76-466: Swietenia mahagoni , commonly known as American mahogany , Cuban mahogany , small-leaved mahogany , and West Indian mahogany , is a species of Swietenia native to the broader Caribbean bioregion . It is the species from which the original mahogany wood was produced. Mahogany is grown as a plantation tree and sold in timber markets in Kerala , India. Swietenia mahagoni is listed as "Threatened" in
152-545: A theological quarrel resulted in riots between Remonstrants ( Arminians ) and Counter-Remonstrants (Gomarists). In general, regents would support the former and civilians the latter. Even the government got involved, with Oldenbarnevelt taking the side of the Remonstrants and stadtholder Maurice of Nassau their opponents. In the end, the Synod of Dort condemned the Remonstrants for heresy and excommunicated them from
228-694: A documented chain of possession for plant products sold in the United States. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) lists S. mahagoni in Appendix II (only saw-logs, sawn wood and veneers). The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies S. mahogani as Near Threatened . National assessments marked S. mahagoni as Least Concern in Cuba, Critically Endangered in
304-550: A fair and large table." Mahogany, cedar and other woods were shipped more or less regularly from the West Indies to Spain long before 1575, for Spain at that time dominated the world and its demand for ship building timbers was enormous. Spain itself had no timber suitable for building ships and its unfriendly relations with northern Europe made drawing supplies from that source impossible; consequently it obtained timber from San Domingo, Cuba and Jamaica for building many ships of
380-545: A lightning campaign to retake all towns occupied by Orangist and Geuzen troops in October 1572. Several towns (including Mechelen , Zutphen and Naarden ) which refused to surrender were brutally sacked by Fadrique's forces in an attempt to intimidate others into resubmitting themselves to the royal government, culminating in the seven-month-long Siege of Haarlem before it was conquered and sacked in July 1573. By this point,
456-508: A period of ten years at least." Mahogany's first major use in Spain and England was for ship building , and during the 18th century it was the chief wood employed in Europe for that purpose. Mark Catesby 's Natural History describes mahogany's excellence in that regard: "[Mahogany] has Properties for that Use excelling Oak, and all other Wood, viz. Durableness, resisting Gunshots, and burying
532-603: A source of disputes amongst historians for centuries . The Habsburg Netherlands emerged as a result of the territorial expansion of the Burgundian State in the 14th and 15th centuries. Upon extinction of the Burgundian State in 1477/1482, these lands were inherited by the House of Habsburg , whose Charles V became both King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor . By conquering the rest of what would become
608-695: A stalemate , the two sides agreed to a Twelve Years' Truce in 1609; when it expired in 1621, fighting resumed as part of the broader Thirty Years' War . An end was reached in 1648 with the Peace of Münster (a treaty that was part of the Peace of Westphalia ), when Spain retained the Southern Netherlands and recognised the Dutch Republic as an independent country. The origins of the Eighty Years' War are complicated, and have been
684-401: A wood easy to work, medium in weight but adequate in strength, with low shrinking, swelling, and warping characteristics, and high decay resistance. In 1966, mahogany still held an important place in the construction of yachts , launches , motorboats , and small boats of various kinds. In large ships its use is confined largely to interior trim, paneling, and furniture. In a large luxury liner,
760-420: Is a pear-shaped five-valved capsule 8–20 cm long, containing numerous winged seeds about 5–9 cm long. The three species are poorly defined biologically, in part because they hybridize freely when grown in proximity. The genus is famed as the supplier of mahogany , at first yielded by Swietenia mahagoni , a Caribbean species, which was so extensively used locally and exported that its trade ended by
836-553: Is also grown as an ornamental tree in subtropical and tropical regions. Since 1954 the United States government has owned and maintained a 147-acre observation plot of secondary growth S. mahagoni at Estate Thomas on St. Croix, United States Virgin Islands . It is managed jointly by the International Institute of Tropical Forestry with an adjoining privately owned tree farm at Estate Bellevue which belongs to
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#1732765804888912-1000: Is from the same family as Swietenia . All species of Swietenia are CITES -listed. Swietenia timber that crosses a border needs its paperwork in order. International environmental organizations such as Greenpeace , Friends of the Earth , and Rainforest Action Network have focused on Swietenia so as to expose illegal traffic in the wood, notably from Brazil. Eighty Years%27 War Peace of Münster [REDACTED] Spanish Empire European ally: [REDACTED] Portuguese Empire ( c.1580–1640 ) European co-belligerent: [REDACTED] Holy Roman Empire (1629, 1632, 1635) Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe East Indies Western Europe European waters Americas East Indies The Eighty Years' War or Dutch Revolt (Dutch: Nederlandse Opstand ) (c. 1566/1568–1648)
988-552: Is named for Dutch-Austrian physician Gerard van Swieten (1700–1772). The wood of Swietenia trees is known as mahogany . The genus was introduced into several Asian countries as a replacement source of mahogany timber around the time it was restricted in its native locations in the late 1990s. Trade in Asian grown plantation mahogany is not restricted. Fiji and India are the largest exporters of plantation mahogany and wild mahogany remains commercially unavailable to this day. It
1064-427: Is no terminal leaflet. The flowers are small, produced in panicles . The fruit is a woody capsule 5–10 centimetres (2.0–3.9 in) long and 3–6 centimetres (1.2–2.4 in) broad, containing numerous winged seeds . The bark in younger specimens is smooth and grayish, becoming darker and furrowed with age. In the U.S. mahoganies are semi-deciduous , losing all or most of their leaves over winter or shedding at
1140-433: Is present. The fruits of Swietenia macrophylla are called "sky fruit", because they seem to hang upwards from the tree. The "sky fruit" concentrate is sold as a natural remedy that is said to improve blood circulation and skin. It is also said to have Viagra -like qualities regarding erectile dysfunction. A somewhat comparable wood is yielded by the related African genus Khaya . This is traded as African mahogany and
1216-659: Is the main source of the world's current supply of "genuine mahogany", due to cultivation and trade of it in its native locations being restricted by the Convention On International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna ( CITES ) since the late 1990s. Trade in Swietenia grown and harvested in these non-native locations is not restricted. Species of this genus are only occasionally plantation-grown in Central America, in spite of
1292-642: Is used for the wooden bars of marimbas . There has been some research into the acaricidal effects of its leaves and bark for control of the honey bee pest Varroa destructor . Before the American Revolution , botanists from Europe had explored and described the flora of the Carolinas, Florida, and the Bahamas. Fifty-six years before naturalist and illustrator John James Audubon was born, Volume Two of Mark Catesby's folio sized natural history
1368-549: Is usually taken to consist of three species, geographically separated. They are medium-sized to large trees growing to 20–45 m tall, and up to 2 metres (6.6 ft) trunk diameter. The leaves are 10–30 cm long, pinnate, with 3-6 pairs of leaflets, the terminal leaflet absent; each leaflet is 5–15 cm long. The leaves are deciduous to semi- evergreen , falling shortly before the new foliage grows. The flowers are produced in loose inflorescences , each flower small, with five white to greenish-yellowish petals. The fruit
1444-715: The 1576–1579 period , in which a temporary alliance of 16 out of the Seventeen Provinces ' States–General established the Pacification of Ghent (8 November 1576) as a joint Catholic–Protestant rebellion against the Spanish government, but internal conflicts as well as military and diplomatic successes of the Spanish Governors-General Don Juan of Austria and Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma split them apart, finally leading
1520-460: The Gibraltar timbers. The Gibraltar was captured in 1780 and was finally broken up in 1836." The dissemination of Clayton Dissinger Mell 's 1917 monograph on the subject, "True Mahogany", resulted in the increased use of mahogany in ship construction: "It is particularly suited for planking, waterways, bulwarks, rails, skylights and companions, bitts, gangway ladders, and other deck work. With
1596-575: The Malcontent County of Artois , County of Hainaut and city of Douai to sign the Union of Arras on 6 January 1579, reverting to Catholicism and loyalty to the Spanish crown. In response, most of the remaining rebel provinces and cities would forge or later accede to the Union of Utrecht, a closer military alliance treaty that would go on to become the most important fundamental law of
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#17327658048881672-780: The Pacification of Ghent (8 November 1576) was an early stage of the Eighty Years' War ( c. 1568 –1648) between the Spanish Empire and groups of rebels in the Habsburg Netherlands . After Watergeuzen (in English known as "Sea Beggars") seized several poorly defended towns and cities in Holland and Zeeland in April 1572, the exiled stadtholder William "the Silent" of Orange launched his second invasion of
1748-462: The Pacification of Ghent (8 November 1576), and the Unions of Arras (6 January 1579) and Utrecht (23 January 1579) constituted a crucial phase of the Eighty Years' War ( c. 1568 –1648) between the Spanish Empire and the rebelling United Provinces, which would become the independent Dutch Republic . Sometimes known as the "general revolt", the period marked the only time of the war where
1824-654: The Peace of Münster in 1648. Although the Dutch and Spanish were both involved in opposite sides of the War of the Jülich Succession (June 1609 – October 1610; May–October 1614) in Jülich-Cleves-Berg , they carefully avoided each other, and thus the hostilities never spread back into the Habsburg Netherlands , and the truce held firm. Nevertheless, attempts to negotiate a definitive peace also failed, and
1900-736: The Spanish conquered Breda in 1625 , but the Dutch took it back in 1637 – the Dutch Republic was able to conquer the eastern border forts of Oldenzaal (1626) and Groenlo (1627) , the major Brabantian city of 's-Hertogenbosch (1629) , the fortified cities of Venlo, Roermond and Maastricht along the Meuse (1632) , and Sas van Gent (1644) and Hulst (1645) in Zeelandic Flanders . Nevertheless, peace talks in 1629–1630 came to nothing. More ambitious plans to conquer Brussels in 1632–1633 with
1976-642: The States–General of all Seventeen Provinces of the Habsburg Netherlands, except Luxemburg , were in joint active political and military rebellion against the Spanish Imperial government through the Pacification of Ghent . The Pacification formulated several agreements amongst the rebellious provinces themselves, and laid down their demands – including the immediate withdrawal of foreign (mostly Spanish, Italian and German) troops from
2052-660: The United States , representing the northernmost point of its range. The earliest recorded use of S. mahagoni was in 1514. This date year was carved into a rough-hewn cross placed in the Basilica Cathedral of Santa María la Menor in Santo Domingo (now the capital of the Dominican Republic), at the beginning of the building's construction. Completed about 1540, it is the oldest church in
2128-490: The West Indies , and its interior was ornamented with carved mahogany woodwork that is still in almost perfect condition after 500 years in the tropics. Other records refer to the use of mahogany between 1521 and 1540, when Spanish explorers employed the wood for making canoes and for ship repair work in the West Indies. The next significant recorded use was in 1597, regarding repairs for Sir Walter Raleigh 's ships in
2204-777: The " Seventeen Provinces " during the Guelders Wars (1502–1543), and seeking to combine these disparate regions into a single political entity, Charles aspired to counter the Protestant Reformation and keep all his subjects obedient to the Catholic Church . The period between the start of the Beeldenstorm in August 1566 until early 1572 (before the Capture of Brielle on 1 April 1572) contained
2280-422: The 1950s. These days almost all mahogany is yielded by the mainland species, Swietenia macrophylla , although no longer from its native locations due to the restrictions set by CITES (see following.) As a timber, both Swietenia macrophylla and Swietenia mahogoni are both grown in plantations in several Asian countries such as Fiji , Indonesia , India , and Bangladesh and this plantation mahogany timber
2356-405: The 21-24 meter (70 to 80 foot) PT boats (motor Patrol Torpedo) to the small rescue boats that were parachuted from rescue planes; its use for boat construction increased from 1,350 M board feet in 1940 to 21,500 M board feet in 1943. PT boats were often made of diagonally layered 25-millimetre-thick (1 in) mahogany planks with a glue -impregnated layer of canvas in between. As a testament to
Swietenia mahagoni - Misplaced Pages Continue
2432-609: The British during naval battles. One of these, the Gibraltar , of 80 guns, captured by Lord Rodney off Cape St. Vincent was broken up in the royal dock yard at Pembroke , and though she must have been one of the oldest ships afloat, yet all her timbers were so sound as when they were put into her, and the whole British navy, and if I (Capt. Chaffell, secretary of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company) am not mistaken, are now supplied with tables made out of
2508-604: The Catholic religion in their provinces. By signing the Edict of 1577 on 12 February 1577 at Marche-en-Famenne , Don Juan nominally accepted all demands of the Pacification. Most foreign troops withdrew to the territory of Luxemburg, which had not joined the Pacification. Although a few sieges of cities with Spanish garrisons that refused to withdraw took place, these were mostly resolved quickly by paying them off; in general,
2584-833: The Cayman Islands, and Vulnerable in the Dominican Republic. NatureServe considers S. mahagoni to be Vulnerable in Florida. S. mahagoni is also listed as "Threatened" in the Preservation of Native Flora of Florida Act. Swietenia Swietenia is a genus of trees in the chinaberry family, Meliaceae . It occurs natively in the Neotropics , from southern Florida , the Caribbean , Mexico and Central America south to Bolivia . The genus
2660-782: The Duke of Parma 's steady military and diplomatic successes , the Union of Utrecht continued their resistance, proclaiming their independence through the 1581 Act of Abjuration and establishing the Calvinist -dominated Dutch Republic in 1588. In the Ten Years thereafter, the Republic (whose heartland was no longer threatened) made conquests in the north and east and received diplomatic recognition from France and England in 1596. The Dutch colonial empire emerged, which began with Dutch attacks on Portugal's overseas territories . Facing
2736-518: The Duke of Parma continued his successful military and diplomatic offensive, bringing ever more provinces and cities in the southern, eastern and northeastern parts of the Netherlands back into royalist hands. The military upkeep and decreased trade had put both Spain and the Dutch Republic under financial strain. To alleviate conditions, a ceasefire was signed in Antwerp on 9 April 1609, marking
2812-739: The Dutch when French and Dutch troops sacked the city of Tienen , which cost them the sympathies of the southern Netherlands population. However, French intervention and internal discontent at the costs of the war in the Low Countries led to a change in Spain's 'Netherlands First' policy. Instead Spain focused on suppressing the French-backed Reapers' War in Catalonia. The resulting stalemate and financial troubles, plus Spanish military exhaustion and Dutch desire for formal political recognition, eventually convinced both sides in
2888-545: The Holy Roman Empire of 14 and 24 October 1648, which comprise the Peace of Westphalia , but which were not signed by the Republic, the Republic now also gained formal "independence" from the Holy Roman Empire, just like the Swiss Cantons. In both cases this was just a formalisation of a situation that had already existed for a long time. France and Spain did not conclude a treaty and so remained at war until
2964-461: The Indies and Americas, and lifting of the Spanish embargoes) were generally met. However, the general negotiations between the main parties dragged on, because France kept formulating new demands. Eventually it was decided therefore to split off the peace between the Republic and Spain from the general peace negotiations. This enabled the two parties to conclude what technically was a separate peace (to
3040-642: The Netherlands from the east in another attempt to generate a general uprising against the repressive regime of Spanish General-Governor Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba . Acting on orders of Philip II of Spain , Alba sought to exterminate all manifestations of Protestantism and disobedience through inquisition and public executions, as well as abolishing several privileges of the Netherlandish nobility and autonomy of cities, and introducing more stringent taxes. William's second invasion in 1572 had mixed results, and Alba's son Don Fadrique went on
3116-601: The Netherlands, restitution of old rights and privileges, and self-rule – to king Philip II of Spain . From 8 November 1576 until 23 July 1577, the new Spanish Governor-General of the Netherlands John of Austria (known to history as "Don Juan") engaged in peace negotiations with the States-General. The First Union of Brussels (9 January 1577) confirmed the Pacification, adding that the States would uphold
Swietenia mahagoni - Misplaced Pages Continue
3192-603: The Preservation of Native Flora of Florida Act. It is the national tree of the Dominican Republic . True to its name, West Indian mahogany is native to islands in the West Indies including the Bahamas , Cuba , Jamaica , the Cayman Islands and Hispaniola (in the Dominican Republic and Haiti ), but has widely been introduced to the rest of the Caribbean islands. It is also native to South Florida in
3268-559: The Shot without Splintering." In his "The History of Barbados, etc", the Welsh scholar John Davies (1625–1693) refers to merchant ships prior to 1666 calling on West Indies ports to take on occasional shipments of mahogany timber: "Some masters of ships who trade to the Caribbies many times bring thence planks of this wood which are of such length and breadth that there needs but one to make
3344-676: The Spanish Armada prior to 1588. A number of the largest Spanish ships were built of West Indies mahogany. Spain turned to Cuba for supplies of timber suitable for ship masts, since the rebellion in Flanders (the Eighty Years' War began in 1566) had shut off that source. According to a passage quoted by the British naval historian, Halton Stirling Lecky, Spain continued building ships from West Indies mahogany for two hundred more years: "...Several Spanish men-of-war were captured by
3420-410: The Spanish royal government under certain conditions. In response, the States-General's Second Union of Brussels (10 December 1577) showed a more fierce and determined opposition to the Spanish government, now demanding (and themselves guaranteeing) equal protection for Catholics and Protestants in all provinces of the Netherlands. William "the Silent" of Orange became the de facto political leader of
3496-435: The United Provinces, who on 26 July 1581 proclaimed the Act of Abjuration , a de facto declaration of independence from Spain. While the nascent polity was struggling to find a new sovereign head of state, including Matthias of Austria , Francis of Anjou , William "the Silent" of Orange and Robert of Leicester , before giving up and deciding to become a republic by passing the Deduction of Vrancken on 12 April 1588,
3572-427: The United Provinces, while Matthias of Austria was brought in to replace Don Juan as Governor-General. The years 1579–1588 constituted a phase of the Eighty Years' War (c. 1568–1648) between the Spanish Empire and the United Provinces in revolt after most of them concluded the Union of Utrecht on 23 January 1579, and proceeded to carve the independent Dutch Republic out of the Habsburg Netherlands . It followed
3648-421: The West Indies Mahogany Tree into his newly created genus, Swietenia . His classification still stands. Swietenia mahagoni is a medium-sized semi- evergreen tree growing to 30–35 metres (98–115 ft) tall. The leaves are pinnate, 12–25 centimetres (4.7–9.8 in) long, with four to eight leaflets , each leaflet 5–6 centimetres (2.0–2.4 in) long and 2–3 centimetres (0.79–1.18 in) broad; there
3724-472: The West Indies. The first documented use in Europe of West Indies mahogany for major building structures prior to 1578 was in Spain. It was specified for use in the construction and interior decoration of one of the grandest royal residences built during the Renaissance in Europe, El Escorial . It seems likely that the merits of mahogany were already well-known and that it was used extensively, since King Philip II of Spain 's advisors requisitioned it for making
3800-402: The affront to its prestige was immense. The closure of the river Scheldt to traffic in and out of Antwerp, and the acceptance of Dutch commercial operations in the Spanish and Portuguese colonial maritime lanes were just a few points that the Spanish found objectionable. Although there was peace on an international level, political unrest took hold of Dutch domestic affairs. What had started as
3876-448: The annoyance of France, which maintained that this contravened the alliance treaty of 1635 with the Republic). The text of the Treaty (in 79 articles) was fixed on 30 January 1648. It was then sent to the principals (King Philip IV of Spain and the States General) for ratification. Five provinces voted to ratify (against the advice of stadtholder William) on 4 April (Zeeland and Utrecht being opposed). Utrecht finally yielded to pressure by
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#17327658048883952-410: The end of the Dutch Revolt and the beginning of the Twelve Years' Truce . The conclusion of this Truce was a major diplomatic coup for Holland's advocate Johan van Oldenbarnevelt , as Spain by concluding the Treaty, formally recognised the independence of the Republic. In Spain the truce was seen as a major humiliation – she had suffered a political, military and ideological defeat, and
4028-530: The first events of a series that would later be known as the Eighty Years' War between the Spanish Empire and disparate groups of rebels in the Habsburg Netherlands . Some of the first pitched battles and sieges between radical Calvinists and Habsburg governmental forces took place in the years 1566–1567, followed by the arrival and government takeover by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba (simply known as "Alba" or "Alva") with an army of 10,000 Spanish and Italian soldiers. Next, an ill-fated invasion by
4104-499: The flush of new growth in spring. New leaves emerge blood red to pinkish, quickly becoming a bright, light green and darkening as they mature. In the Florida Keys and south Florida, the species grows at the northern extent of its range, with individuals reaching 10–15 metres (33–49 ft) tall. Supplies of S. mahagoni are very rare due to historic over-harvesting , and most mahogany marketed now comes from other related species, often with faster growth but of lower wood quality. It
4180-408: The good growing conditions and high price of the wood, due to the ubiquitous presence of the mahogany shoot borer moth (also known as the cedar tip moth), Hypsipyla grandella , which damages the form of the tree by killing the terminal shoot, causing excessive branching. Control requires extensive and frequent spraying with pesticides, rendering the genus relatively uneconomic wherever the shoot borer
4256-428: The help of anti-Spanish nobility in the Southern Netherlands never came to fruition. Several attempted Northern republican surprises and sieges of Antwerp were parried by the Spanish royal Army of Flanders . Nor did the Franco-Dutch alliance bring significant changes to the situation on the ground. It began with a disastrous Franco-Dutch invasion of the southern Netherlands in 1635. This in fact made matters worse for
4332-443: The interior trim work and elaborate furniture of a group of some of the most expensive buildings ever built in Europe: "When in 1578 the king ordered incorruptible [i.e. rot-resistant] and very good woods – cedar , ebony , mahogany, acana , guayacan and iron wood – sent to embellish the Excorial, they had to be brought from a distance by the slaves... Shipment of such woods was made in the summer of 1579 and others followed through
4408-403: The later employment of iron, steel and teak in shipbuilding, mahogany became far more important as a furniture wood, though it is still preferred to any other wood for the framework of small sailing vessels. Large sailing vessels with mahogany framework were sold for enormous prices and manufactured into fine furniture." During World War II mahogany was used in the construction of small boats from
4484-618: The mid-1640s to hold peace talks. The negotiations between Spain and the Republic formally started in January 1646 as part of the more general peace negotiations between the warring parties in the Thirty Years' War. The States General sent eight delegates from several of the provinces as none trusted the others to represent them adequately. They were Willem van Ripperda (Overijssel), Frans van Donia (Friesland), Adriaen Clant tot Stedum (Groningen), Adriaan Pauw and Jan van Mathenesse (Holland), Barthold van Gent (Gelderland), Johan de Knuyt (Zeeland) and Godert van Reede (Utrecht). The Spanish delegation
4560-431: The most powerful nobleman of the Low Countries, the exiled but still-Catholic William "the Silent" of Orange , failed to inspire a general anti-government revolt. Although the war seemed over before it got underway, in the years 1569–1571, Alba's repression grew severe, and opposition against his regime mounted to new heights and became susceptible to rebellion. The period between the Capture of Brielle (1 April 1572) and
4636-456: The national Public Church. Van Oldenbarnevelt was sentenced to death, together with his ally Gilles van Ledenberg , while two other Remonstrant allies, Rombout Hogerbeets and Hugo Grotius received life imprisonment. The years 1621–1648 constituted the final phase of the Eighty Years' War (c. 1568–1648) between the Spanish Empire and the emerging Dutch Republic . It began when the Twelve Years' Truce (1609–1621) expired, and concluded with
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#17327658048884712-434: The other provinces, but Zeeland held out and refused to sign. It was eventually decided to ratify the peace without Zeeland's consent. The delegates to the peace conference affirmed the peace on oath on 15 May 1648 (though the delegate of Zeeland refused to attend, and the delegate of Utrecht suffered a possibly diplomatic illness). In the broader context of the treaties between France and the Holy Roman Empire, and Sweden and
4788-528: The other two species of Swietenia , is used to make modern musical instruments because of its superior tonewood qualities. It is sometimes utilized in the top of guitars as well as the back, sides and neck, and is not uncommon in older mandolins . The wood is also used in the manufacture of electric guitars such as the Gibson Les Paul models: the Custom , the Deluxe and the Studio . Three-ply laminations of mahogany, poplar and mahogany are found in top-of-the-line drum shells. Mahogany
4864-562: The rebel territory had been reduced to most towns in Holland (notably excluding royalist Amsterdam ) and Zeeland, and two towns in Guelders; knowing that violent repression would result from resistance, these cities resolved to fight to the bitter end, while the others capitulated. The Spanish offensive stalled after Haarlem, with the Dutch rebels capturing Geertruidenberg , winning the Siege of Alkmaar and Battle of Delft , and achieving naval superiority. Citing ill health, Alba resigned and returned to Spain in December 1573. The period between
4940-442: The rebel-held territories . However, widespread mutinies in the Spanish army caused a general uprising. Under the leadership of the exiled William the Silent , the Catholic and Protestant-dominated provinces sought to establish religious peace while jointly opposing the king's regime with the Pacification of Ghent , but the general rebellion failed to sustain itself. Despite Governor of Spanish Netherlands and General for Spain,
5016-451: The situation had potential for putting an end to the war if agreements could be reached and respected between the parties. From 24 July 1577 until 6 January 1579, starting with the capture of the Citadel of Namur , Don Juan and his second-in-command and successor Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma launched a military offensive against the United Provinces, while seeking to reconcile provinces that were willing to subject themselves back under
5092-440: The strength of this type of construction, several PT boats withstood catastrophic battle damage and still remained afloat. The most notable of those instances involved the PT-109 , commanded by the young John F. Kennedy : The forward half of this boat stayed afloat for 12 hours after she was rammed by a Japanese destroyer. The U.S. Navy Bureau of Ships approves mahogany for use in small boats and high-speed boats that require
5168-488: The testamentary estate of Dr. Richard Marshall Bond, a biologist who supervised the establishment of the federal tree farm at Estate Thomas. West Indian mahogany is native to southern Florida, and is protected by state, federal and international conservation laws. The species is nationally protected both in Cuba and the Dominican Republic. Among various provisions, the Lacey Act of 1900 prohibits trade in plants that have been illegally taken, transported or sold, and requires
5244-419: The volume for such uses may be considerable. The Spanish explorers were quick to appreciate West Indies Mahogany's special properties; its early importation and use in cabinetwork is attested by the 16th century provenance of some fine Spanish Renaissance pieces. Queen Elizabeth is said to have been interested in samples of mahogany brought by Sir Walter Raleigh on his return from Trinidad in 1595. Mahogany
5320-402: The war resumed as anticipated in 1621. Essentially, it became a side theatre of the wider Thirty Years' War that had already broken out with the Bohemian Revolt in 1618 in eastern parts of the Holy Roman Empire (Bohemia and Austria), pitting Central Europe's Protestant Union against the Catholic League , although the two conflicts never fully merged. With several back and forths – notably,
5396-421: The wood more or less continuously since then not only in the United Kingdom, but in France , Spain and Italy as well. The Empire style of furniture featured its use extensively, and the Federal Style (1780–1830) in American furniture design is essentially a mahogany style. Mell's paper of 1917 refers to its extensive use in the early 20th century, but its importance for some purposes has diminished. Mahogany
5472-475: Was an armed conflict in the Habsburg Netherlands between disparate groups of rebels and the Spanish government . The causes of the war included the Reformation , centralisation , excessive taxation, and the rights and privileges of the Dutch nobility and cities. After the initial stages , Philip II of Spain , the sovereign of the Netherlands, deployed his armies and regained control over most of
5548-539: Was formerly much used for the interior finish of railroad parlor cars, public buildings, hotels, and dwellings and for office fixtures. It also was used extensively in the manufacture of fortepianos , astronomical and surveying instruments, and cases for delicate apparatuses such as scales, microscopes, and microtomes . Swietenia has a long history of being used to make boxes and cases for scientific instruments and other mechanisms, as well as furniture and ornamental woodwork. The wood from Swietenia mahagoni , as well as
5624-694: Was led by Gaspar de Bracamonte, 3rd Count of Peñaranda . The negotiations were held in what is now the Haus der Niederlande in Münster. The Dutch and Spanish delegations soon reached an agreement, based on the text of the Twelve Years' Truce. It therefore confirmed Spain's recognition of Dutch independence. The Dutch demands (closure of the Scheldt, cession of the Meierij, formal cession of Dutch conquests in
5700-564: Was little used in English furniture -making until the 18th century, as domestic oak and walnut were the predominant woods used. The first use of S. mahagoni in the United Kingdom for cabinet work was in 1724. Mahogany became the essential material that led to the golden age of British furniture-making in the 18th century, which Percy Macquoid , a connoisseur of English furniture, calls the "Age of Mahogany". Furniture makers have used
5776-473: Was published in 1729. Catesby's hand-colored plate of the mahogany tree, along with a description in English and French (not Latin as might have been expected), was the basis for Linnaeus using his new binomial nomenclature to name it. When Linnaeus' description was published in 1758 as Cedrela mahagoni , mahogany had been well known for more than 200 years to the lumber and woodworking trades. Two years later, Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin reclassified it and placed
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