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110-517: Nevertheless, the coalition remained at least theoretically important as the parties most supportive of republican government in Germany, and continued to act in coalition in the government of the Free State of Prussia (by far Germany's largest constituent state both by population and by area) and other states until as late as 1932. In the second round of voting in the 1925 presidential election ,

220-572: A referendum was to be held there. The former Imperial Territory of Alsace–Lorraine , which had been effectively under Prussian administration, was ceded to France without a vote. The annexation of the Free State of Waldeck-Pyrmont was the one Prussian territorial addition during the Weimar Republic. The Pyrmont district made the first step after a referendum in 1921. The rest of the state followed in 1929. The loss of territory had considerable negative economic and financial consequences for

330-683: A base from which diehard rebels would carry on a revanchist war against the United States and create an obstacle protecting Maximilian's empire against invasion by U.S. forces". The annexation of the Crimean peninsula by the Russian Federation in April 2014, together with accusations by Western and Ukrainian leaders that Russia is supporting separatist actions by ethnic Russians in the secessionist Donbas region, has been cited by

440-514: A basis for their efforts to transform Turkey's existing parliamentary system into a presidential system , favouring a strong centralised leadership similar to that of the Ottoman era. Critics have thus accused Erdoğan of acting like an "Ottoman sultan ". The rise in Ottomanism has also been accompanied by claims to territories held by Armenia , with prominent examples including in 2015,

550-400: A business managed by a self-employed member of their family such as an independent farmer or shop owner and who receive at most pocket money instead of a salary), and 4.5% were domestic workers. The unemployment rate in 1925 was 6%. The proportions varied depending on the predominant economic sector of the individual provinces. In more rural East Prussia, the number of contributing family members

660-694: A central tax administration. The Reich had fiscal sovereignty and distributed revenues to the states. Along with the military and railroads, waterways and a large part of social administration became the responsibility of the Reich. Although 61% of the Reich's population lived in Prussia in 1925, it had only two-fifths of the votes in the Reichsrat , the Reich-level equivalent of the State Council. In

770-459: A contentious and complex issue in the broader context of regional geopolitics and international relations. In the 1920s and 1930s, Poland was trying to reclaim ethnic Polish lands that had been seized by German, Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires: Poland counted herself among the revisionist powers, with dreams of a southward advance, even a Polish presence on the Black Sea . The victim of

880-556: A crowd of Turkish youth rallying in Armenian populated districts of Istanbul chanted "We must turn these districts into Armenian and Kurdish cemeteries." In September 2015, a 'Welcome' sign was installed in Iğdır and written in four languages, Turkish, Kurdish, English, and Armenian. The Armenian portion of the sign was protested by the "Fight against Armenian groundless allegations” alliance (ASIMDER) who demanded its removal. In October 2015,

990-594: A departure from the empire's Federal Council , and in contrast to the other states, only half of the members of the Reichsrat to which Prussia was entitled were appointed by the Prussian government. The remaining members were elected by the provincial parliaments. Between 1921 and 1925 the administration of state-owned enterprises was moved away from the direct responsibility of the Ministry of Trade and Industry on

1100-465: A factor. The large population movements within Prussia slowed. In contrast to the period before 1914, more people were moving into Prussia from foreign countries than were emigrating. In-migration from ceded territories along with increasing immigration, especially from eastern Europe, both played a role. There were also major differences in population density across Prussia. In 1925 East Prussia had an average of 60.9 inhabitants per square kilometer, while

1210-691: A few cities and in areas that were more rural and Protestant, especially east of the Elbe River . In East Prussia the DNVP received over 30% of the vote in the 1928 federal election for the Reichstag. The Centre was strong in Catholic areas such as Silesia, the Rhineland and Westphalia. The left-wing parties were important in large cities and heavily commercial non-Catholic areas. In Berlin, for example,

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1320-547: A letter to the Cardinal of Cologne Felix von Hartmann , Minister President Hirsch assured him that Hoffmann's provisions for ending clerical supervision of schools had been illegal because they had not been voted on in the cabinet. More strongly than any other government measures, Hoffmann's socialist cultural policies turned large segments of the population against the revolution. The Christmas Eve fighting in Berlin between

1430-647: A number of prominent media outlets in the West as evidence of a revanchist policy on the part of the Kremlin and Russian President Vladimir Putin . The invasion of Ukraine in 2022 has the same origins. Some Russian nationalists consider Alaska to be Russian territory that must be returned. Alaska was legally sold to the United States by Russia in 1867. Argentina considers the British-controlled Falkland Islands to be part of

1540-459: A province. The Hohenzollern Lands in southern Germany were a unique type of administrative district ( Regierungsbezirk ) that was not a true province but that had almost all the rights of one. The provinces were headed by governors ( Oberpräsidenten ) appointed by the Ministry of State. There was in addition a provincial council consisting of the governor, a member appointed by the Minister of

1650-408: A provincial committee from its own ranks to manage day-to-day business. The provincial parliaments sent representatives to the national-level Reichsrat and the corresponding Prussian State Council ( Staatsrat ). Below the provincial level there were (as of 1933) 34 administrative districts; some provinces, including Posen-West Prussia, Upper Silesia, Schleswig-Holstein and also Berlin, had just

1760-418: A single administrative district. A total of 361 districts (called Kreise or Landkreise ) formed the basis of state administration in rural areas and small towns. Larger cities generally formed urban districts ( Stadtkreise ), of which there were a total of 116. While there were only five urban districts in agrarian East Prussia, there were 21 in industrial Westphalia. See also: Constitution of

1870-428: Is often motivated by economic or geopolitical factors. Extreme revanchist ideologues often represent a hawkish stance, suggesting that their desired objectives can be achieved through the positive outcome of another war. It is linked with irredentism , the conception that a part of the cultural and ethnic nation remains "unredeemed" outside the borders of its appropriate nation-state . Revanchist politics often rely on

1980-578: Is the political manifestation of the will to reverse the territorial losses which are incurred by a country, frequently after a war or after a social movement . As a term, revanchism originated in 1870s France in the aftermath of the Franco-Prussian War among nationalists who wanted to avenge the French defeat and reclaim the lost territories of Alsace-Lorraine . Revanchism draws its strength from patriotic and retributionist thought and

2090-775: The Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CSU) which together formed the centre-right Union ) and the DD' and DVP's joint de facto successor ( Free Democratic Party ) formed the main political basis of the democratic Bundestag of West Germany . During the era of the German Empire , before the German Revolution of 1918–1919 , politicians of the Centre Party and Social Democratic Party as well as

2200-640: The Decree No. 117/2021 approving the "strategy of de-occupation and reintegration of the temporarily occupied territory of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea and the city of Sevastopol ", complementing the activities of the Crimean Platform . On 10 May 2022, Ukrainian Foreign Minister Dmytro Kuleba said that "In the first months" of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine "the victory for us looked like withdrawal of Russian forces to

2310-594: The Independent SPD (USPD), a more leftist and anti-war group that had broken away from the original united SPD in 1917, and to enter into an alliance with the council movement, a form of council communism . On 12 November 1918 commissioners from the Workers' and Soldiers' Councils of Greater Berlin, including Paul Hirsch, Otto Braun (MSPD) and Adolph Hoffmann (USPD), appeared before the last Deputy Minister President of Prussia, Robert Friedberg. They declared

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2420-573: The Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), Saddam claimed that Iraq had the right to hold sovereignty to the east bank of the Shatt al-Arab river held by Iran . The Iraqi government, echoing claims made by Iraqi nationalists for years, justified the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 by claiming that Kuwait had always been an integral part of Iraq and only became an independent nation due to the interference of

2530-525: The March 1933 Reichstag elections , the NSDAP had above-average strength in constituencies such as East Prussia (56.5%), Frankfurt an der Oder (55.2%), Liegnitz (54%) and Schleswig-Holstein (53.2%), but was significantly weaker in Berlin (31.3%), Westphalia (34.3%) and the Rhineland (34.1%) than the Reich average (43.9%). Revanchism Revanchism ( French : revanchisme , from revanche , " revenge ")

2640-744: The Nazi Party seized power in 1933, even though a Prussian government under Hermann Göring continued to function formally until 1945. After the end of the Second World War , by decree of the Allied Control Council , the de jure abolition of Prussia occurred on 25 February 1947. On 9 November 1918, in the early days of the Revolution of 1918–1919 that brought down the German monarchy , Prince Maximilian von Baden ,

2750-565: The People's Navy Division and units of the German army led to the withdrawal of the USPD from the government in both Prussia and at the Reich level. The dismissal of Emil Eichhorn (USPD) as Berlin's police chief triggered the failed Spartacist Uprising of 5 – 12 January 1919 that attempted to turn the direction of the revolution towards the founding a communist state. Prussia's continued existence

2860-827: The Reichstag . Ebert then charged Paul Hirsch , the MSPD's party leader in the Prussian House of Representatives , with maintaining peace and order in Prussia. The last Minister of the Interior of the Kingdom of Prussia, Bill Drews , legitimized the transfer of de facto governmental power to Hirsch. On 10 November Ebert found himself forced to form a joint government, the Council of the People's Deputies , with representatives of

2970-516: The Rhine Province had 295.6. Because of the extent of its low population rural regions, Prussia had a density of 130.7 per square kilometer, which was below average among the German states. The Free State of Saxony , by way of contrast, had 333 inhabitants per km . Urbanization and urban growth lost momentum compared to the pre-1914 period. Population increases in larger cities were caused not so much by in-migration as by incorporation. This

3080-592: The Texas annexation (1845) leading to the 1846-48 Mexican–American War and, as a consequence of the war, the Mexican Cession of further territory that now constitutes much of the western US. In 1865, as the American Civil War ended, Maximilian "was actively recruiting Confederate refugees to colonize northern Mexico and bring their slaves with them. Grant foresaw that Maximilian was creating

3190-594: The Tierra del Fuego Province . In 1994, Argentina's claim to the territories was added to its constitution . During the interwar period , the Argentine fascist ideology Nacionalista and organizations such as the Alliance of Nationalist Youth openly supported plans to annex Uruguay , Paraguay , Chile and some southern and eastern parts of Bolivia , which they claimed belonged to Argentina via past territories of

3300-545: The Trianon trauma . According to a study, two-thirds of Hungarians agreed in 2020 that parts of neighbouring countries should belong to them. Some Mexican nationalists consider the Southwestern United States to be Mexican territory that must be returned. The territory belonged to Mexico until 1836 when Texas established itself as its own nation. Texas citizens then voted to join the United States in

3410-624: The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata . Spain ceded Gibraltar to Britain under the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713. Spain's claim to Gibraltar became government policy under the regime of the dictator Francisco Franco and has remained in place under successive governments following the Spanish transition to democracy. Saddam Hussein's government sought to annex several territories. In

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3520-615: The Völkisch movement in general and of the Pan-German League ( Alldeutscher Verband ). The Verband wanted to uphold German " racial hygiene " and were against breeding with, in their eyes, inferior races like the Jews and Slavs . Greek revanchism refers to the political sentiment or movement advocating for the restoration or reclaiming of territories historically or culturally once associated with Greece , but currently under

3630-549: The constituent Prussian State Assembly . During the campaign, reaching out to female voters, who were going to the polls for the first time, played an important role. In Catholic regions of the state, Hoffmann's anti-clerical school program helped the Centre Party to mobilize its voter base. The MSPD emerged as the strongest party, followed by the Centre and the German Democratic Party (DDP). The Assembly met for

3740-616: The grand coalition (Union-SPD), the rightcentrist Jamaica coalition (CDU/CSU-FDP-Greens) and the leftcentrist traffic light coalition (SPD-FDP- Alliance 90/The Greens ) all share some aspects of the Weimar Coalition in that they include parties both left and right of center committed to liberal democracy. The CDU/CSU is primarily the "inheritor" of centrist Christian democracy and Bavarian regionalism , even if that influence has diminished in recent decades. FDP has at times represented leftcentrist social liberalism (like

3850-659: The scramble for Africa and other adventures that would divert the Republic from objectives related to the "blue line of the Vosges " in Alsace-Lorraine . After the governments of Jules Ferry had pursued a number of colonies in the early 1880s, Clemenceau lent his support to Georges Ernest Boulanger , a popular figure, nicknamed Général Revanche , who it was felt might overthrow the Republic in 1889. This ultranationalist tradition influenced French politics up to 1921 and

3960-731: The social fascism thesis. The communists and to a lesser extent the Nazis particularly attacked the Heinrich Brüning government in office 1930–1932 due to the austerity measures it enacted. Given that the communists rejected any cooperation with the Social Democratic Party, the SPD backed Brüning in any motion of no confidence initiated against him by Nazis and/or communists in hope of preventing an even more right wing government. The social-liberal coalition (SPD-FDP),

4070-492: The 1870s. French revanchism was a deep sense of bitterness, hatred and demand for revenge against Germany, especially because of the loss of Alsace and Lorraine following defeat in the Franco-Prussian War . Paintings that emphasized the humiliation of the defeat came in high demand, such as those by Alphonse-Marie-Adolphe de Neuville . Georges Clemenceau , of the Radical Republicans , opposed participation in

4180-540: The Allies would help Sweden reclaim Finland with the help of an expeditionary force. In the end, the plans fell through and Sweden never became involved in the fighting. The idea of Greater Hungary is associated with Hungarian revisionist aims at least to regain control over Hungarian -populated areas in Hungary's neighbouring countries. The outcome of the Treaty of Trianon of 1920 is to this day remembered in Hungary as

4290-482: The Armenian writing on the 'Welcome' sign was heavily vandalized. The Armenian portion of the sign was ultimately removed in June 2016. The Mayor of Igdir also claimed that the existence of the Armenian state was a "historical mistake", and that Armenia is actually Turkish territory, illegally occupied by Armenians, waiting to be re-integrated into Turkey. On 24 March 2021, Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy signed

4400-671: The British government. It has been suspected that Saddam Hussein intended to invade and annex a portion of Saudi Arabia's Eastern Province on the justification that the Saudi region of Al-Hasa had been part of the Ottoman province of Basra that the British had helped Saudi Arabia conquer in 1913. The 21st century has seen a domestic trend in Turkish politics , where the revival of Ottoman traditions and culture has been accompanied by

4510-831: The Free State of Prussia   – via Wikisource . (Full text in English) Carl Severing did not submit a draft constitution until 26 April 1920 because of delays caused by the Kapp Putsch and the wait for the Reich constitution , which was ratified on 11 August 1919. On 30 November 1920 the State Assembly adopted the constitution of the Free State of Prussia . 280 deputies voted in favor, 60 against and 7 abstained. The DNVP and independent deputies in particular voted against it. In contrast to

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4620-521: The German average. Despite the efforts of the Prussian government in areas such as education, upward mobility remained limited. In 1927/28, only one percent of junior lawyers came from working-class families. Advancement opportunities were significantly better from primary schools. The proportion of students from working-class families at educational academies rose from 7 percent in 1928/29 to 10 percent in 1932/33. The Free State consisted of twelve provinces plus Berlin, whose status corresponded to that of

4730-418: The Interior and five members elected by the provincial committee. The provinces each had a parliament. In Hesse-Nassau , municipal parliaments existed for the district associations alongside the provincial parliament. The provincial parliaments elected a Landeshauptmann who headed the governmental administration; the corresponding office in Berlin was the mayor. In addition, the provincial parliament elected

4840-413: The MSPD, six from the Centre, four each from the DDP and the right-wing nationalist German National People's Party (DNVP), and one each from the USPD and the liberal German People's Party (DVP). (See the Constitution section below for additional details.) On 25 March 1919 the provisional revolutionary Hirsch government resigned. It was replaced, as in the Reich, by a coalition of MSPD, Centre and DDP,

4950-423: The Ministry of State as a whole. With a two-thirds majority, it could impeach ministers before the state court. The Ministry of State was the highest and leading authority in the state; it consisted of the Minister President and the ministers of state (Article 7). Although it was organized collegially, the Minister President had policy-making authority (Article 46). He was elected by Parliament. After an amendment to

5060-408: The Ottomans") to refer to their supporters and also their former leader Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (who was elected President in 2014 ) during their election campaigns. These domestic ideals have also seen a revival of neo-Ottomanism in the AKP's foreign policy. Besides acting as a clear distinction between them and ardent supporters of secularism , the social Ottomanism advocated by the AKP has served as

5170-432: The Polish population ( first Silesian uprising ). The violence there was suppressed by military means as well. In Pomerania clashes broke out between agricultural workers and large landowners, who received support from regional army and Freikorps units. Agriculture Minister Otto Braun pushed through an emergency decree in September to enforce collectively agreed on regulations regarding farm workers' wages. In March 1920

5280-419: The Prussian state, including the costs of repatriation and provision for state employees. Under the Ministry of Justice alone, 3,500 civil servants and employees were affected. After 1918 the population did not increase as rapidly as it had before the war. In addition to the continuation of the demographic transition of modern industrial societies to lower birth rates, the losses of the First World War were also

5390-573: The Reich and other states in the Weimar Republic, there was no state president. The lack of an institution above the governing ministers and the parliamentary majority clearly distinguished Prussia from the Reich. Overall, the position of Parliament under the constitution was strong. A distinctive feature was the Minister President's position, which was elevated by his authority to make policy. Minister President Otto Braun in particular clearly recognized this and made purposeful use it. The constitution also provided for elements of plebiscitary democracy in

5500-448: The Reich level. The DNVP had a special affinity to the former Prussian monarchy. Among the regional parties, the German-Hanoverian Party (DHP) had some influence. The MSPD and USPD, which had split in 1917, merged in 1922 and resumed the original SPD name. (A small and politically insignificant part of the USPD continued to exist until 1931 when it merged with the Socialist Worker's Party of Germany .) The DNVP and DVP had strongholds in

5610-409: The SPD's vote came to 34% in 1928 and the KPD's to almost 30%. The rise of the Nazi Party (NSDAP) changed the pattern, but it remained dominant in basic terms until 1932. Within Prussia there were considerable differences in support for the Republic. The majority in Berlin, the Rhineland and Westphalia were in favor of a democracy, while reservations remained in the eastern and agrarian provinces. In

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5720-406: The SPD, pushed republican reform of the administration and police, with the result that Prussia was considered a bulwark of democracy within the Weimar Republic. As a result of the Prussian coup d'état instigated by Reich Chancellor Franz von Papen in 1932, the Free State was subordinated to the Reich government and deprived of its independence. Prussia had thus de facto ceased to exist before

5830-451: The State Assembly. The Ministry of State was appointed by the President of the State Assembly, had a collegial structure, and depended on the confidence of a majority in Parliament. In order to provide legal certainty, all previous laws that did not contradict the provisions of the provisional order remained in force. The most important task of the Assembly was to draft a constitution. The constitutional committee included eleven members from

5940-414: The Weimar Coalition parties all supported the candidacy of the Centrist former chancellor Wilhelm Marx , who was narrowly defeated by Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg , supported by a centre-right coalition of the DVP, the German National People's Party (DNVP), and the Bavarian People's Party (BVP). The fact that the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) decided to run their candidate Ernst Thälmann in

6050-402: The authoritarian state it had been in the past and became a parliamentary democracy under its 1920 constitution . During the Weimar period it was governed almost entirely by pro-democratic parties and proved more politically stable than the Republic itself. With only brief interruptions, the Social Democratic Party (SPD) provided the Minister President . Its Ministers of the Interior, also from

6160-404: The cabinet. Other non-partisan ministers or ministers belonging to different political camps were also included, such as the Minister of War, initially Heinrich Schëuch , then from January 1919 Walther Reinhardt . The narrower, decisive political cabinet, however, included only politicians from the two workers' parties. Since the leadership qualities of the two chairmen were comparatively weak, it

6270-433: The control of other states. Stemming from unresolved territorial disputes, Greek revanchism often manifests in nationalist rhetoric, diplomatic tensions, and occasional military confrontations. Historical grievances, such as the population exchanges between Greece and Turkey following World War I , also fuel revanchist sentiments. While Greek revanchism has influenced foreign policy decisions and public discourse, it remains

6380-449: The defeated Germany. The conference was not only opened on the anniversary of the proclamation of the German Empire ; the treaty also had to be signed by the new German government in the same room, the Hall of Mirrors . A German revanchist movement developed in response to the losses of World War I. Pan-Germanists within the Weimar Republic called for the reclamation of the property of a German state due to pre-war borders or because of

6490-402: The dramatic failure of the right-wing Kapp Putsch would lessen the political reorientation of the Reichstag parties. The SPD received 21.7% of the vote, a significant drop from the 37.9% it had in January 1919. The DDP suffered the greatest loss, dropping from 18.5% to 8.4%. The Centre Party received 13.6% of the vote, only a slight decline from the 15.1% it had previously held. The swing shows

6600-494: The eastern provinces, a revolt broke out at Christmas 1918 with the aim of restoring a Polish state . The movement soon encompassed the entire Province of Posen and eventually took on the character of a guerrilla war. Even for many supporters of the Republic, Prussian dominance seemed a dangerous burden for the Reich. Hugo Preuß , author of the draft version of the Weimar Constitution , originally envisaged breaking Prussia into various smaller states. Given Prussian dominance in

6710-440: The establishment of the German National Railway , and the ministry was dissolved in 1921. The office of Minister of Welfare, which had existed in the provisional government, was formally created. There were also ministries of the interior, finance, justice, agriculture and trade. The Ministry of Spiritual, Educational and Medical Affairs was renamed the Ministry of Science, Art and National Education in 1918. The economic interests of

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6820-414: The first time on 13 March 1919, during the final days of the violent Berlin March battles and the Ruhr uprising . On 20 March the Assembly passed a law for the provisional ordering of the state's powers. It transferred all previous rights of the Prussian king, including his role as the highest authority of the Protestant church, to the Ministry of State, with the exception of his right to adjourn or close

6930-405: The form of referendums and petitions. The legislative period of the Parliament was four years. It could be dissolved by majority vote or referendum. Parliament acted as the legislature, elected the Minister President, had the right to establish committees of inquiry, and could amend the constitution by a majority of two-thirds of the deputies. It also had the right to censure individual ministers or

7040-416: The former empire, there was sympathy for the idea. Otto Landsberg (MSPD) of the Council of the People's Deputies commented, "Prussia occupied its position with the sword and that sword is broken. If Germany is to live, Prussia in its present form must die." The new socialist government of Prussia was opposed to such a move. On 23 January 1919 participants in an emergency meeting of the central council and

7150-401: The fundamental problem the Weimar Coalition parties faced throughout the Weimar Republic. The SPD lost most of its vote share to the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany , a left wing splinter faction opposed to any cooperation between leftist and "bourgeois" parties while the democratic center-right parties lost to the monarchist and revanchist right wing parties which capitalized on

7260-412: The identification of a nation with a nation state, mobilizing sentiments of ethnic nationalism to claim territories outside of where members of the ethnic group currently live. Such claims are often presented as being based on ancient or even autochthonous occupation of a territory since " time immemorial ". The instance of revanchism that gave these groundswells of opinion their modern name came in

7370-634: The inhabitants lived in village communities in 1925, in the Province of Westphalia the figure was just 16.5%. In East Prussia 12.4% of the population lived in cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants; in the Rhine Province it was over 41%. Industry and the skilled trades dominated Prussia's economy in 1925, accounting for 41.3% of all workers. Agriculture played only a secondary role at 22%, with trade and transport trailing only slightly at 17.5%. The other economic sectors lagged well behind. There were strong geographic differences in Prussia's economic structure as well. In East Prussia agriculture employed 45.4% of

7480-794: The initiative of the department's minister, Wilhelm Siering (SPD). Joint stock companies were formed to manage the state-owned mines, salt works, smelters, water works, and electrical generation plants. Ideas about the economic common good, such as those advocated by State Secretary Hans Staudinger (SPD), also played a role in the expedited development of state-owned companies. The Prussian party system – made up of conservatism ( German National People's Party , DNVP), political Catholicism ( Centre Party ), liberalism ( German People's Party , DVP, and German Democratic Party , DDP), social democracy ( Majority Social Democratic Party , MSPD) and socialism/communism (Independent Social Democratic Party , USPD, and Communist Party of Germany , KPD) – corresponded to that at

7590-476: The large landowners remained in place. In educational policy, Minister of Culture Adolph Hoffmann abolished religious instruction as a first step in a push towards the separation of church and state. The move triggered considerable unrest in Catholic areas of Prussia and revived memories of Bismarck's 1870s Kulturkampf ('cultural conflict') against the Catholic Church. At the end of December 1919, MSPD Minister Konrad Haenisch rescinded Hoffmann's decree. In

7700-420: The largely rural area east of the Elbe River , that feared loss of its traditional power. While the Reich government fled to Stuttgart , the Prussian government remained in Berlin. A general strike against the putsch, initiated in particular by unions and civil servants, largely paralyzed public life in Prussia. Most of the governors of the Prussian provinces stood behind the legal state government. Only those of

7810-410: The last Chancellor of the German Empire – who like most of his predecessors was also Minister President of Prussia – announced the abdication of Wilhelm II as German Emperor and King of Prussia before he had in fact done so. On the same day, Prince Maximilian transferred the office of Reich Chancellor to Friedrich Ebert , the chairman of the Majority SPD (MSPD), which was the largest party in

7920-671: The left liberals who would later form the German Democratic Party had cooperated when they censured Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg in 1913 for his handling of the Zabern Affair and then later in 1917 with their support of the Reichstag peace resolution which called for a peace with no annexations. To coordinate their cooperation they also formed an inter-party committee ( interfraktioneller Ausschuss ) that included members of all three parliamentary groups. The three parties had to deal with opposition from

8030-614: The new government confiscated the royal property and placed it under the Ministry of Finance. The following day, the Majority and Independent Social Democrats formed the Prussian revolutionary cabinet along the lines of the coalition at the Reich level. It included Paul Hirsch, Eugen Ernst and Otto Braun of the MSPD and Heinrich Ströbel , Adolph Hoffmann and Kurt Rosenfeld of the USPD. Almost all departments were under ministers from both parties. Hirsch and Ströbel became joint chairmen of

8140-405: The old Prussian three-class franchise . At the municipal level, however, it took eight months before the existing governmental bodies were replaced by democratically legitimized ones. Deliberations concerning a fundamental reform of property relations in the countryside, in particular the breaking up of large landholdings, did not bear fruit. The manor districts that were the political power base of

8250-505: The old DDP) but is now mostly known for DVP reminding economic liberalism , conservative liberalism and positioned more to rightliberal party. Meanwhile The Greens combine green politics , cultural liberalism and more DDP reminding leftcentrist social liberalism and has formally inherited DDP's position in the political spectrum . Free State of Prussia The Free State of Prussia ( German : Freistaat Preußen , pronounced [ˈfʁaɪʃtaːt ˈpʁɔʏsn̩] )

8360-601: The peace resolution as well as the willingness of politicians like Friedrich Ebert (SPD) to take power after the collapse of the Empire. They also blamed the Weimar Coalition-backed government for signing the Treaty of Versailles after it had lodged no more than an ineffectual complaint. The elections of 6 June 1920 resulted in severe decline in the Coalition's parliamentary strength, despite hopes that

8470-425: The positions they occupied before February 24 and payment for inflicted damage. Now if we are strong enough on the military front and we win the battle for Donbas, which will be crucial for the following dynamics of the war, of course the victory for us in this war will be the liberation of the rest of our territories", including Donbas and Crimea . The People's Republic of China (PRC) has used historical claims in

8580-495: The previous government deposed and claimed the management of state affairs for themselves. On the same day the commissioners issued instructions that all departments of the state should continue their work as usual. A manifesto, "To the Prussian People!", stated that the goal was to transform "the old, fundamentally reactionary Prussia ... into a fully democratic component of the unified People's Republic." On 13 November

8690-533: The provinces of Posen and West Prussia became part of the new state of Poland , and East Prussia was separated from the rest of Reich territory by the Polish Corridor . Additional changes were decided by plebiscites. In Northern Schleswig 74% of the vote on 10 February 1920 was in favor of annexation to Denmark , to which it was subsequently ceded. In the southern part, 81% of voters chose on 14 March to remain in Germany. The new German-Danish border

8800-441: The provinces of Schleswig-Holstein , Hanover and East Prussia supported the putsch. It is noteworthy that August Winnig, the governor of East Prussia, was a Social Democrat. The situation was different with many district administrators. There was a clear east–west divide among them. In the western provinces almost all of the district administrators stood by the constitutional government, even if in some cases only under pressure from

8910-466: The provisional government spoke out against Prussia's dissolution. With the Centre Party abstaining, the State Assembly during its first sessions adopted a resolution against a possible breakup of Prussia. Aside from a few exceptions, which included Friedrich Ebert, there was little support for it even among the Council of the People's Deputies at the Reich level because it was seen as the first step toward

9020-589: The putschists. The "Braun-Severing system" became synonymous with democratic Prussia. Most of the German territorial cessions stipulated in the Treaty of Versailles affected Prussia. Eupen-Malmedy went to Belgium , Danzig became a free city under the administration of the League of Nations , and the Memel Territory came under Allied administration before ultimately going to Lithuania . The Hultschiner Ländchen went to Czechoslovakia , large areas of

9130-581: The range of its tasks. Widespread strikes, especially in the mining industry of the Ruhr, began in January 1919. They led to shortages in energy supplies across Germany, and particularly in Prussia caused transportation problems as well. In early April Reichswehr troops marched into the Ruhr and bloodily put down the uprising. In August 1919 armed uprisings took place in Upper Silesia among segments of

9240-497: The republican order in the Reich and in Prussia was challenged by the Kapp Putsch , a right-wing attempt to overthrow the Reich government. It was part of specifically Prussian history in that the only relatively united social group behind the putsch was the state's large landowners. They were joined by some military officers and members of the educated civil service. Overall, the putsch was a rebellion of conservative East Elbia ,

9350-521: The rest of the 1800s there was talk, but few practical plans and little political will, of reclaiming Finland from Russia. Since Sweden was never able to challenge Russia's military might on its own, no attempts were made. During the Crimean War in 1853 to 1856, the Allied nations initiated talks with Sweden to allow troop and fleet movements through Swedish ports to be used against Russia. In return,

9460-721: The revisionist claims of others, she did not see the Versailles frontiers as fixed either. In 1938 when the Czech state was dismembered at the Munich conference , Poland issued an ultimatum of her own to Prague, demanding the cession of the Teschen region ; the Czech government was powerless to resist. Sweden lost Finland to Russia at the conclusion of the Finnish War (1808–09), ending nearly 600 years of Swedish rule. For most of

9570-492: The right from 1912 on even though in the course of the war the SPD split with far left-groups like the Spartacus League that were fundamentally opposed not just to the war but to all attempts at working within the political system of the Empire. The right wing, through the stab in the back myth , would later pin the blame for Germany's loss in the war on the alleged "defeatist" parties of the Weimar Coalition and cited

9680-587: The rise of the Justice and Development Party (AKP, founded in 2001) which came to power in 2002, along with claims to territory once held by the Ottoman Empire . The use of the ideology by Justice and Development Party has mainly supported a greater influence of Ottoman culture in domestic social policy which has caused issues with the secular and republican credentials of modern Turkey. The AKP have used slogans such as Osmanlı torunu ("descendant of

9790-440: The rules of procedure, an absolute majority was required from 1932 onward. The Minister President appointed the other ministers (Article 45). The constitution did not specify the ministries; they came about from practical requirements. Following the transfer of military responsibilities to the Reich, there was no Prussian Minister of War after 1919. The Minister of Public Works also lost his most important area of responsibility with

9900-509: The same time. The government was to inform the body about affairs of state. The State Council could express its views, had the right to initiate legislation and could lodge an objection to laws passed by Parliament. With a two-thirds majority, Parliament could, with a few exceptions, reject the objection or call for a referendum. Until 1933 the mayor of Cologne and future Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany , Konrad Adenauer ,

10010-435: The secession of the Rhineland from the Reich. The mood in Prussia was more uncertain. In December 1919 the State Assembly passed a resolution by 210 votes to 32 that stated: "As the largest of the German states, Prussia views its first duty to be an attempt to see whether the creation of a unified German state cannot be achieved." On 26 January 1919, one week after the 1919 German federal election , elections were held for

10120-658: The second round was widely seen as a spoiler candidate who in effect threw the election to Hindenburg. Both the Comintern and East German historiography later criticized this action by the KPD-leadership as a mistake. After World War II , the reconstituted SPD and the de facto successor of the Centre Party (the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) (within Bavaria the BVP was de facto succeeded by

10230-455: The so-called Weimar Coalition , which together held 298 of 401 seats. Paul Hirsch became Minister President. His cabinet included four members from the MSPD, two from the Centre, and two from the DDP. Most of the ministries had existed under the monarchy, although the Ministry of Public Welfare was new. Along with the Ministry of the Interior, it developed into one of the largest ministries because of

10340-422: The state were largely concentrated in the Ministry of Trade and Commerce. It was the second most powerful state ministry after the Ministry of the Interior and was able to have a considerable impact on domestic and foreign trade beyond Prussia's borders. After the 1932 Prussian coup d'état , which replaced Prussia's legal government by Franz von Papen as Reich Commissioner, the Ministry of Welfare in its old form

10450-567: The territory's historical relation to Germanic peoples. The movement called for the reincorporation of Alsace-Lorraine, the Polish Corridor and the Sudetenland (see Bohemia , Moravia , Silesia —parts of the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary until its dismemberment after World War I). Those claims, supported by Adolf Hitler , led to World War II , with the invasion of Poland . This irredentism had also been characteristic of

10560-577: The widespread outrage at the Treaty of Versailles. Politics of pragmatism, comprise and moderation as espoused by the parties of the Weimar Coalition thus always faced attacks from strong anti-compromise forces on both the left and the right, which by 1930 formed a strong and growing share of the Reichstag, now mostly composed of the Communist Party of Germany and the Nazi Party , with the former rejecting any popular front -style cooperation due to

10670-423: The workers' councils were either dismissed or ignored by Interior Minister Wolfgang Heine (MSPD). When conservative district administrators themselves requested to be dismissed, they were asked to stay on in order to maintain peace and order. On 23 December the government issued an administrative order for the election of a constitutional assembly. Universal, free and secret suffrage for both women and men replaced

10780-522: The workers. In East Prussia all of them sided with the anti-republicans. The putsch attempt collapsed after six days. The Kapp Putsch and ensuing general strike led to a profound break that all but turned Prussia into a model republican state. Otto Braun replaced Hirsch as Minister President. Carl Severing became the new Minister of the Interior. Both were much more assertive than their predecessors in office. Hirsch and Finance Minister Südekum were also politically discredited because they had negotiated with

10890-472: The workforce, while industry and skilled crafts accounted for only 19.6%. The Hohenzollern Lands , where 53.7% of the population lived from the land, was the most heavily agricultural region. By contrast, agriculture was of very little importance in the Rhineland and Westphalia, each with about 13%. The commercial sector was correspondingly strong, at over 56% in Westphalia. Berlin's commercial sector at 46%

11000-468: Was 15.6%. Berlin's special urban situation was also reflected in its average income. At 1,566 Reichsmarks in 1928, the average income in Berlin-Brandenburg was more than 30% higher than the Reich average. In agrarian East Prussia, average earnings were only 814 Reichsmarks, more than 30% below the Reich average. Industrial areas such as Westphalia and the Rhineland were roughly in line with

11110-571: Was by no means assured in the aftermath of the revolution. In the Rhine Province , the advisory council of the Catholic Centre Party , fearing a dictatorship of the proletariat, called on 4 December 1918 for the formation of a Rhineland- Westphalian republic independent of Prussia. In the Province of Hanover , 100,000 people signed an appeal for territorial autonomy. In Silesia too there were efforts to form an independent state. In

11220-411: Was chairman of the State Council. The Weimar Constitution and the new Prussian Constitution permanently changed the relationship between the Reich and Prussia. Unlike during the empire, the executive branch at the Reich level was completely independent of Prussia's. The same person was no longer both Reich Chancellor and Prussian Minister President. The great importance of state taxes declined in favor of

11330-423: Was dissolved. At the same time, the Minister of Trade also became the Minister of Economics and Labor. The Ministry of Justice was dissolved in 1935 under the law transferring the administration of justice to the Reich. The constitution stipulated the formation of a State Council to represent the provinces of Prussia. Its members were elected by the provincial parliaments; they could not be parliamentary members at

11440-519: Was established on 26 May. Eastern Upper Silesia went to Poland, although the majority of voters in the plebiscite there had voted to remain in the German Reich. Over 90% of those who voted in the plebiscite in southern East Prussia and parts of West Prussia were in favor of remaining part of Germany. The Saar region was placed under the control of the League of Nations for fifteen years before

11550-536: Was high, but the city's metropolitan character was reflected above all in the share of the trade and transport sector, which was over 28%. Overall there were still considerable economic differences after 1918 between the eastern part of the Free State which tended to be agrarian and the industrial west. In 1925 almost half of the population was employed. Of these, 46.8% were blue collar workers, 17.1% were salaried employees and civil servants, 16.2% were self-employed, 15.4% were contributing family members (those who work in

11660-512: Was mainly Otto Braun and Adolph Hoffmann who set the tone in the provisional government. On 14 November the Prussian House of Lords ( Herrenhaus ) was abolished and the House of Representatives dissolved. The replacement of political elites, however, remained limited during the early years. In many cases the former royal district administrators ( Landräte ) continued to hold office as if there had been no revolution. Complaints against them by

11770-729: Was one of the constituent states of Germany from 1918 to 1947. The successor to the Kingdom of Prussia after the defeat of the German Empire in World War I , it continued to be the dominant state in Germany during the Weimar Republic , as it had been during the empire, even though most of Germany's post-war territorial losses in Europe had come from its lands. It was home to the federal capital Berlin and had 62% of Germany's territory and 61% of its population. Prussia changed from

11880-641: Was one of the major reasons France went to great pains to woo the Russian Empire , resulting in the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894 and, after more accords, the Triple Entente of the three great Allied powers of World War I : France, Great Britain, and Russia. French revanchism influenced the Treaty of Versailles of 1919 following the end of World War I, which restored Alsace-Lorraine to France and extracted reparations from

11990-555: Was significantly higher at 22.3% than in industrial Westphalia, where it was 12.8%. Conversely, the proportion of blue-collar workers in East Prussia was 42.6%, while in Westphalia it was 54.1%. In metropolitan Berlin, the proportion of blue-collar workers at 45.9% was lower than in Westphalia despite Berlin's important industrial sector. The reason was the strength of the city's tertiary sector. Salaried employees and civil servants accounted for 30.5% in Berlin, whereas in Westphalia it

12100-407: Was the case with the formation of Greater Berlin in 1920, when 7 cities, 56 rural communities and 29 estate districts were incorporated. Even more extensive and consequential for the formation of large cities were the municipal reforms in the Ruhr region at the end of the 1920s. There were still considerable geographical differences in the extent of urbanization. While in East Prussia more than 60% of

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