Tarjei Vesaas (20 August 1897 – 15 March 1970) was a Norwegian poet and novelist. Vesaas is widely considered to be one of Norway's greatest writers of the twentieth century and perhaps its most important since World War II .
122-462: Vesaas' work is characterized by simple, terse, and symbolic prose. His stories often feature rural people who go through severe psychological changes. These works are characterized by their usage of the demanding Norwegian landscape and themes such as guilt and death. His mastery of the Nynorsk language has contributed to its acceptance as a medium of world class literature. A prolific author, he won
244-595: A , e i lit en stjerne – stjern a or even e i lit a stjerne – stjern en . Choosing either two or three genders throughout the whole text is not a requirement either, so one may choose to write tida ("the time" f ) and boken ("the book" m ) in the same work in Bokmål. This is not allowed in Nynorsk, where the feminine forms have to be used wherever they exist. In Nynorsk, unlike Bokmål, masculine and feminine nouns are differentiated not only in
366-412: A -verbs get the following inflections: All e -verbs (with -de in preterite) and j -verbs get the following inflections: All other e -verbs (those with -te in preterite) get the following inflections: All short verbs get the following inflections: Present participles are like all other living Scandinavian languages not inflected in Nynorsk. In general, they are formed with
488-405: A copy of the Nynorsk dictionary into a barrel of flames. After strong reactions to this book burning , they apologized and chose not to use the video. Bokmål has a much larger basis in the cities and generally outside of the western part of the country. Most Norwegians do not speak either Nynorsk or Bokmål as written, but a Norwegian dialect that identifies their origins. Nynorsk shares many of
610-497: A dictionary which documented the Nynorsk language in Sunnfjord. In 1749, Erik Pontoppidan released a dictionary of Norwegian words that were incomprehensible to Danish people, Glossarium Norvagicum Eller Forsøg paa en Samling Af saadanne rare Norske Ord Som gemeenlig ikke forstaaes af Danske Folk, Tilligemed en Fortegnelse paa Norske Mænds og Qvinders Navne . Pontoppidan's dictionary was criticised by Torleiv Hannaas for being
732-493: A feminine form, one of which is the adjective liten as is shown in the inflection table below. Adjectives have to agree with the noun in both gender and number just like Bokmål. Unlike Bokmål, Nynorsk has a more completed system of adjective agreement comparable to that of the Swedish language (see Nynorsk past participles ). Just like in Bokmål, adjectives have to agree after certain copula verbs, like in this case
854-564: A more radical approach, based on the principle that the spoken language of people living in the Norwegian countryside, who made up the vast majority of the population, should be regarded as more Norwegian than that of upper-middle class city-dwellers, who for centuries had been substantially influenced by the Danish language and culture. This idea was not unique to Aasen, and can be seen in the wider context of Norwegian romantic nationalism . In
976-405: A much lighter tone than the first three novels. In 1933, Vesaas' novel Sandeltreet ( The Sandalwood ) was published. The book was written over the course of a few weeks in the summer of 1933 after Vesaas' last trip abroad. It focuses on a pregnant woman who believes she will not survive the delivery process, so she goes on a journey to experience as much of life as possible. Vesaas' breakthrough
1098-639: A neo-classical castle and a small zoo ; the Parc de la Citadelle , built around impressive remains of the 17th-century fortress erected close to the Rhine by Vauban ; the Parc de Pourtalès , laid out in English style around a baroque castle (heavily restored in the 19th century) that now houses a small three-star hotel, and featuring an open-air museum of international contemporary sculpture. The Jardin botanique de l'Université de Strasbourg (botanical garden)
1220-639: A new way of writing. ... Some sort of new way of reacting to things." The novel was written in the summer of 1940 during the first few months of the German occupation of Norway . In the winter and spring of 1945, Vesaas wrote his next novel, Huset i mørkret ( The House in the Dark ), an allegorical novel about the German occupation and the Norwegian resistance movement during the Second World War . Due to
1342-735: A number of awards, including the Gyldendal's Endowment in 1943 and the Dobloug Prize in 1957. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature on 57 occasions (once in 1946, and often multiple times every year between 1950 and 1970). His novels have been translated into 28 languages. Several of his books have been translated into English—many of them published by Peter Owen Publishers —among them Spring Night , The Birds, Through Naked Branches, and The Ice Palace . Vesaas
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#17327823991121464-468: A number of permanent public displays of its collections of scientific artefacts and products of all kinds of exploration and research. The commune of Strasbourg proper had a population of 291,313 on 1 January 2021, the result of a constant moderate annual growth which is also reflected in the constant growth of the number of students at its university (e. g. from 42,000 students in 2010 to 52,000 students in 2019). The metropolitan area of Strasbourg had
1586-435: A plural definite that follows the inflection pattern of a feminine word: mennene (the men). The word son which means son is another word that is inflected just like a masculine word except for the plural, where it is inflected like a feminine noun with an umlaut : søner (sons), sønene (the sons). Here is a short list of irregular nouns, many of which are irregular in Bokmål too and some of which even follow
1708-545: A population of 853,110 inhabitants in 2019 (French side of the border only), while the transnational Eurodistrict had a population of 1,000,000 in 2022. In the Middle Ages , Strasbourg (a free imperial city since 1262), was an important town. According to a 1444 census , the population was circa 20,000; only one third less than Cologne , then a major European city. Strasbourg is the seat of internationally renowned institutions of music and drama: Other theatres are
1830-607: A population of 860,744 in 2020, making it the eighth-largest metro area in France and home to 14% of the Grand Est region's inhabitants. The transnational Eurodistrict Strasbourg-Ortenau had a population of roughly 1,000,000 in 2022. Strasbourg is one of the de facto four main capitals of the European Union (alongside Brussels , Luxembourg and Frankfurt ), as it is the seat of several European institutions, such as
1952-417: A somewhat haphazard collection of rarities, and for being written by someone who was not proficient in Nynorsk, in contrast with Jensøn's dictionary. It is agreed, and also admitted by Pontoppidan himself, that the scope of Pontoppidan's work was not to provide a complete or rigid study of Nynorsk, but to make an attempt to further the understanding of the language. A systematic study of the Norwegian language
2074-519: A standard that Aasen called Landsmål. New versions detailing the written standard were published in 1864 and 1873, and in the 20th century by Olav Beito in 1970. During the same period, Venceslaus Ulricus Hammershaimb standardised the orthography of the Faroese language . Spoken Faroese is closely related to Landsmål and dialects in Norway proper, and Lucas Debes and Peder Hansen Resen classified
2196-458: A uniting expression for all Norwegian dialects, what he called the fundamental dialect ; Einar Haugen called it Proto-Norwegian . The idea that the study should end up in a new written language marked Aasen's work from the beginning. A fundamental idea for him was that the fundamental dialect should be Modern Norwegian , not Old Norwegian or Old Norse . Therefore, he did not include grammatical categories which were extinct in all dialects. At
2318-562: A war breaks out. It features a flashing neon sign, adapted from the stage effects Vesaas had seen while traveling in Germany. The play was inspired by Vesaas' frightened reaction to German soldiers marching and holding swastikas . It was not well received by Norwegian audiences when it was first performed at Det Norske Teatret in Oslo . Two years later saw the publication of Vesaas' second short story collection, Leiret og hjulet ( The Clay and
2440-703: Is a tertiary establishment for research and education in Ethics . This center is located at the premises of the old faculty of medicine in Strasbourg. The Center’s name in French is CEERE ( Centre européen d’enseignement et de recherche en éthique ). International schools include: Multiple levels: For elementary education: For middle school/junior high school education: For senior high school/sixth form college: The Bibliothèque nationale et universitaire (BNU) is, with its collection of more than 3,000,000 titles,
2562-468: Is also an adjacent church Saint-Pierre-le-Vieux Protestant ) serves as a shrine for several 15th-century wood-worked and painted altars coming from other, now destroyed churches and installed there for public display; especially the Passion of Christ . Among the numerous secular medieval buildings, the monumental Ancienne Douane (old custom-house ) stands out. The German Renaissance has bequeathed
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#17327823991122684-429: Is also the most common way to construct the sentence in the Norwegian dialects and is also legal Bokmål. Strasbourg Strasbourg ( UK : / ˈ s t r æ z b ɜːr ɡ / , US : / ˈ s t r ɑː s b ʊər ɡ , ˈ s t r ɑː z -, - b ɜːr ɡ / ; French: [stʁasbuʁ] ; German : Straßburg [ˈʃtʁaːsbʊʁk] ; ) is the prefecture and largest city of
2806-634: Is among the few cities in the world that is not a state capital that hosts international organisations of the first order. The city is the seat of many non-European international institutions such as the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine and the International Institute of Human Rights . It is the second city in France in terms of international congress and symposia, after Paris . Strasbourg's historic city centre,
2928-1053: Is chiefly known for its sandstone Gothic Cathedral with its famous astronomical clock , and for its medieval cityscape of Rhineland black and white timber-framed buildings, particularly in the Petite France district or Gerberviertel ("tanners' district") alongside the Ill and in the streets and squares surrounding the cathedral, where the renowned Maison Kammerzell stands out. Notable medieval streets include Rue Mercière , Rue des Dentelles , Rue du Bain aux Plantes , Rue des Juifs , Rue des Frères , Rue des Tonneliers , Rue du Maroquin , Rue des Charpentiers , Rue des Serruriers , Grand' Rue , Quai des Bateliers , Quai Saint-Nicolas and Quai Saint-Thomas . Notable medieval squares include Place de la Cathédrale , Place du Marché Gayot , Place Saint-Étienne , Place du Marché aux Cochons de Lait and Place Benjamin Zix . In addition to
3050-455: Is closer to Riksmål and Danish. Between 10 and 15 percent of Norwegians (primarily in the west around the city of Bergen ) have Nynorsk as their official language form, estimated by the number of students attending secondary schools. Nynorsk is also taught as a mandatory subject in both high school and middle school for all Norwegians who do not have it as their own language form. Norway had its own written and oral language— Norwegian . After
3172-410: Is decided by referendum within the local school district. The number of school districts and pupils using primarily Nynorsk has decreased from its height in the 1940s, even in Nynorsk municipalities. Nynorsk is also part of the school curriculum in high school and elementary school for all students in Norway, where students are taught to write it. The prevailing regions for Nynorsk are the rural areas of
3294-491: Is mostly used in scripted contexts, like news broadcasts from television stations, such as NRK and TV2 . It's also widely used in theaters, like Det Norske Teatret and by teachers. Since the 1970s, the motto of the Nynorsk movement has largely been "speak dialect, write Nynorsk", which has marginalized the use of normed Nynorsk speech to mainly scripted contexts. This is in contrast to the normed Bokmål speech which many speakers use in all social settings. Outside of scripts, it
3416-546: Is one of the two official written standards of the Norwegian language , the other being Bokmål . From 12 May 1885, it became the state-sanctioned version of Ivar Aasen 's standard Norwegian language ( Landsmål ), parallel to the Dano-Norwegian written standard known as Riksmål . The name Nynorsk was introduced in 1929. After a series of reforms, it is still the written standard closer to Landsmål , whereas Bokmål
3538-427: Is quite common to rather speak a Norwegian dialect. Compared to many other countries, dialects have a higher social status in Norway and are often used even in official contexts. At the same time, it is not uncommon for dialect speakers to use a register closer to the Nynorsk writing standard when deemed suitable, especially in formal contexts. Nynorsk is a North Germanic language , close in form to both Icelandic and
3660-537: Is slightly more complicated in Bokmål, which has inherited the Danish two-gender system. Written Danish retains only the neuter and the common gender. Though the common gender took what used to be the feminine inflections in Danish, it matches the masculine inflections in Norwegian. The Norwegianization in the 20th century brought the three-gender system into Bokmål, but the process was never completed. In Nynorsk these are important distinctions, in contrast to Bokmål, in which all feminine nouns may also become masculine (due to
3782-459: Is the only Norwegian-language form of publication, among them are Dag & Tid and Framtida.no . Many local newspapers have also chosen Nynorsk as the only language form of publication, like Firdaposten , Hallingdølen , Hordaland and Bø blad . Many newspapers are also officially neutral, conforming to either Nynorsk or Bokmål in an article as they see fit, like Klassekampen and Bergens Tidende . Commercial products produced in
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3904-508: Is the same as the neuter form of the adjective, just like in Bokmål. For instance Han gjør lite (he does little). Adverbs are not inflected, like most European languages. The system of agreement after copula verbs in the Scandinavian languages is a remnant of the grammatical case system. The verbs where the subject and predicate of the verb had the same case are known as copula verbs. The system of grammatical case disappeared but there
4026-491: Is unnecessary, and that students would be better off spending their time on learning a foreign language, or simply focusing on one of the language forms. Some critics of obligatory Nynorsk and Bokmål as school subjects have been very outspoken about their opposition. For instance, during the 2005 election, the Norwegian Young Conservatives made an advertisement where a candidate for parliament threw
4148-594: The Grande Île (Grand Island), was classified a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988, with the newer " Neustadt " being added to the site in 2017. Strasbourg is immersed in Franco-German culture and although violently disputed throughout history, has been a cultural bridge between France and Germany for centuries, especially through the University of Strasbourg , currently the second-largest in France, and
4270-916: The Hôpital civil . As for French Neo-classicism , it is the Opera House on Place Broglie that most prestigiously represents this style. Strasbourg also offers high-class eclecticist buildings in its very extended German district, the Neustadt , being the main memory of Wilhelmian architecture since most of the major cities in Germany proper suffered intensive damage during World War II. Streets, boulevards and avenues are homogeneous, surprisingly high (up to seven stories) and broad examples of German urban lay-out and of this architectural style that summons and mixes up five centuries of European architecture as well as Neo-Egyptian, Neo-Greek and Neo-Babylonian styles. The former imperial palace Palais du Rhin ,
4392-977: The European Parliament , the Eurocorps and the European Ombudsman of the European Union . An organization separate from the European Union, the Council of Europe (with its European Court of Human Rights , its European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines most commonly known in French as "Pharmacopée Européenne", and its European Audiovisual Observatory ) is also located in the city. Together with Basel ( Bank for International Settlements ), Geneva ( United Nations ), The Hague ( International Court of Justice ) and New York City (United Nations world headquarters), Strasbourg
4514-594: The Grand Est region of eastern France , at the border with Germany in the historic region of Alsace . It is the prefecture of the Bas-Rhin department and the official seat of the European Parliament . The city has about three hundred thousand inhabitants, and together Greater Strasbourg and the Arrondissement of Strasbourg have over five hundred thousand. Strasbourg's metropolitan area had
4636-602: The Hôtel du Département facing it, as well as, in the outskirts, the tramway-station Hoenheim -Nord designed by Zaha Hadid . The city has many bridges, including the medieval and four-towered Ponts Couverts that, despite their name, are no longer covered. Next to the Ponts Couverts is the Barrage Vauban , a part of Vauban 's 17th-century fortifications, that does include a covered bridge. Other bridges are
4758-547: The Kalmar Union , Norway became a less important part of Denmark . At that time, Danish was declared the written language of Norway until 1814, and Danish with Norwegian intonation and pronunciation was on occasion spoken in the cities (see Dano-Norwegian ). With the independence of Norway from Denmark, Danish became a foreign language and thus lost much of its prestige, and a conservative, written form of Norwegian, Landsmål, had been developed by 1850. By this time, however,
4880-518: The Nordic Council's Literature Prize in 1963 for The Ice Palace. Vesaas' fourth and final short story collection, Ein vakker dag ( A Lovely Day ), was published in 1959. The stories in the collection primarily deal with everyday events. His penultimate novel, Bruene ( The Bridges ), was published in 1968. Two years later, his final novel, Båten om Kvelden ( The Boat in the Evening )
5002-699: The Théâtre jeune public , the TAPS Scala , the Kafteur ... Strasbourg, well known as a centre of humanism , has a long history of excellence in higher education, at the crossroads of French and German intellectual traditions. Although Strasbourg had been annexed by the Kingdom of France in 1683, it still remained connected to the German-speaking intellectual world throughout the 18th century, and
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5124-569: The western counties of Rogaland , Vestland and Møre og Romsdal , where an estimated 90% of the population writes Nynorsk. Some of the rural parts of Innlandet , Buskerud , Telemark and Agder also write primarily in Nynorsk. In the Sunnmøre region of Møre og Romsdal, all municipalities (except the Bokmål-majority Ålesund) have stated Nynorsk as the official standard. In Vestland, almost all municipalities have declared Nynorsk as
5246-518: The " Hôtel de Hanau " (1736, now the city hall); the Hôtel de Klinglin (1736, now residence of the préfet ); the Hôtel des Deux-Ponts (1755, now residence of the military governor ); the Hôtel d'Andlau-Klinglin (1725, now seat of the administration of the Port autonome de Strasbourg ) etc. The largest baroque building of Strasbourg though is the 150-metre-long (490 ft) 1720s main building of
5368-411: The "standard-neutral" counties have declared Nynorsk as their official standard. Ålesund was the largest municipality with Nynorsk as its official language form, until the area of Haram, Norway (a Nynorsk-majority area) was separated from the rest of the municipality from 1 January 2024, and the remaining Ålesund municipality opted for "standard-neutrality". The main standard used in primary schools
5490-429: The 1840s, Aasen traveled across rural Norway and studied its dialects. He preferred the rural dialects of Vestlandet and inland Østlandet , whilst avoiding the city dialects and focusing less on the dialects of southern Østlandet and southern coast of Skagerrak , which he considered to be too much corrupted by Danish. In 1848 and 1850, he published the first Norwegian grammar and dictionary, respectively, which described
5612-561: The 1880s can be found along the newly reopened Rue du Rempart , displaying large-scale fortifications among which the aptly named Kriegstor (war gate). As for modern and contemporary architecture , Strasbourg possesses some fine Art Nouveau buildings (such as the huge Palais des Fêtes and houses and villas like Villa Schutzenberger and Hôtel Brion ), good examples of post-World War II functional architecture (the Cité Rotterdam , for which Le Corbusier did not succeed in
5734-556: The Danish language had been gradually reformed into the written language Riksmål, and no agreement was reached on which of the two forms to use. In 1885, the parliament declared the two forms official and equal. Efforts were made to fuse the two written forms into one language. A result was that Landsmål and Riksmål lost their official status in 1929, and were replaced by the written forms Nynorsk and Bokmål, which were intended to be temporary intermediary stages before their final fusion into one hypothesised official Norwegian language known at
5856-462: The Faroese tongue as Norwegian in the late 17th century. Faroese is now regarded as a separate language. Aasen's work is based on the idea that Norwegian dialects had a common structure that made them a separate language alongside Danish and Swedish. The central point for Aasen therefore became to find and show the structural dependencies between the dialects. In order to abstract this structure from
5978-514: The Gaulish word for fortified enclosures, cognate to the Old Irish ráth (see ringfort ) and arganto(n)- (cognate to Latin argentum , which gave modern French argent ), the Gaulish word for silver, but also any precious metal, particularly gold, suggesting either a fortified enclosure located by a river gold mining site, or hoarding gold mined in the nearby rivers. After the fifth century
6100-414: The German artillery to lay their guns. A librarian from Munich later pointed out "...that the destruction of the precious collection was not the fault of a German artillery officer, who used the French map, but of the slovenly and inaccurate scholarship of a Frenchman." The municipal library Bibliothèque municipale de Strasbourg (BMS) administers a network of ten medium-sized libraries in different areas of
6222-475: The German district include: Avenue de la Forêt Noire , Avenue des Vosges , Avenue d'Alsace , Avenue de la Marseillaise , Avenue de la Liberté , Boulevard de la Victoire , Rue Sellénick , Rue du Général de Castelnau , Rue du Maréchal Foch , and Rue du Maréchal Joffre . Notable squares of the German district include Place de la République , Place de l'Université , Place Brant , and Place Arnold . Impressive examples of Prussian military architecture of
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#17327823991126344-481: The Gothic Église protestante Saint-Pierre-le-Jeune with its crypt dating back to the seventh century and its cloister partly from the eleventh century; the Gothic Église Saint-Guillaume with its fine early-Renaissance stained glass and furniture; the Gothic Église Saint-Jean ; the part-Gothic, part- Art Nouveau Église Sainte-Madeleine etc. The Neo-Gothic church Saint-Pierre-le-Vieux Catholique (there
6466-615: The Nazi occupation (atrocities such as the Jewish skull collection ) and the British and American bombing raids . Some other notable dates were the years 357 ( Battle of Argentoratum ), 842 ( Oaths of Strasbourg ), 1538 (establishment of the university ), 1605 (world's first newspaper printed by Johann Carolus ), 1792 ( La Marseillaise ), and 1889 (pancreatic origin of diabetes discovered by Minkowski and Von Mering ). Strasbourg has been
6588-406: The Norwegian language in use after Old Norwegian , 11th to 14th centuries, and Middle Norwegian , 1350 to about 1550. The written Norwegian that was used until the period of Danish rule (1536-1814), closely resembles Nynorsk (New Norwegian). A major source of old written material is Diplomatarium Norvegicum in 22 printed volumes. In 2023 Jon Fosse received the Nobel Prize in Literature . He
6710-461: The Nynorsk areas of Norway are also often distributed with Nynorsk text, like types of Gamalost . Many computer programs and apps that serve the whole country often present a choice between Bokmål and Nynorsk, especially those produced by the Norwegian government. There are also requirements by law that many Norwegian institutions have to follow. These laws are in order to keep Nynorsk and Bokmål as equals, which has been seen as an important case since
6832-435: The Rhine opened in 2004 and is the most extended (60-hectare) park of the agglomeration. The most recent park is Parc du Heyritz (8,7 ha), opened in 2014 along a canal facing the hôpital civil . As of 2020, the city of Strasbourg has eleven municipal museums (including Aubette 1928 ), eleven university museums, and at least two privately owned museums ( Musée vodou and Musée du barreau de Strasbourg ). Five communes in
6954-484: The Vosges and Black Forest mountains, results in poor natural ventilation, making Strasbourg one of the most atmospherically polluted cities of France. Nonetheless, the progressive disappearance of heavy industry on both banks of the Rhine, as well as effective measures of traffic regulation in and around the city have reduced air pollution in recent years. Strasbourg is divided into the following districts: The city
7076-474: The Wheel ). Most of the stories deal with the aspects of rural life. Vesaas' novel Kimen ( The Seed ) is frequently seen as a dividing line between his earlier realistic novels and his later, more symbolic and experimental works. Vesaas stated, "Among my books The Seed stands as a dividing line. It wasn't planned that way, but something so horrifying and unbelievable had happened that it simply brought with it
7198-515: The architectural contest) and, in the very extended Quartier Européen , some spectacular administrative buildings of sometimes utterly large size, among which the European Court of Human Rights building by Richard Rogers is arguably the finest. Other noticeable contemporary buildings are the new Music school Cité de la Musique et de la Danse , the Musée d'Art moderne et contemporain and
7320-457: The cathedral, Strasbourg houses several other medieval churches that have survived the many wars and destructions that have plagued the city: the Romanesque Église Saint-Étienne , partly destroyed in 1944 by Allied bombing raids ; the part-Romanesque, part-Gothic, very large Église Saint-Thomas with its Silbermann organ on which Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Albert Schweitzer played;
7442-649: The city became known by a completely different name, later Gallicized as Strasbourg ( Lower Alsatian : Strossburi ; German : Straßburg ). That name is of Germanic origin and means 'town (at the crossing) of roads'. The modern Stras- is cognate with the German Straße and English street , both derived from Latin strata ("paved road"), while -bourg is cognate with the German Burg and English borough , both derived from Proto-Germanic *burgz ("hill fort, fortress"). Gregory of Tours
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#17327823991127564-551: The city of Argentoratum, which they now call Strateburgus "), where he was exiled. The Roman camp of Argentoratum was first mentioned in 12 BCE; the city of Strasbourg which grew from it celebrated its 2,000th anniversary in 1988. The fertile area in the Upper Rhine Plain between the rivers Ill and Rhine had already been populated since the Middle Paleolithic . Between 362 and 1262, Strasbourg
7686-542: The city some noteworthy buildings (especially the current Chambre de commerce et d'industrie , former town hall , on Place Gutenberg ), as did the French Baroque and Classicism with several hôtels particuliers (i.e. palaces ), among which the Palais Rohan (completed 1742, used for university purposes from 1872 to 1895, now housing three museums) is the most spectacular. Other buildings of its kind are
7808-471: The city took part in the Protestation at Speyer . It was also one of the first centres of the printing industry with pioneers such as Johannes Gutenberg , Johannes Mentelin , and Heinrich Eggestein . Among the darkest periods in the city's long history were the years 1349 ( Strasbourg massacre ), 1518 ( Dancing plague ), 1793 ( Reign of Terror ), 1870 ( Siege of Strasbourg ) and the years 1940–1944 with
7930-529: The coexistence of Catholic and Protestant culture . It is also home to the largest Islamic place of worship in France, the Strasbourg Grand Mosque . Economically, Strasbourg is an important centre of manufacturing and engineering, as well as a hub of road, rail, and river transportation. The port of Strasbourg is the second-largest on the Rhine after Duisburg in Germany, and the second-largest river port in France after Paris . Until
8052-466: The creation of the language forms. For instance the State-owned broadcaster NRK is required by law to have at least 25% of their content in Nynorsk. This means that at least one quarter of their content on broadcast and online media has to be in Nynorsk. There is also a requirement for state organs and universities to have content written in Nynorsk. Every student in the country should be presented
8174-688: The dangers of owning the manuscript, it was hidden away in a zinc box until the end of the occupation in May 1945. The book was published in the autumn later that year. Kjeldene ( The Springs ), Vesaas' first poetry collection, was published in 1946. In 1931, Vesaas' wife Halldis Moren gave him a poetry collection by Edith Södergran ; these inspired Vesaas to begin writing poetry himself. His initial attempts were unsuccessful, causing him to turn away from poetry. However, fourteen years later, his passion for poetry reemerged, and he wrote The Springs . Also in 1946, Vesaas' novel Bleikeplassen ( The Bleaching Place ),
8296-779: The diverse post-graduate schools: The three institutions merged in 2009, forming the Université de Strasbourg . Its component schools include: Two American colleges have a base in Strasbourg: Syracuse University , New York, and Centre College , Kentucky. There is also HEAR ( Haute école des arts du Rhin ) the celebrated art school , and the International Space University in the south of Strasbourg ( Illkirch-Graffenstaden ). The European Center for Studies and Research in Ethics
8418-422: The feminine forms are not optional, they have to be used. As for adjectives and determiners, the list of words with a feminine inflection form are quite few compared to those for the masculine and neuter after the 2012 language revision. All the past participles for strong verbs are for instance no longer inflected for the feminine (with an inflection ending -i ) and there is just a handful of adjectives left with
8540-405: The fifth century AD, the city was known as Argantorati (in the nominative , Argantorate in the locative ), a Celtic Gaulish name Latinised first as Argentorate (with Gaulish locative ending, as appearing on the first Roman milestones in the first century) and then as Argentoratum (with regular Latin nominative ending, in later Latin texts). That Gaulish name is a compound of -rati ,
8662-422: The first in a tetralogy focusing on protagonist Klas Dyregodt. The second and third books in the series, Sigrid Stallbrokk and Dei ukjende mennene ( The Unknown Men ), were published in 1931 and 1932, respectively. Although it was originally intended as a trilogy, the final novel in the series, Hjarta høyrer sine heimlandstonar ( The Heart Hears Its Native Music ), was published six years later in 1938. It has
8784-448: The following noun also gets the definite inflection - a form of double definiteness. Nynorsk requires the use of double definiteness, where as in Bokmål this is not required due to its Danish origins, but the usage in Bokmål depends on the formality of the text. That is, in Bokmål it is perfectly fine to write I første avsnitt (which means; "in the first paragraph"), while the same sentence in Nynorsk would be I det første avsnittet which
8906-412: The free verse form; Olav Aukrust , Olav Nygard , and Olaf Bull were also poetic inspirations. Vesaas sold his first short stories to a magazine in the early 1920s. His first attempt at writing a novel was rejected by publishers, and thrown onto a fire. His debut was in 1923 with Menneskebonn ( Children of Man ). The novel tells the story of a boy who loses his parents and lover, yet still believes in
9028-501: The importance of being good. A year later, his second novel Huskuld the Herald was published, which tells the story of a village eccentric whose final years are brightened when he befriends a young child abandoned by his mother. In 1925 and 1926, Vesaas' novels Grindegard: Morgonen ( Grinde Farm ) and Grinde‐kveld, eller Den gode engelen ( Evening at Grinde , or The Good Angel ) were published. Vesaas' first successful novel came with
9150-459: The incomplete transition to a three-gender system) and inflect using its forms, and indeed a feminine word may be seen in both forms, for example boka or boken ("the book") in Bokmål. This means that e n lit en stjerne – stjern en ("a small star – the star", only masculine forms) and e i lit a stjerne – stjern a (only feminine forms) both are correct Bokmål, as well as every possible combination: e n lit en stjerne – stjern
9272-404: The metropolitan area also have museums (see below), three of them dedicated to military history. The collections in Strasbourg are distributed over a wide range of museums, according to a system that takes into account not only the types and geographical provenances of the items, but also the epochs. This concerns in particular the following domains: The Université de Strasbourg is in charge of
9394-548: The most political and thus heavily criticized of all German Strasbourg buildings epitomizes the grand scale and stylistic sturdiness of this period. But the two most handsome and ornate buildings of these times are the École internationale des Pontonniers (the former Höhere Mädchenschule , with its towers, turrets and multiple round and square angles and the Haute école des arts du Rhin with its lavishly ornate façade of painted bricks, woodwork and majolica . Notable streets of
9516-557: The north, or 650 kilometres (400 mi) as the river flows, whilst the head of navigation in Basel is some 100 kilometres (62 mi) to the south, or 150 kilometres (93 mi) by river. In spite of its position far inland, Strasbourg has an oceanic climate ( Köppen : Cfb ), though with less maritime influence than the milder climates of Western and Southern France . The city has warm, relatively sunny summers and cool, overcast winters. The third highest temperature ever recorded
9638-443: The official standard – the city of Bergen being one of only two exceptions. Written Nynorsk is found in all the same types of places and for the same uses ( newspapers , commercial products , computer programs , etc.) as other written languages. Most of the biggest newspapers in Norway have certain articles written in Nynorsk, like VG and Aftenposten , but are mainly Bokmål. There are also nationwide newspapers where Nynorsk
9760-594: The opportunity to take their exam in either Nynorsk or Bokmål. Nynorsk is first and foremost a written language form but it does appear as a spoken language. Spoken Nynorsk is often referred to as normed Nynorsk speech. Bokmål speech in Eastern Norway often conforms to Urban East Norwegian , whereas Bokmål speech in Bergen and Trondheim is called pen-bergensk (lit. fine Bergenish) and pen-trøndersk (lit. fine Trondheimish), respectively. Normed Nynorsk speech
9882-553: The ornate 19th-century Pont de la Fonderie (1893, stone) and Pont d'Auvergne (1892, iron), as well as architect Marc Mimram 's futuristic Passerelle over the Rhine, opened in 2004. The largest square at the centre of the city of Strasbourg is the Place Kléber . Located in the heart of the city's commercial area, it was named after general Jean-Baptiste Kléber , born in Strasbourg in 1753 and assassinated in 1800 in Cairo . In
10004-453: The other form of written Norwegian ( Bokmål ). Nynorsk grammar is closer in grammar to Old West Norse than Bokmål is, as the latter was influenced by Danish. Grammatical genders are inherent properties of nouns , and each gender has its own forms of inflection. Standard Nynorsk and all Norwegian dialects, with the notable exception of the Bergen dialect , have three grammatical genders : masculine , feminine and neuter . The situation
10126-617: The problems that minority languages face. In Norway, each municipality and county can choose to declare either of the two language standards as the official language or remain "standard-neutral". As of 2020, 90 municipalities had declared Nynorsk the official standard, while 118 had chosen Bokmål; another 148 were "neutral" between the two, numbers that have been stable since the 1970s. As for counties, three have declared Nynorsk as their official standard: Møre og Romsdal , Telemark and Vestland . Most municipalities in Rogaland and few in
10248-458: The process to create the common language form Samnorsk. A minor purist fraction of the Nynorsk population has stayed firm with the historical Aasen norm where these alterations of Nynorsk were rejected, which is known as Høgnorsk (English: High Norwegian , analogous to High German ). Ivar Aasen-sambandet is an umbrella organization of associations and individuals promoting the use of Høgnorsk, whereas Noregs Mållag and Norsk Målungdom advocate
10370-621: The release of Dei svarte hestane ( The Black Horses ) in 1928, after his previous works were adversely criticized. It also marked the increase in realism and contemporary awareness in Vesaas' novels. The next year, Vesaas published his first short story collection, Klokka i haugen ( The Bell in the Mound ), which contained seven stories written expressly for the collection. It was the first of his books to be translated into another language. In 1930, Vesaas published Fars reise ( Father's Journey ),
10492-545: The river to the German town Kehl . The historic core of Strasbourg, however, lies on the Grande Île in the river Ill , which here flows parallel to, and roughly 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) from, the Rhine. The natural courses of the two rivers eventually join some distance downstream of Strasbourg, although several artificial waterways now connect them within the city. The city lies in the Upper Rhine Plain , at between 132 and 151 metres (433 and 495 ft) above sea level, with
10614-419: The same irregular inflection as in Bokmål (like the word in the first row: ting ): Expressing ownership of a noun (like "the girl's car") is very similar to how it is in Bokmål, but the use of the reflexive possessive pronouns sin , si , sitt , sine are more extensive than in Bokmål due to the preservation of historical grammatical case expressions. Compound words are constructed in exactly
10736-428: The same time, the categories that were inherited from the old language and were still present in some dialects should be represented in the written standard. Haugen has used the word reconstruction rather than construction about this work. From the outset, Nynorsk was met with resistance among those who believed that the Dano-Norwegian then in use was sufficient. With the advent and growth of mass media, exposure to
10858-413: The same way as Bokmål. A grammatical gender is not characterized by noun inflection alone; each gender can have further inflectional forms. That is, gender can determine the inflection of other parts of speech which agree grammatically with a noun. This concerns determiners , adjectives and past participles . The inflection patterns and words are quite similar to those of Bokmål, but unlike Bokmål
10980-580: The seat of European institutions since 1949: first of the International Commission on Civil Status and of the Council of Europe , later of the European Parliament , of the European Science Foundation , of Eurocorps , and others as well. Strasbourg is situated at the eastern border of France with Germany. This border is formed by the Rhine , which also forms the eastern border of the modern city, facing across
11102-489: The second-largest library in France after the Bibliothèque nationale de France . It was founded by the German administration after the complete destruction of the previous municipal library in 1871 and holds the unique status of being simultaneously a students' and a national library. The Strasbourg municipal library had been marked erroneously as "City Hall" in a French commercial map, which had been captured and used by
11224-412: The singular form but also in the plural forms. For example: That is, nouns generally follow these patterns, where all definite articles/plural indefinite articles are suffixes: The gender of each noun normally follows certain patterns. For instance will all nouns ending in -nad be masculine, like the word jobbsøknad (job application). Almost all nouns ending in -ing will be feminine, like
11346-577: The square is a statue of Kléber, under which is a vault containing his remains. On the north side of the square is the Aubette (Orderly Room), built by Jacques François Blondel , architect of the king, in 1765–1772. Strasbourg features a number of prominent parks, of which several are of cultural and historical interest: the Parc de l'Orangerie , laid out as a French garden by André le Nôtre and remodeled as an English garden on behalf of Joséphine de Beauharnais , now displaying noteworthy French gardens,
11468-464: The standard languages increased, and Bokmål's position is dominant in many situations. This may explain why negative attitudes toward Nynorsk persist, as is seen with many minority languages . This is especially prominent among students, who are required to learn both of the official written languages. There are however many individual reasons for both positive and negative attitudes towards Nynorsk. Many claim that obligatory learning of both language forms
11590-405: The suffix -ande on the verb stem; Ein skrivande student (a writing student). As can be seen from the inflection tables for adjectives and past participles , they all have their own inflection for definiteness. Just like Bokmål, when adjectives and past participles are accompanied by the articles in the following table below, the adjective/past participle gets the definite inflection and
11712-443: The time as Samnorsk. This project was later abandoned and Nynorsk and Bokmål remain the two officially sanctioned standards of what is today called the Norwegian language. Both written languages are in reality fusions between the Norwegian and Danish languages as they were spoken and written around 1850, with Nynorsk closer to Norwegian and Bokmål closer to Danish. The official standard of Nynorsk has been significantly altered during
11834-624: The town. A six stories high "Grande bibliothèque", the Médiathèque André Malraux , was inaugurated on 19 September 2008 and is considered the largest in Eastern France. As one of the earliest centres of book-printing in Europe (see above: History), Strasbourg for a long time held a large number of incunabula — books printed before 1500 — in its library as one of its most precious heritages: no less than 7,000. After
11956-497: The university attracted numerous students from the Holy Roman Empire , with Goethe , Metternich and Montgelas , who studied law in Strasbourg, among the most prominent. With 19 Nobel prizes in total, Strasbourg is the most eminent French university outside of Paris. Until 2009, there were three universities in Strasbourg , with an approximate total of 48,500 students in 2007, and another 4,500 students attended one of
12078-580: The upland areas of the Vosges Mountains some 20 km (12 mi) to the west and the Black Forest 25 km (16 mi) to the east. This section of the Rhine valley is a major axis of north–south travel, with river traffic on the Rhine itself, and major roads and railways paralleling it on both banks. The city is some 397 kilometres (247 mi) east of Paris . The mouth of the Rhine lies approximately 450 kilometres (280 mi) to
12200-502: The use of Nynorsk in general. The Landsmål (Landsmaal) language standard was constructed by the Norwegian linguist Ivar Aasen during the mid-19th century, to provide a Norwegian-based alternative to Danish , which was commonly written, and to some extent spoken, in Norway at the time. The word Nynorsk also has another meaning. In addition to being the name of the present, official written language standard, Nynorsk can also refer to
12322-492: The variety of dialects, he developed some basic criteria, which he called the most perfect form . He defined this form as the one that best showed the connection to related words, with similar words, and with the forms in Old Norwegian . No single dialect had all the "perfect forms"; each dialect had preserved different aspects and parts of the language. Through such a systematic approach, Aasen believed one could arrive at
12444-707: The verb conjugation class they pertain to, described in the verb section. In Nynorsk, the verb skrive (to write, strong verb) has the following forms: In fact, all strong verbs are conjugated in this pattern: Strong verbs had an optional feminine form -i prior to the 2012 language revision that still are used among some users. Some of the weak verbs have to agree in only number (just like in Bokmål), while many have to agree in both gender and number (like in Swedish). The weak verbs are inflected according to their conjugation class (see Nynorsk verb conjugation ). All
12566-437: The verb for "to be": vere ( er is its present tense). Other important copula verbs where predicative agreement happens are verte and bli (both mean "become"). Other copula verbs are also ser ut (looks like) and the reflexive verbs in Nynorsk . When verbs are used other than these copula verbs, the adjectives like in the example above will no longer be adjectives but an adverb. The adverb form of an adjective
12688-498: The verb functions as an adjective, are inflected just like an adjective. This is very similar to the system of agreement in the Swedish language , where all participles have an inflection for gender, number and definiteness. In contrast, participles in Bokmål are only in general inflected for number and definiteness and shares many of the inflections it got from the Danish language. The inflections of these participles are inferred from
12810-472: The word forventning (expectation). The -ing nouns also get an irregular inflection pattern, with -ar and -ane in the plural indefinite and plural definite (just like the masculine) but inflected like a feminine noun in every other way. There are a few other common nouns that have an irregular inflection too, like mann which means man and is a masculine word, but for plural it gets an umlaut (just like English): menn (men) and it gets
12932-502: The works of Franz Kafka and Samuel Beckett due to its surrealism , allegory , and mood . Vesaas' third short story collection, Vindane ( The Winds ), featuring thirteen stories, was published in 1952. The following year, Vesaas won the Venice Triennale Prize for the collection. Vårnatt ( Spring Night ), Vesaas' next novel, was published in 1954. Two years later, Ver ny, vår draum ( May Our Dream Stay New )
13054-674: The writer Halldis Moren Vesaas (the daughter of Sven Moren and the sister of Sigmund Moren ) and moved to Midtbø in his home district of Vinje in 1934. They had two children: a son, Olav Vesaas and a daughter, Guri Vesaas . Vesaas' early writing focused on the neo-romantic tradition, with prominent religious sentiments. These early works had many authorial influences, including Rabindranath Tagore ; Rudyard Kipling ; Selma Lagerlöf , especially her Gösta Berling's Saga ; Knut Hamsun , particularly his neo-romantic novels, Pan and Victoria ; Henrik Ibsen ; and Hans E. Kinck . The poems of Edith Södergran caused him to shift more towards
13176-521: Was 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) in August 2003, during the 2003 European heat wave . This record was broken, on 30 June 2019, when it reached 38.8 °C (101.8 °F) and then on 25 July 2019, when it reached 38.9 °C (102.0 °F). The lowest temperature ever recorded was −23.4 °C (−10.1 °F) in December 1938. Strasbourg's location in the Rhine valley, sheltered from strong winds by
13298-691: Was born in Vinje , Telemark , Norway to Olav Vesaas (1870–1951), a farmer and Signe Øygarden (1870–1953), a teacher. He was the oldest of three sons, and was guilt-ridden by his refusal to take over the family farm which had been in the family for almost 300 years. He was forced to leave school at fourteen, and never had any higher education except for a year at Voss Folk High School from 1917–18. Lars Eskeland, Vesaas' teacher at Voss Folk, translated some of Rabindranath Tagore 's writings; these later influenced Vesaas' writing style. He spent much of his youth in solitude, seeking comfort and solace in nature. He married
13420-711: Was captured by the German army in June 1940 at the end of the Battle of France ( World War II ), and subsequently came under German control again through formal annexation into the Gau Baden -Elsaß under the Nazi Gauleiter Robert Wagner ; since the liberation of the city by the 2nd French Armoured Division under General Leclerc in November 1944, it has again been a French city. In 2016, Strasbourg
13542-492: Was created under the German administration next to the Observatory of Strasbourg , built in 1881, and still owns some greenhouses of those times. The Parc des Contades , although the oldest park of the city, was completely remodeled after World War II. The futuristic Parc des Poteries is an example of European park-conception in the late 1990s. The Jardin des deux Rives , spread over Strasbourg and Kehl on both sides of
13664-671: Was governed by the bishops of Strasbourg ; their rule was reinforced in 873 and then more in 982. In 1262, the citizens violently rebelled against the bishop's rule ( Battle of Hausbergen ) and Strasbourg became a free imperial city . It became a French city in 1681, after the conquest of Alsace by the armies of Louis XIV . In 1871, after the Franco-Prussian War , the city, as part of the Imperial Territory of Alsace–Lorraine , became German again, until 1918 (end of World War I ), when it reverted to France. Strasbourg
13786-522: Was in 1934 with The Great Cycle ( Det store spelet ), which was praised by contemporary critics. The sequel, Kvinnor ropar heim ( Women Call Home ), was published a year later, in 1935. Also in 1934, Vesaas' second play Ultimatum was published; it was primarily written two years earlier in September 1932 in Strasbourg . Ultimatum focuses on the reactions of a group of young people just before
13908-415: Was made by Ivar Aasen in the mid 19th century. After the dissolution of Denmark–Norway and the establishment of the union between Sweden and Norway in 1814, Norwegians considered that neither Danish, by now a foreign language, nor by any means Swedish, were suitable written norms for Norwegian affairs. The linguist Knud Knudsen proposed a gradual Norwegianisation of Danish. Ivar Aasen, however, favoured
14030-565: Was promoted from capital of Alsace to capital of Grand Est . Strasbourg played an important part in the Protestant Reformation , with personalities such as John Calvin , Martin Bucer , Wolfgang Capito , Matthew and Katharina Zell , but also in other aspects of Christianity such as German mysticism , with Johannes Tauler , Pietism , with Philipp Spener , and Reverence for Life , with Albert Schweitzer . Delegates from
14152-473: Was published. Both Bleikeplassen and Tårnet were written before Huset i mørkret but published later because of the German occupation. Lykka for ferdesmenn ( Wanderers' Happiness ), Vesaas' third poetry collection, was published in 1949. Vesaas' novel Signalet ( The Signal ) was published in 1950. The novel, set in a train station, focuses on a group of people waiting for the signal to leave, but it will never come. The book has been described as similar to
14274-501: Was published. The book consists of lyrical sketches which often, according to scholar Kenneth G. Chapman, eliminates "the distinction between prose and poetry." His final poetry collection, Liv ved straumen ( Life by the Stream ), was released posthumously in 1970. It is generally considered his best collection. Nynorsk Nynorsk ( Urban East Norwegian: [ˈnỳːnɔʂk] ; lit. ' New Norwegian ' )
14396-497: Was published. The book is an extensively reworked version of his unpublished play Vaskehuset, which he had withdrawn from its public premiere six years earlier. A year later, his second poetry collection, Leiken og lynet ( The Game and the Lightning ), was published. The collection marked the first time free verse dominated in Vesaas' poetry, largely due to Södergran's poetic influence. In 1948, his novel Tårnet ( The Tower )
14518-401: Was published; it was the last poetry collection to be published in Vesaas' lifetime. The most famous of his works are The Ice Palace (Is-slottet) , a story of two girls who build a profoundly strong relationship, and The Birds (Fuglane) , a story of an adult of a simple childish mind, which through his tenderhearted empathy and imagination bears the role of a seer or writer. He was awarded
14640-590: Was still specific gender forms that was left. Most adjectives will follow this pattern of inflection for adjectives, which is the same as in Bokmål: Examples of adjectives that follow this pattern are adjectives like fin (nice), klar (ready/clear), rar (weird). Adjectives/perfect participles that end in a diphthong (like the word grei , which means straightforward/fine) will follow this inflection pattern: All adjective comparison follow this pattern: Past participles of verbs, which are when
14762-565: Was the first person awarded this prize to write in Nynorsk. After the transition from Middle Norwegian to New Norwegian/Nynorsk ( c. 1525 ), several studies of the language were assembled. The oldest of these is a language overview and collection of proverbs from the early 1600s Vest-Agder. Later in the century, a dictionary from Robyggjelaget was written. Neither of these works were printed until more recently. In 1646, however, Christen Jensøn (1610-1653), born in Askvoll, Norway, released
14884-578: Was the first to mention the name change: in the tenth book of his History of the Franks written shortly after 590 he said that Egidius , Bishop of Reims , accused of plotting against King Childebert II of Austrasia in favor of his uncle King Chilperic I of Neustria , was tried by a synod of Austrasian bishops in Metz in November 590, found guilty and removed from the priesthood, then taken " ad Argentoratensem urbem, quam nunc Strateburgum vocant " ("to
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