master of Management Economic and Consumer studies program was offered as 5 independent MSc tracks (Sustainable Business Innovations, Sustainable Supply Chain Analytics, Consumer Studies, Economics of Sustainability, Governance of Sustainability Transformations). The language of instruction for all Master's programs is English. The programs start each year in September, they last two years, and consist of 120 ECTS credits. Most programs offer various specializations and possibilities for majors, as well as full or partial premaster tracks for candidates not fulfilling all entry requirements. The regular PhD program
9737-685: The same for all public universities. Except for some fields of study, notably medicine, all Austrians who pass the Matura exam have the right to attend any public university. Overenrolled degree programs have introduced additional entrance exams that students must pass in the first year or before starting the degree, especially with scientific subjects such as biology, chemistry, and physics. Private universities have existed since 1999 but are considered easier than public universities and thus hold less esteem. All public universities in Belgium were operated under
9844-580: The school became academic by law (Academic Education Act). The name changed to Rijks Landbouw Hoogeschool (National Agricultural College). The opening date and official start date is 9 March 1918. In 1986 the research oriented "hogescholen" (comparable to scientific institute of technology or business schools) were renamed to University in a modification of the Academic Education Act. The new name became Landbouwuniversiteit Wageningen (LUW) (Wageningen Agricultural University (WAU)). Over
9951-532: The scientific community. Suggested causes include pesticides , infections with various pathogens , especially those transmitted by Varroa and Acarapis mites , malnutrition , genetic factors , immunodeficiencies , loss of habitat , or changing beekeeping practices, including a combination of these factors. A large amount of speculation has surrounded the contributions of the neonicotinoid family of pesticides to CCD, but many collapsing apiaries show no trace of neonicotinoids. Colony collapse disorder
10058-1098: The state despite being state-funded. As of 2022, the communities fund all recognized universities, public and private, which follow the same rules and laws. The state runs most public universities in Croatia . Students who perform well academically pay only administrative fees which are less than €100 per year. Students who fail multiple classes in a year must retake the courses and pay a partial or full tuition fee. Almost all universities in Denmark are public and are held in higher esteem than their private counterparts. Danish students attend university for free. All universities in Finland are public and free of charge. Most universities and grandes écoles in France are public and charge very low tuition fees—less than €1000 per year. Major exceptions are semi-private grandes écoles such as HEC , EMLyon or INSEAD . Article L731-14 of
10165-494: The student's family wealth, the course of study, and exam performance. A few scholarships are available for the best low-income students at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. However, for research, private funding ranges from low to non-existent, compared to most European countries. The Netherlands Ministry of Education funds most public universities. Dutch citizens and those from European Union countries pay an annual tuition fee for their first bachelor's or master's degree;
10272-473: The syndrome does not seem to be seasonally restricted and that it may not be a "disease" in the standard sense—there may not be one specific causative agent or pathogenesis —the syndrome was renamed in 2007. Limited occurrences resembling CCD were documented as early as 1869. Colony collapses were called "May Disease" in Colorado in 1891 and 1896. A well-documented outbreak of colony losses spread from
10379-720: The syndrome was renamed colony collapse disorder in early 2007 in conjunction with a drastic rise in reports of disappearances of western honey bee ( Apis mellifera ) colonies in North America. Beekeepers in most European countries had observed a similar phenomenon since 1998, especially in Southern and Western Europe; the Northern Ireland Assembly received reports of a decline greater than 50%. The phenomenon became more global when it affected some Asian and African countries as well. From 1990 to 2021,
10486-706: The time of collapse but emphasized that pathogens could not be ruled out as playing a role. At the end of May 2012, the Swiss government reported about half of the bee population had not survived the winter. The main cause of the decline was thought to be the parasite Varroa destructor . In China, a three-year survey from 2010 to 2013 (using COLOSS questionnaires) showed colony losses of 10.1% on average. Comb renewal and queen problems were identified as significant risk factors. The mechanisms of CCD are still unknown, but many causes are currently being considered, such as pesticides , mites , fungi, beekeeping practices (such as
10593-562: The two historic state universities. In 1965, small specialized single-faculty public institutions were recognized as universities, including the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and the Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech ; both are now part of the University of Liège . The Belgian state created smaller public universities that have since merged with larger institutions, including the public university at Mons in 1965 which became part of
10700-513: The university and the institutes had to remain separate legal entities. In 2006, the university of applied sciences Van Hall Larenstein became part of Wageningen UR. The idea was to create better collaboration between applied teaching and research at Van Hall and the academic research at Wageningen University. This would also support students to continue with an academic program upon completing their applied degree. However, due to differences in organizational culture and incompatibility of procedures,
10807-558: The use of antibiotics or long-distance transportation of beehives), malnutrition, poor quality queens, starvation, other pathogens , and immunodeficiencies . The current scientific consensus is that no single factor is causing CCD, but that some of these factors in combination may lead to CCD either additively or synergistically. In 2006, the Colony Collapse Disorder Working Group (CCDWG), based primarily at Pennsylvania State University ,
10914-491: The years the research and teaching branched out into life sciences in general, while interest for agriculture as a career opportunity waned. In 1997, when the DLO institutes (Dienst Landbouwkundig Onderzoek / Service of agricultural research) merged with the university, the new organisation was rebranded as Wageningen UR (Wageningen University and Research Centre); with the university being renamed Wageningen University. Under Dutch laws
11021-630: Was a high demand for professional talent by the central government. In 1899, the King founded the School for Training of Civil Officials near the northern gate of the royal palace. Graduates from the school became royal pages, a traditional entrance into the Mahattai Ministry or other government ministries. As of 2019, Thailand has nineteen public universities. In Austria , most universities are public. The state regulates tuition fees, making costs
11128-598: Was established. Their preliminary report pointed out some patterns, but drew no strong conclusions. A survey of beekeepers early in 2007 indicated most hobbyist beekeepers believed that starvation was the leading cause of death in their colonies, while commercial beekeepers overwhelmingly believed invertebrate pests ( Varroa mites, honey bee tracheal mites, and/or small hive beetles) were the leading cause of colony mortality. A scholarly review in June 2007 similarly addressed numerous theories and possible contributing factor, but left
11235-530: Was identified as the cause in 85% of the cases. Varroa mites also affect the queen's ability to reproduce, which is detrimental to the survival of the hive. As such, Varroa mites have been considered as a possible cause of CCD, though not all dying colonies contain these mites. Varroa destructor is a parasitic mite that colonizes beehives and preys on honey bees by consuming their hemolymph. Varroa mites parasitize all types of honey bees (workers, nurse bees, larvae) depending on their life cycle stage. During
11342-677: Was in mid-November 2006 by a Pennsylvania beekeeper overwintering in Florida. By February 2007, large commercial migratory beekeepers wintering in California, Florida, Oklahoma, and Texas had reported heavy losses associated with CCD. Their reports of losses varied widely, ranging from 30% to 90% of their bee colonies; in some cases, beekeepers reported losses of nearly all of their colonies, with surviving colonies so weakened that they might no longer be able to pollinate or produce honey. In late February 2007, some larger non-migratory beekeepers in
11449-797: Was released in November 2010. The group reported that although many associations—including pesticides, parasites, and pathogens—had been identified throughout the course of research, "it is becoming increasingly clear that no single factor alone is responsible for [CCD]". Their findings indicated an absence of damaging levels of the parasite Nosema or parasitic Varroa mites at the time of collapse. They did find an association of sublethal effects of some pesticides with CCD, including two common miticides in particular, coumaphos and fluvalinate, which are pesticides registered for use by beekeepers to control varroa mites. Studies also identified sublethal effects of neonicotinoids and fungicides, pesticides that may impair
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