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141-577: There have been several town walls around Edinburgh , Scotland , since the 12th century. Some form of wall probably existed from the foundation of the royal burgh in around 1125, though the first building is recorded in the mid-15th century, when the King's Wall was constructed. In the 16th century the more extensive Flodden Wall was erected, following the Scots' defeat at the Battle of Flodden in 1513. This

282-545: A Qing incursion in 1638. By 1641, there were ten bastion forts in the county. Before bastion forts could spread any further, the Ming dynasty fell in 1644, and they were largely forgotten as the Qing dynasty was on the offensive most of the time and had no use for them. In the wake of city growth and the ensuing change of defensive strategy, focusing more on the defense of forts around cities, many city walls were demolished. Also,

423-509: A bit more than a third the width of a major wall in China. According to Philo the width of a wall had to be 4.5 metres (15 ft) thick to be able to withstand ancient (non-gunpowder) siege engines. European walls of the 1200s and 1300s could reach the Roman equivalents but rarely exceeded them in length, width, and height, remaining around 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) thick. When referring to

564-590: A city fully enclosed by walls was not fully developed in Southeast Asia until the arrival of Europeans. However, Burma serves an exception, as they had a longer tradition of fortified walled towns; towns in Burma had city walls by 1566. Besides that, Rangoon in 1755 had stockades made of teak logs on a ground rampart . The city was fortified with six city gates with each gate flanked by massive brick towers. In other areas of Southeast Asia, city walls spread in

705-545: A company making baby carriages was set up. These prams were exported to Canada, South America, India and South Africa. The Princes Street drill hall was completed in 1908 and the Municipal Buildings , which formed the headquarters of Stirling Burgh Council for much of the 20th century, were completed in 1918. After the blockades of the World Wars there was some increase in the use of the port including

846-587: A conference centre, hotel and Vue multiplex cinema, that will ultimately expand the city centre area, linking it to the River Forth, which has been cut off from the city centre area since the construction of the A9 bypass under the railway station in the 1960s. In the service sector, financial services as well as tourism are the biggest employers. The financial services and insurance company Scottish Amicable Life Assurance , now part of Prudential , established

987-490: A cost benefit hypothesis, where the Ming recognized the highly resistant nature of their walls to structural damage, and could not imagine any affordable development of the guns available to them at the time to be capable of breaching said walls. Even as late as the 1490s a Florentine diplomat considered the French claim that "their artillery is capable of creating a breach in a wall of eight feet in thickness" to be ridiculous and

1128-711: A defence. The wall was thought to have run along the south side of what is now the Royal Mile , above the Cowgate , from the slope of the Castle Hill in the west, almost as far as the modern St Mary's Street in the east, where it turned to cross the High Street. However, excavations in the 2002-2004 by Headland Archaeology in the Cowgate, in advance of a housing development, found what is thought to be remains of

1269-533: A dispute. In the early 19th century an "exceedingly low" cost steamboat service used to run between Stirling and Newhaven or Granton . The coming of the railways in 1848 started the decline of the river traffic, not least because the Alloa Swing Bridge downstream restricted access for shipping. The railways did provide opportunity too with one Riverside company selling their reaping machines as far afield as Syria and Australia. Similarly, in 1861,

1410-521: A large and base at Craigforth on the outskirts of Stirling in the 1970s. In terms of tourism, the presence of such historical monuments as Stirling Castle and the Wallace Monument and other nearby attractions like Blair Drummond Safari Park has bolstered Stirling's position as a significant tourist destination in Scotland. The University of Stirling and Stirling Council are two of

1551-432: A matter of debate. In 1930, J. B. Johnston's Place-Names of Scotland suggested a Brittonic origin, and the name was thought likely to be Brittonic by most commentators thereafter. However, in a comprehensive survey of the evidence in 2017, Thomas Owen Clancy showed that a Brittonic etymology is unlikely, and derived the name from Gaelic srib-linn , meaning "pool in the river". A geographical survey of Britain in

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1692-743: A maximum thickness of 43 metres and an average thickness of 20–30 metres. Ming prefectural and provincial capital walls were 10 to 20 metres (33 to 66 ft) thick at the base and 5 to 10 metres (16 to 33 ft) at the top. In Europe the height of wall construction was reached under the Roman Empire , whose walls often reached 10 metres (33 ft) in height, the same as many Chinese city walls, but were only 1.5 to 2.5 metres (4 ft 11 in to 8 ft 2 in) thick. Rome's Servian Walls reached 3.6 and 4 metres (12 and 13 ft) in thickness and 6 to 10 metres (20 to 33 ft) in height. Other fortifications also reached these specifications across

1833-420: A means of controlling trade and taxing goods, and as a deterrent to smugglers. By the mid 18th century, the walls had outlived both their defensive and trade purposes, and demolition of sections of the wall began. The Netherbow Port was pulled down in 1764, and demolition continued into the 19th century. Today, a number of sections of the three successive walls survive, although none of the ports remain. Edinburgh

1974-669: A non-Scots identity was retained in Stirling for some time after inclusion into the land controlled by the King of Scots. The second motto is: It has been claimed that the "Bridge" seal was regarded as the Burgh seal proper, the "Castle" seal being simply a reverse, used when the seal was affixed by a lace to a charter. This agrees with a description in an official publication (which spells Bruti with only one letter t). Clearer images are available with different lettering. Sibbald conflated

2115-423: A purely military and defensive purpose, towers also played a representative and artistic role in the conception of a fortified complex. The architecture of the city thus competed with that of the castle of the noblemen and city walls were often a manifestation of the pride of a particular city. Urban areas outside the city walls, so-called Vorstädte , were often enclosed by their own set of walls and integrated into

2256-422: A response to gunpowder artillery, European fortifications began displaying architectural principles such as lower and thicker walls in the mid-1400s. Cannon towers were built with artillery rooms where cannons could discharge fire from slits in the walls. However, this proved problematic as the slow rate of fire, reverberating concussions, and noxious fumes produced greatly hindered defenders. Gun towers also limited

2397-489: A similar-looking battle-site called urbs Iudeu , which many scholars have assumed was the same as Bede's urbs Giudi , but this identification is uncertain. A stone cist , found in Coneypark Nursery in 1879, is Stirling's oldest catalogued artefact. Bones from the cist were radiocarbon dated and found to be over four millennia old, originating within the date range 2152 to 2021 BC. Nicknamed Torbrex Tam,

2538-556: A single "embassy district", enclosed by a fortified complex with walls and towers – this usually occurs in regions where the embassies run a high risk of being target of attacks. An early example of such a compound was the Legation Quarter in Beijing in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Most of these modern city walls are made of steel and concrete. Vertical concrete plates are put together so as to allow

2679-543: A strategic military role during the 18th-century Jacobite risings . In 1715 , the Earl of Mar failed to take control of the castle. In January 1746 , the army of Bonnie Prince Charlie seized control of the town but failed to take the Castle . On their consequent retreat northwards, they blew up the church of St. Ninians where they had been storing munitions; only the tower survived and can be seen to this day. The castle and

2820-420: A tea trade with India. However, with normal shipping lanes open, the growth of the railways including The Forth Rail Bridge , left the harbour uneconomical and by the mid 20th century the port had ceased to operate. In terms of local government , the city of Stirling is a part of the wider Stirling Council area , which is based at Old Viewforth and governs on matters of local administration as set out by

2961-541: A variety of exhibitions and performances. There are many events at the Stirling Tolbooth and at The Albert Halls . Stirling has hosted the National Mòd several times: in 1909, 1961, 1971 and 1987. There are currently about 20 churches in the city. These include: Church of Scotland Roman Catholic Other churches Islam With Stirling's development as a market town and its location as

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3102-477: A very thick wall in medieval Europe, what is usually meant is a wall of 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) in width, which would have been considered thin in a Chinese context. There are some exceptions such as the Hillfort of Otzenhausen , a Celtic ringfort with a thickness of 40 metres (130 ft) in some parts, but Celtic fort-building practices died out in the early medieval period. Andrade goes on to note that

3243-589: Is a city in central Scotland , 26 miles (42 km) northeast of Glasgow and 37 miles (60 km) north-west of Edinburgh . The market town , surrounded by rich farmland, grew up connecting the royal citadel , the medieval old town with its merchants and tradesmen, the Old Bridge and the port. Located on the River Forth , Stirling is the administrative centre for the Stirling council area, and

3384-475: Is a fort on Gillies Hill built by Iron Age people over 2000 years ago. Two structures are known: what is currently called Wallstale Dun on the southern end of Touchadam Craig, and Gillies Hill fort on the northwest end of the craig. The Wallstale structure is later than the Gillies Hill fort and is related in form to brochs, these appear to coincide with the Roman period and there are around 40 or so in

3525-721: Is in Drummond Street and the Pleasance, where it originally enclosed the Blackfriars Monastery. At the corner of the wall a blocked archway is probably the entrance to a demolished bastion. The site of the Netherbow is marked with an outline of brass blocks at the junction of the High Street and St Mary's Street. There are two remaining sections of the Telfer Wall. The first runs along Heriot Place from

3666-710: Is mentioned with that city in Stirling Council's minutes of 1560. Around John Cowane 's time there is an account which states there were about 30,000 Scots families living in Poland although that was possibly an exaggeration. Trade with the Baltic also took place such as a timber trade with Norway. After the Jacobite threat had faded but before the railways were established, the Highland cattle drovers would use

3807-510: Is one of the world's oldest known walled cities. Before that, the proto-city of Jericho in the West Bank had a wall surrounding it as early as the 8th millennium   BC. The earliest known town wall in Europe is of Solnitsata , built in the 6th or 5th millennium BC. The Assyrians deployed large labour forces to build new palaces, temples and defensive walls. Babylon was one of

3948-561: Is shown on the 1511 Stirling Jug. The area is today known as Wolfcraig. Even today the wolf appears with a goshawk on the council's coat of arms along with the recently chosen motto: "Steadfast as the Rock". Once the capital of Scotland, Stirling is visually dominated by Stirling Castle . Stirling also has a medieval parish church, the Church of the Holy Rude , where, on 29 July 1567,

4089-559: Is sometimes known, comprises two remaining walls with a total length of 17.2 metres (56 ft), pierced by crosslet gunloops and a 19th-century window. Sections of the Flodden Wall can be seen within Greyfriars Kirkyard, adorned with 16th and 17th century tombstones. At the junction of Forrest Road and Bristo Street a line of cobbles and a narrow gap in the later buildings mark the line of the wall. The longest section

4230-754: Is the Romanian Bran Castle , which was intended to protect nearby Kronstadt (today's Braşov ). The city walls were often connected to the fortifications of hill castles via additional walls. Thus the defenses were made up of city and castle fortifications taken together. Several examples of this are preserved, for example in Germany Hirschhorn on the Neckar, Königsberg and Pappenheim , Franken, Burghausen in Oberbayern and many more. A few castles were more directly incorporated into

4371-513: Is traditionally the county town and historic county of Stirlingshire . Proverbially it is the strategically important "Gateway to the Highlands". It has been said that "Stirling, like a huge brooch clasps Highlands and Lowlands together". Similarly "he who holds Stirling, holds Scotland" is sometimes attributed to Robert the Bruce . Stirling's key position as the lowest bridging point of

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4512-501: The Edinburgh Old Town World Heritage Site . Download coordinates as: 55°56′46″N 3°11′49″W  /  55.94622°N 3.19698°W  / 55.94622; -3.19698  ( Edinburgh town walls – nominal location ) Town wall Existing ancient walls are almost always masonry structures, although brick and timber-built variants are also known. Depending on

4653-599: The Gateway to the Highlands and is generally regarded as occupying a strategic position at the point where the flatter, largely undulating Scottish Lowlands meet the rugged slopes of the Highlands along the Highland Boundary Fault . The starkness of this contrast is evidenced by the many hills and mountains of the lower Highlands such as Ben Vorlich and Ben Ledi which can be seen to the northwest of

4794-772: The Heart of Scotland . The Stirling seal has only the second part, in a slightly different form: Apparently the Latin is not first rate having four syllables in "cruce tuti" but the meaning seems to be that the Lowland Strathclyde Britons on the southern shore and the Highland Pictish Scots on the northern shore stand protected from each other by their common Christianity. A more modern translation suggests that rather than Briton, bruit might be better read as brute, i.e. brute Scots, implying

4935-625: The House of Commons of the parliament of the United Kingdom by first past the post system. Chris Kane of the Labour Party has been the MP for Stirling and Strathallan since the 2024 general election , when the seat was first contested - prior to this, Stirling was part of the constituency of Stirling . Historical voting records can be found in online databases. Stirling is renowned as

5076-512: The Indus floodplain. Many of these settlements had fortifications and planned streets. The stone and mud brick houses of Kot Diji were clustered behind massive stone flood dykes and defensive walls, for neighboring communities quarreled constantly about the control of prime agricultural land. Mundigak ( c.  2500   BC ) in present-day south-east Afghanistan has defensive walls and square bastions of sun dried bricks. The concept of

5217-680: The Local Government etc (Scotland) Act 1994 . The current members of the Council were voted in 2017 for a term of office of 5 years. The May 2017 local government election resulted in the Scottish Conservative party and Scottish National Party each winning nine councillors, while the Labour Party won four seats and the Scottish Green Party won one. However, subsequently one Conservative councillor left

5358-626: The National Museum of Scotland ), were built over sections of the wall around the Potterow Port. Forrest Road was laid out in the 1840s, resulting in the loss of another section of the Telfer Wall. During construction works around the Advocates' Library and Parliament House in 1832 and 1845, fragments of walling were uncovered, which were attributed to the King's Wall. Two sections of the increasingly neglected town wall collapsed in

5499-547: The Nor Loch , formed in the early 15th century in the depression where Princes Street Gardens are now laid out. This defence was not natural, but was formed by creating a dam and sluice at the foot of Halkerston 's Wynd to the east. It was further augmented by the steep slope up to the northern edge of the Old Town. Edinburgh Castle , on its rocky outcrop, defended the western approach. Walls were therefore needed primarily on

5640-592: The Stirling Old Bridge in 1297 and at the nearby village of Bannockburn in 1314 involving Andrew Moray and William Wallace , and Robert the Bruce respectively. After the Battle of Stirling Bridge , Moray and Wallace wrote to Hanseatic League leaders in Lübeck and Hamburg to encourage trade between Scottish and German ports. There were also several Sieges of Stirling Castle in the conflict, notably in 1304. Another important historical site in

5781-586: The Stirling Sill , a major defensive position which was at the lowest crossing point on the River Forth. Stirling stands on the Forth at the point where the river widens and becomes tidal . To the east of the city the Ochil Hills dominate the skyline with the highest peak in the range being Ben Cleuch , although Dumyat is more noticeable from Stirling. The Ochils meet the flat carse ( floodplain ) of

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5922-759: The Tang dynasty (618–907   AD). Sections of the Great Wall had been built prior to the Qin dynasty (221–207   BC) and subsequently connected and fortified during the Qin dynasty, although its present form was mostly an engineering feat and remodeling of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644   AD). The large walls of Pingyao serve as one example. Likewise, the walls of the Forbidden City in Beijing were established in

6063-804: The Wars of the Three Kingdoms are clearly visible on the tower and apse of the church. Economically, the city's port supported foreign trade, historically doing significant trade in the Low Countries , particularly with Bruges in Belgium and Veere in the Netherlands. In the 16th century there were so many Scots in Danzig in Prussia that they had their own church congregation and trade

6204-410: The topography of the area surrounding the city or the settlement the wall is intended to protect, elements of the terrain such as rivers or coastlines may be incorporated in order to make the wall more effective. Walls may only be crossed by entering the appropriate city gate and are often supplemented with towers. The practice of building these massive walls, though having its origins in prehistory,

6345-446: The 16th and 17th century along with the rapid growth of cities in this period as a need to defend against European naval attack. Ayutthaya built its walls in 1550 and Banten , Jepara , Tuban and Surabaya all had theirs by 1600; while Makassar had theirs by 1634. A sea wall was the main defense for Gelgel . For cities that did not have city walls, the least it would have had was a stockaded citadel . This wooden walled area housed

6486-570: The 16th century. The bastion and star fort was developed in Italy, where the Florentine engineer Giuliano da Sangallo (1445–1516) compiled a comprehensive defensive plan using the geometric bastion and full trace italienne that became widespread in Europe. The main distinguishing features of the star fort were its angle bastions, each placed to support their neighbor with lethal crossfire, covering all angles, making them extremely difficult to engage with and attack. Angle bastions consisted of two faces and two flanks. Artillery positions positioned at

6627-415: The 18th century, when buildings were constructed along Kings Stables Road and the Wall's western face; and the formation of Granny's Green to the west of the Wall in the late 19th century. A line of granite paving across the Grassmarket marks the line of the wall where it was uncovered during construction work in 2008. In the Vennel the last remaining bastion of the town walls survives. The Flodden Tower, as it

6768-423: The 19th century, less emphasis was placed on preserving the fortifications for the sake of their architectural or historical value – on the one hand, complete fortifications were restored ( Carcassonne ), on the other hand many structures were demolished in an effort to modernize the cities. One exception to this is the "monument preservation" law by the Bavarian King Ludwig I of Bavaria , which led to

6909-404: The Auld Brig on their way to market at Falkirk or Stenhousemuir . Three times a year, tens of thousands of cattle, sheep and ponies were moved together to the trysts in the south with some drovers going as far as Carlisle or even London's Smithfield . There is a record of a four-mile long tailback (of livestock) developing from St. Ninians to Bridge of Allan after a St. Ninians tollman had

7050-413: The Flodden Tower, and forms the west boundary of George Heriot's School. The wall along Lauriston Place was demolished in 1762, as the bastions were obstructing traffic. The only remaining section is that forming the south wall of Greyfriars Kirkyard. An inscription on the building at the corner of Teviot Place and Bristo Street reads "1513 Site of Town Wall", although it was the 17th-century Telfer Wall, not

7191-513: The French "braggarts by nature". Very rarely did cannons blast breaches in city walls in Chinese warfare. This may have been partly due to cultural tradition. Famous military commanders such as Sun Tzu and Zheng Zhilong recommended not to directly attack cities and storm their walls. Even when direct assaults were made with cannons, it was usually by focusing on the gates rather than the walls. There were instances where cannons were used against walled fortifications, such as by Koxinga , but only in

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7332-403: The French and the Auld Alliance . On 9 September, the Scots met the English at the Battle of Flodden , and were heavily defeated, with King James killed on the field. An English invasion was widely expected, and in Edinburgh it was resolved to build a new town wall. However, the new wall was also an opportunity to control smuggling into the burgh, and the town council accordingly decided to extend

7473-412: The Guildry and Council. In 2014 the tradition was revived after an official abeyance of several years. There are about sixteen libraries and two mobile libraries in Stirling. The Smith Art Gallery and Museum is now free to tourists and residents alike. Shearer's 1895 Penny Guide to Stirling and Neighbourhood used to list it under "How to spend a few hours on a wet day". The Macrobert Arts Centre has

7614-475: The King's Wall. This discovery pushes the southern boundary of the wall significantly further south, down on to the Cowgate. This discovery, plus the discovery of a massive fortification ditch at the excavations of St Patrick’s Church has led the archaeologists to believe that large portions of the medieval town defences were situated along the north side of the Cowgate and not halfway up the slope. In 1513, King James IV led an invasion of England in support of

7755-416: The Netherbow Port, although this was resisted by the town, and commuted to a fine by the House of Commons . When the town was threatened by the Jacobite rising of 1745 , a company of volunteer citizens was raised for the defence of the city, and the mathematics professor Colin Maclaurin advised on improvements to the walls. However, as Bonnie Prince Charlie 's troops approached, the town was undermanned and

7896-412: The Pleasance. North of the Grassmarket the wall runs alongside Granny's Green Steps and has been incorporated into later buildings, including the former Greyfriars Mission Kirk. Archaeological excavations and surveys between 1998-2001 found that this section of the wall went through three major phases of construction and redevelopment - its initial building; significant rebuilding during the third quarter of

8037-414: The Protestant Lords of the Congregation marched on Edinburgh against the Catholic French Regent, Mary of Guise , and were able to take control of the town without difficulty, despite the guards posted at the city gate. Following the forced abdication of Queen Mary, Scotland's nobility was divided between her supporters, and those of the infant King James VI , represented by a series of regents . Edinburgh

8178-409: The River Forth before it broadens towards the Firth of Forth made it a focal point for travel north or south. When Stirling was temporarily under Anglo-Saxon sway, according to a 9th-century legend, it was attacked by Danish invaders. The sound of a wolf roused a sentry, however, who alerted his garrison, which forced a Viking retreat. This led to the wolf being adopted as a symbol of the town as

8319-425: The River Forth to the east of the distinctive geographical feature of Abbey Craig , a crag and tail hill upon which stands the 220 ft (67 m) high National Wallace Monument . Top of the Town consists of Broad Street, Castle Wynd, Ballengeich Pass, Lower Castle Hill Road, Darnley Street, Baker Street (formerly Baxters St), St John Street and St Mary's Wynd. These streets all lead up to Stirling Castle and are

8460-428: The Rough Wooing . On 6 May, having captured Leith, Hertford's men, under the command of Sir Christopher Morris , blew open the Netherbow Port with their artillery. The town was burned over the following three days, "so that neither within the walls nor in the suburbs was left any one house unburnt". Further disturbances took place during the troubled reign of Mary, Queen of Scots (1542–1567), and its aftermath. In 1558

8601-465: The Scottish Parliament (MSP) by the first past the post system of election, and the region elects seven additional members to produce a form of proportional representation. The constituency's Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) is Evelyn Tweed of the Scottish National Party (SNP). In terms of national government, the city of Stirling forms part of the county constituency of Stirling and Strathallan , electing one Member of Parliament (MP) to

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8742-405: The Scottish average of 18.6%. Historical records also exist both in book form and in online databases. Walking the Marches is a custom probably started in the 12th century. The only way the town's boundaries could be protected was to walk round inspecting them annually. The walk was followed by a dinner. This was traditionally done by the Birlaw men made up from members of the Seven Trades,

8883-421: The Upper Bow or Over-Bow, in the vicinity of what is now Victoria Street, and the Nether Bow, on the present Royal Mile near Fountain Close, which was located near around 46 metres (151 ft) further west than the later structure. In addition, posterns (side gates) were provided, for example at Gray's Close. The alignment of the wall was irregular, as existing property boundaries or walls were reinforced to form

9024-687: The ancient site of Mycenae (famous for the huge stone blocks of its ' cyclopean ' walls). In classical era Greece, the city of Athens built a long set of parallel stone walls called the Long Walls that reached their guarded seaport at Piraeus . Exceptions were few, but neither ancient Sparta nor ancient Rome had walls for a long time, choosing to rely on their militaries for defense instead. Initially, these fortifications were simple constructions of wood and earth, which were later replaced by mixed constructions of stones piled on top of each other without mortar . The Romans later fortified their cities with massive, mortar-bound stone walls. Among these are

9165-409: The area is the ruins of Cambuskenneth Abbey , the resting place of King James III of Scotland and his queen, Margaret of Denmark . The king died at the Battle of Sauchieburn by forces nominally led by his son and successor James IV . During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms , the Battle of Stirling also took place in the centre of Stirling on 12 September 1648. The fortifications continued to play

9306-407: The battlements. The Flodden Wall, as it became known, was generally around 1.2 metres (3 ft 11 in) thick and up to 7.3 metres (24 ft) high. The Flodden Wall began at the south side of the castle, running south across the west end of the Grassmarket, where the West Port was located, and continued uphill along the Vennel. A watch-tower or bastion survives at this, the south-west extent of

9447-406: The besiegers withdrew on 20 May. Again the defences were strengthened in September, in advance of a second siege which began on 16 October. By this stage only ten per cent of Edinburgh's inhabitants remained in the city. The besiegers under Regent Mar had only seven guns, and while they did manage to breach the Flodden Wall, the inner defences were too strong for an assault. By 21 October the siege

9588-427: The case of small villages. During Koxinga's career, there is only one recorded case of capturing a settlement by bombarding its walls: the siege of Taizhou in 1658. In 1662, the Dutch found that bombarding the walls of a town in Fujian Province had no effect and they focused on the gates instead just as in Chinese warfare. In 1841, a 74-gun British warship bombarded a Chinese coastal fort near Guangzhou and found that it

9729-403: The castle they were: Besides, there were a number of small posterns. The heads and limbs of executed criminals were regularly displayed above the ports. Of the six ports, the Netherbow was the only one which took the form of a large fortified gateway. Repairs to the Netherbow are recorded in 1538, and a drawing of 1544 shows the Netherbow as a wide arched gate flanked by two round towers. In 1571,

9870-402: The church are shown on Blaeu 's map of 1654 which was derived from Pont 's earlier map. Standing near the castle, the Church of the Holy Rude is one of the town's most historically important buildings. Founded in 1129 it is the second oldest building in the city after Stirling castle. It was rebuilt in the 15th-century after Stirling suffered a catastrophic fire in 1405, and is reputed to be

10011-416: The circumvention of the city, through which many important trade routes passed, thus ensuring that tolls were paid when the caravans passed through the city gates, and that the local market was visited by the trade caravans. Furthermore, additional signaling and observation towers were frequently built outside the city, and were sometimes fortified in a castle-like fashion. The border of the area of influence of

10152-455: The city bypass to the east of Stirling. A major new regeneration project on the site of the former port area and the 40-acre (160,000 m ) former Ministry of Defence site, adjacent to Stirling Railway Station , is currently underway. Known as Forthside, it has the aim of developing a new waterfront district linked to the railway station via Forthside Bridge . The development comprises retail, residential and commercial elements, including

10293-475: The city was often partially or fully defended by elaborate ditches, walls and hedges. The crossing points were usually guarded by gates or gate houses. These defenses were regularly checked by riders, who often also served as the gate keepers. Long stretches of these defenses can still be seen to this day, and even some gates are still intact. To further protect their territory, rich cities also established castles in their area of influence. An example of this practice

10434-456: The city. On the other hand, the Carse of Stirling , stretching to the west and east of the city, is one of the flattest and most agriculturally productive expanses of land in the whole of Scotland. The land surrounding Stirling has been most affected by glacial erosion and deposition . The city itself has grown up around its castle which stands atop an ancient quartz-dolerite sill , known as

10575-442: The comoune profit, grauntit to thaim full licence and leiff to fosse, bulwark, wall, toure, turate, and uther wais to strengthen oure foresaid Burgh in quhat maner of wise or degree that beis sene maste spedefule to thame. Given under oure Grete Seale at Strivelyn the last day of Aprile, and of oure regne the thretene yhere, anno 1450. Inasmuch as we are informed by our well-beloved Provost and Community of Edinburgh, that they dread

10716-536: The construction of the "European Rampart" alongside its border with Russia to be able to successfully apply for a visa-free movement with the European Union. At its simplest, a defensive wall consists of a wall enclosure and its gates. For the most part, the top of the walls were accessible, with the outside of the walls having tall parapets with embrasures or merlons . North of the Alps, this passageway at

10857-562: The cooling effects of the North Sea and the Firth of Clyde . The settlement of Stirling had a population of 48,440 in 2012. According to the 2001 census, 52.7% of the population was female compared to 47.2% male. Stirling had both a smaller proportion of under 16s, at 16.7% compared to the Scottish average of 19.2%, and a smaller proportion of those of pensionable age: 17.8% – compared to

10998-538: The defense of the city. These areas were often inhabited by the poorer population and held the "noxious trades". In many cities, a new wall was built once the city had grown outside of the old wall. This can often still be seen in the layout of the city, for example in Nördlingen , and sometimes even a few of the old gate towers are preserved, such as the white tower in Nuremberg . Additional constructions prevented

11139-547: The defensive strategy of the city (e.g. Nuremberg , Zons , Carcassonne ), or the cities were directly outside the castle as a sort of "pre-castle" (Coucy-le-Chateau, Conwy and others). Larger cities often had multiple stewards – for example Augsburg was divided into a Reichstadt and a clerical city. These different parts were often separated by their own fortifications. Stirling Stirling ( / ˈ s t ɜːr l ɪ ŋ / ; Scots : Stirlin ; Scottish Gaelic : Sruighlea [ˈs̪t̪ɾuʝlə] )

11280-596: The earlier Flodden Wall, which stood on this spot. The majority of the surviving sections are protected as scheduled monuments : the Flodden Wall at Granny's Green; the Flodden and Telfer Walls at the Vennel and Heriot Place; and the Flodden Wall at Drummond Place and Pleasance. The walling in Tweeddale Court and the sections within Greyfriars Kirkyard are protected as listed buildings . The walls also form part of

11421-417: The early Middle Ages also saw the creation of some towns built around castles. These cities were only rarely protected by simple stone walls and more usually by a combination of both walls and ditches . From the 12th century AD hundreds of settlements of all sizes were founded all across Europe, which very often obtained the right of fortification soon afterwards. Several medieval town walls have survived into

11562-465: The early 15th century by the Yongle Emperor . According to Tonio Andrade , the immense thickness of Chinese city walls prevented larger cannons from being developed, since even industrial era artillery had trouble breaching Chinese walls. Eupseongs (Hangul: 읍성), 'city fortresses', which served both military and administrative functions, have been constructed since the time of Silla until

11703-485: The eighth-century Ecclesiastical History of the English People by Bede also mentions a place called urbs Giudi ("the town of Giudi "). Although its location is not certain, a 2023 study found that "Stirling is the location of urbs Giudi favoured by most scholars", and itself supported this identification. This name is thought etymologically to be Celtic. The ninth-century Historia Brittonum mentions

11844-455: The empire, but all these paled in comparison to contemporary Chinese walls, which could reach a thickness of 20 metres (66 ft) at the base in extreme cases. Even the walls of Constantinople which have been described as "the most famous and complicated system of defence in the civilized world," could not match up to a major Chinese city wall. Had both the outer and inner walls of Constantinople been combined they would have only reached roughly

11985-595: The end of the Joseon dynasty . Throughout the period of the Joseon dynasty eupseongs were modified and renovated, and new eupseongs were built, but in 1910 Japan (the occupying power of Korea) issued an order for their demolition, resulting in most being destroyed. Studies of the ruins and reconstructions of the ancient city walls are currently being undertaken at some sites. In ancient Greece , large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece , such as

12126-627: The energy of artillery shots. Walls were constructed using wooden frameworks which were filled with layers of earth tamped down to a highly compact state, and once that was completed the frameworks were removed for use in the next wall section. Starting from the Song dynasty these walls were improved with an outer layer of bricks or stone to prevent erosion, and during the Ming, earthworks were interspersed with stone and rubble. Most Chinese walls were also sloped rather than vertical to better deflect projectile energy. The defensive response to cannon in Europe

12267-482: The evil and injury of our enemies of England, we have in favour of them, and for the zeal and affection that we have for the Provost and Community of our said Burgh, and for the common profit, granted to them full licence and leave to fosse, bulwark, wall, tower, turret, and other ways to strengthen our said Burgh in what manner of ways or degree that be seen most speedful to them. Given under our Great Seal at Stirling

12408-603: The favourite haunt of tourists who stop off at the Old Town Jail, Mar's Wark , Argyll's Lodging and the castle. Ballengeich Pass leads to the graveyard at Ballengeich and the Castle Wynd winds past the old graveyard. The Top of the Town from Broad Street upwards is renowned for its cobblestoned roads, and cars can be heard rattling over the cobblestones on the way down. Craft shops and tourist-focused shops are evident on

12549-404: The flanks could fire parallel into the opposite bastion's line of fire, thus providing two lines of cover fire against an armed assault on the wall, and preventing mining parties from finding refuge. Meanwhile, artillery positioned on the bastion platform could fire frontally from the two faces, also providing overlapping fire with the opposite bastion. Overlapping mutually supporting defensive fire

12690-534: The focus of transport and communications in the region, it has developed a substantial retail sector serving a wide range of surrounding communities as well as the city itself. Primarily centred on the city centre, there are a large number of chain stores, as well as the Thistles shopping centre . However this has been augmented by out-of-town developments such as the Springkerse Retail Park on

12831-536: The foot of the Pleasance. From here, along St Mary's Wynd and Leith Wynd, the town's defences were provided by fortifying the existing houses along the west side of the wynds. At the junction of these wynds, at the Netherbow, the narrowed section of the High Street, stood the Netherbow Port, between the High Street and the Canongate leading to Holyrood Abbey and Holyrood Palace . At Leith Wynd Port (outside

12972-450: The gateway between the towers was rebuilt, and a central clock tower was added above the gateway, topped by an octagonal stone spire. This structure was repaired in the early 17th century. Although the expected English invasion never materialised after Flodden, the 16th century was a turbulent period in Scotland. In 1544 the Earl of Hertford led an English force into Scotland during the War of

13113-533: The infant James VI was anointed King of Scots by Adam Bothwell , the Bishop of Orkney , with the service concluding after a sermon by John Knox . The poet King was educated by George Buchanan and grew up in Stirling. He was later also crowned King of England and Ireland on 25 July 1603, bringing closer the countries of the United Kingdom. Modern Stirling is a centre for local government, higher education, tourism, retail, and industry. The mid-2012 census estimate for

13254-436: The invention of gunpowder rendered walls less effective, as siege cannons could then be used to blast through walls, allowing armies to simply march through. Today, the presence of former city fortifications can often only be deduced from the presence of ditches, ring roads or parks. Furthermore, some street names hint at the presence of fortifications in times past, for example when words such as "wall" or "glacis" occur. In

13395-884: The largely extant Aurelian Walls of Rome and the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople , together with partial remains elsewhere. These are mostly city gates, like the Porta Nigra in Trier or Newport Arch in Lincoln . In Central Europe, the Celts built large fortified settlements which the Romans called oppida , whose walls seem partially influenced by those built in the Mediterranean. The fortifications were continuously expanded and improved. Apart from these,

13536-465: The last day of April, and of our reign the thirteenth year, anno 1450. In a further royal charter of 28 April 1472, King James III ordered the demolition of houses built on or outside the King's Wall, which were hampering efforts to strengthen the defences. Edinburgh was thus one of only three Scottish towns to have medieval stone walls, the others being Stirling and Perth , though other towns had earth walls or palisades. The early wall had two ports:

13677-461: The least space in between them, and are rooted firmly in the ground. The top of the wall is often protruding and beset with barbed wire in order to make climbing them more difficult. These walls are usually built in straight lines and covered by watchtowers at the corners. Double walls with an interstitial "zone of fire", as the former Berlin Wall had, are now rare. In September 2014, Ukraine announced

13818-708: The lynching of Captain John Porteous by an Edinburgh mob led the British Government in London to impose sanctions on the town. Porteous, Captain of the Town Guard, had been convicted of murder following the shooting of spectators at a public hanging, but following a reprieve, a mob broke into the Tolbooth Jail and executed him. The initial demand by the House of Lords was for the demolition of

13959-607: The man, whose bones were discovered by workmen, died while still in his twenties. Other Bronze Age finds near the city come from the area around Cambusbarron . It had been thought that the Randolphfield standing stones were more than 3000 years old but recent radiocarbon dating suggests they may date from the time of Bruce. The earliest known structures in Stirling are now destroyed but comprised two Neolithic Cursus in Bannockburn. The earliest known surviving structure

14100-451: The mid-1850s. In 1854, a large portion of wall (20 feet high and 3–4 feet thick), and the embankment against which it was built fell into Leith Wynd between the High Street and Calton Road. A week later the Dean of Guild ordered the removal of a 150 feet stretch of the wall from that location. In 1856, a lightning strike appears to have been the cause of the collapse of a 40 to 50 feet stretch of

14241-607: The modern age, such as the walled towns of Austria , walls of Tallinn , or the town walls of York and Canterbury in England, as well as Nordlingen , Dinkelsbühl and Rothenburg ob der Tauber in Germany. In Spain, Avila and Tossa del Mar hosts surviving medieval walls while Lugo has an intact Roman wall. The founding of urban centers was an important means of territorial expansion and many cities, especially in central and eastern Europe, were founded for this purpose during

14382-743: The most famous cities of the ancient world, especially as a result of the building program of Nebuchadnezzar , who expanded the walls and built the Ishtar Gate . The Persians built defensive walls to protect their territories, notably the Derbent Wall and the Great Wall of Gorgan built on the either sides of the Caspian Sea against nomadic nations. Some settlements in the Indus Valley civilization were also fortified. By about 3500   BC, hundreds of small farming villages dotted

14523-507: The natives experienced great difficulty in uprooting European invaders. In China, Sun Yuanhua advocated for the construction of angled bastion forts in his Xifashenji so that their cannons could better support each other. The officials Han Yun and Han Lin noted that cannons on square forts could not support each side as well as bastion forts. Their efforts to construct bastion forts, and their results, were limited. Ma Weicheng built two bastion forts in his home county, which helped fend off

14664-669: The nearly complete preservation of many monuments such as the Rothenburg ob der Tauber , Nördlingen and Dinkelsbühl . The countless small fortified towns in the Franconia region were also preserved as a consequence of this edict. Walls and fortified wall structures were still built in the modern era. They did not, however, have the original purpose of being a structure able to resist a prolonged siege or bombardment. Modern examples of defensive walls include: Additionally, in some countries, different embassies may be grouped together in

14805-517: The only surviving church in the United Kingdom apart from Westminster Abbey to have held a coronation. On 29 July 1567 the infant son of Mary, Queen of Scots , was anointed James VI of Scotland in the church. James' bride, Anne of Denmark was crowned in the church at Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh. The Holy Rude congregation still meet and some 19th century parish records survive. Musket shot marks that may come from Cromwell 's troops during

14946-629: The party to sit as an Independent. The Provost of Stirling is Cllr Christine Simpson. For the purposes of the Scottish Parliament , the city of Stirling forms part of the Stirling constituency of the Scottish Parliament constituency. The Stirling Scottish Parliament (or Holyrood ) constituency created in 1999 is one of nine within the Mid Scotland and Fife electoral region. Each constituency elects one Member of

15087-400: The period of Eastern settlement . These cities are easy to recognise due to their regular layout and large market spaces. The fortifications of these settlements were continuously improved to reflect the current level of military development. While gunpowder and cannons were invented in China, China never developed wall breaking artillery to the same extent as other parts of the world. Part of

15228-553: The population of the city is 36,440; the wider Stirling council area has a population of about 93,750. One of the principal royal strongholds of the Kingdom of Scotland , Stirling was created a royal burgh by King David I in 1130. In 2002, as part of Queen Elizabeth 's Golden Jubilee , Stirling was granted city status . Stirling's name appears as Strivelin(g) in early sources, later becoming Stirveling and finally Stirling . Its meaning, and even its language of origin, are

15369-481: The property boundary. In 1450, King James II issued a charter permitting the burgesses of Edinburgh to defend their town, as follows: Foralsmykle as we ar informit be oure well belovettis the Provest and Communite of Edynburgh, yat yai dreid the evil and skath of oure enemies of England, we have in favour of yame, and for the zele and affectioune that we have to the Provest and Communite of oure said Burgh, and for

15510-504: The reason is probably because Chinese walls were already highly resistant to artillery and discouraged increasing the size of cannons. In the mid-twentieth century a European expert in fortification commented on their immensity: "in China ... the principal towns are surrounded to the present day by walls so substantial, lofty, and formidable that the medieval fortifications of Europe are puny in comparison." Chinese walls were thick. The eastern wall of Ancient Linzi , established in 859 BC, had

15651-465: The renovation and restoration of the old Oliver & Boyd publishers in 1983. Subsequently, this was confirmed by archaeologists and planners and it was not demolished as consented. The height (6 metres (20 ft)), and lack of openings suggest a defensive purpose. Walling in Castle Wynd, north of the Grassmarket, has also been identified with the King's Wall. In 1973, archaeological excavations on

15792-456: The royal burgh with goods. Stirling remained the river's lowest reliable crossing point (that is, without a weather-dependent ferry or seasonal ford ) until the construction of the Alloa Swing Bridge between Throsk and Alloa in 1885. The city has two Latin mottoes, which appeared on the earliest burgh seal of which an impression of 1296 is on record. The first alludes to the story as recorded by Boece who relates that in 855 Scotland

15933-630: The royal citadel or aristocratic compounds such as in Surakarta and Aceh . Large rammed earth walls were built in ancient China since the Shang dynasty ( c.  1600 –1050   BC), as the capital at ancient Ao had enormous walls built in this fashion (see siege for more info). Although stone walls were built in China during the Warring States (481–221   BC), mass conversion to stone architecture did not begin in earnest until

16074-508: The site now occupied by the Radisson Hotel, south of the High Street, uncovered a fragment of wall, which was thought likely to be the King's Wall. There was also evidence of a house adjacent, which had been demolished sometime in the 15th century, presumably in response to James III's order of 1472. Four sections of the Flodden Wall survive: to the north and south of the Grassmarket; in Greyfriars Kirkyard; and along Drummond Street and

16215-535: The size and number of cannon placements because the rooms could only be built so big. Notable surviving artillery towers include a seven layer defensive structure built in 1480 at Fougères in Brittany , and a four layer tower built in 1479 at Querfurth in Saxony. The star fort, also known as the bastion fort, trace italienne , or renaissance fortress, was a style of fortification that became popular in Europe during

16356-529: The south and east sides of the burgh. Early records mention a west gate in 1180, a south gate in 1214, and the Netherbow Port in 1369. In 1362 the Wellhouse Tower was built beneath the north wall of the castle, protecting the castle's water supply, and defending the approach along the south shore of the Nor Loch. The King's Wall is first recorded in 1427, in a title deed which refers to the wall as

16497-513: The stone cross was a tripoint for the three kingdom's borders or marches ; the cross functioning both as a dividing territorial marker, and as a uniting witness stone like in the Bible story in Joshua 22. " Angles and Scots here demarked, By this cross kept apart. Brits and Scots armed stand near, By this cross stand safe here." This would make the cross on the centre of the first stone bridge

16638-606: The top of the walls occasionally had a roof. In addition to this, many different enhancements were made over the course of the centuries: The defensive towers of west and south European fortifications in the Middle Ages were often very regularly and uniformly constructed (cf. Ávila , Provins ), whereas Central European city walls tend to show a variety of different styles. In these cases the gate and wall towers often reach up to considerable heights, and gates equipped with two towers on either side are much rarer. Apart from having

16779-473: The town walls) the wall continued west to the Nor Loch, since replaced at this location by Waverley railway station , terminating at the New Port. The Flodden Wall enclosed an area of just under 57 hectares (140 acres), and remained the limit of the burgh until the 18th century. Contained within this area, in 1560, was a population of around 10,000. There were six ports in the Flodden Wall. Anti-clockwise from

16920-438: The two mottos into a single rhyme; he gave no indication that he was aware of Boece's work. Stirling was first declared a royal burgh by King David in the 12th century, with later charters reaffirmed by subsequent monarchs. A ferry, and later bridge, on the River Forth at Stirling brought wealth and strategic influence, as did its tidal port at Riverside. Major battles during the Wars of Scottish Independence took place at

17061-481: The wall enclosing Greyfriars Kirkyard . Nothing remains of Edinburgh's earliest enclosures, and very little of the King's Wall survives, although parts are probably incorporated in later buildings. A section of walling in Tweeddale Court, on the south side of the Royal Mile, may represent part of the eastern wall. This was exposed, identified and recognised as a fortified wall, initially by two labourers working on

17202-477: The wall south to take in the Grassmarket and Cowgate areas of the burgh. Construction began the following year, but was not completed until 1560. Work started at the western end, and the final section was the stretch from Leith Wynd to the Nor Loch, incorporating the New Port. The cost of this last work was £4/10 s Scots per rood (one rood = six ells or 5.6 metres) for the wall, plus 40s per rood for

17343-633: The wall. It then ran east, wrapping around Greyfriars Kirkyard , to the Bristo Port and the Potterow Port, both located in the vicinity of the National Museum of Scotland . Continuing east, the wall passed the Kirk o' Field , where the Old College now stands, and ran along Drummond Street , turning north at the Pleasance to enclose the former Blackfriars Monastery. The Cowgate Port was located at

17484-447: The wall. The morning came with most of our unit still behind us, but we were beyond the wall. Behind the gate great heaps of sandbags were piled up. We 'cleared them away, removed the lock, and opened the gates, with a great creaking noise. We'd done it! We'd opened the fortress! All the enemy ran away, so we didn't take any fire. The residents too were gone. When we passed beyond the fortress wall we thought we had occupied this city. As

17625-404: The walls of the marketplace of Chang'an were thicker than the walls of major European capitals. Aside from their immense size, Chinese walls were also structurally different from the ones built in medieval Europe. Whereas European walls were mostly constructed of stone interspersed with gravel or rubble filling and bonded by limestone mortar, Chinese walls had tamped earthen cores which absorbed

17766-444: The walls undefended. On the morning of 17 September, a group of Highlanders under Donald Cameron of Lochiel rushed the Netherbow Port as the gates were opened, and Edinburgh was captured without a fight. Demolitions began soon after the withdrawal of the Jacobite threat in 1746. The bastions of the Telfer Wall along Lauriston Place were demolished in 1762, as they were obstructing traffic. The Netherbow survived until 1764, when it too

17907-479: The way up and once at the top, panoramic views are available across Stirling and beyond. All areas Historical place names for Stirling town in 1858–61 were compiled by O.S. map makers. Like most of the United Kingdom , Stirling has an oceanic climate ( Köppen Cfb ) with mild summers and cool, wet winters. Stirling has some of the warmest summers in all of Scotland, being relatively far away from

18048-442: The wider area. South of the city, the King's Park prehistoric carvings can still be found. Its other notable geographic feature is its proximity to the lowest site of subjugation of the River Forth. Control of the bridge brought military advantage in times of unrest and excise duty, or pontage dues, in peacetime. Unsurprisingly excise men were installed in a covered booth in the centre of the bridge to collect tax from any entering

18189-597: Was "almost impervious to the efforts of horizontal fire." In fact twentieth century explosive shells had some difficulty creating a breach in tamped earthen walls. We fought our way to Nanking and joined in the attack on the enemy capital in December. It was our unit which stormed the Chunghua Gate. We attacked continuously for about a week, battering the brick and earth walls with artillery, but they never collapsed. The night of December 11, men in my unit breached

18330-589: Was due to fear of an English attack on Edinburgh during the Anglo-Scottish war (1650–1652) following the defeat of the Scottish army at the Battle of Dunbar . The quickly made changes included taking the four ornamental tops off the Netherbow Port, in order to install cannon. Further emplacements were built by Captain Theodore Dury in 1715, in response to the Jacobite rising of that year . In 1736,

18471-472: Was enclosed between 1628 and 1636 by the Telfer Wall. Most of this land was subsequently sold to the charitable George Heriot 's Trust for the building of George Heriot's Hospital . The rubble -built wall ran south from the Flodden Tower in the Vennel to Lauriston Place; it then turned east, running as far as Bristo Street, where it returned north to the Bristo Port in the Flodden Wall. The Telfer Wall

18612-554: Was extended by the Telfer Wall in the early 17th century. The walls had a number of gates, known as ports, the most important being the Netherbow Port , which stood halfway down what is now the Royal Mile . This gave access from the Canongate which was, at that time, a separate burgh . The walls never proved very successful as defensive structures, and were easily breached on more than one occasion. They served more as

18753-419: Was formally established as a royal burgh by King David I of Scotland around 1125. This gave the town the privilege of holding a market, and the power to raise money by taxing goods coming into the burgh for sale. It is probable, therefore, that some form of boundary was constructed around this time, although it may have been a timber palisade or ditch, rather than a stone wall. To the north of Edinburgh lay

18894-570: Was held for the Queen by William Kirkcaldy of Grange , and in May 1571 the town was besieged by the Regent's forces under James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton . Repairs were made to the walls, and the Netherbow was barricaded. Nearby houses were pulled down to improve defences, and the siege gun Mons Meg was employed to batter houses outside the wall which were being used by snipers. Unable to make any headway,

19035-605: Was invaded by two Northumbrian princes, Osbrecht and Ella . They united their forces with the Cumbrian Britons in order to defeat the Scots. Having secured Stirling castle, they built the first stone bridge over the Forth. On the top they reportedly raised a crucifix with the inscription: "Anglos, a Scotis separat, crux ista remotis; Arma hic stant Bruti; stant Scoti hac sub cruce tuti." Bellenden translated this loosely as "I am free marche , as passengers may ken, To Scottis, to Britonis, and to Inglismen." It may be

19176-455: Was named after its master mason , John Taillefer. By the 17th century the King's Wall had been almost completely absorbed within later buildings, although it is briefly mentioned in the "Extent Roll", a town survey of 1635, and limited sections appear on James Gordon of Rothiemay's map of 1647. The mason John Mylne and the wright (carpenter) John Scott strengthened the Flodden and Telfer walls and constructed artillery emplacements in 1650. This

19317-414: Was once again lifted. A blockade of the town was continued until July 1572 when a truce was agreed. Grange retreated into the castle and handed over the town to the Regent's party. The siege of Edinburgh Castle continued until May 1573, when it was finally reduced by a battery of guns shipped from England. In 1618 the town council bought 10 acres (4.0 ha) of land to the west of Greyfriars Kirk , which

19458-446: Was refined during the rise of city-states , and energetic wall-building continued into the medieval period and beyond in certain parts of Europe. Simpler defensive walls of earth or stone, thrown up around hillforts , ringworks , early castles and the like, tend to be referred to as ramparts or banks. From very early history to modern times, walls have been a near necessity for every city. Uruk in ancient Sumer ( Mesopotamia )

19599-620: Was removed as an obstruction. The West Port and the Potterow Port were removed in the 1780s. By now, the New Town was under construction, and although smuggling of goods through the city walls was still being punished, complaints about the zealousness of the guards were widely circulated. The Old College of the University of Edinburgh (constructed from 1789), and then the museum in Chambers Street (constructed from 1861, now part of

19740-483: Was the greatest advantage enjoyed by the star fort. As a result, sieges lasted longer and became more difficult affairs. By the 1530s the bastion fort had become the dominant defensive structure in Italy. Outside Europe, the star fort became an "engine of European expansion," and acted as a force multiplier so that small European garrisons could hold out against numerically superior forces. Wherever star forts were erected

19881-438: Was to build relatively low and thick walls of packed earth, which could both withstand the force of cannon balls and support their own, defensive cannon. Chinese wall-building practice was, by happenstance, extremely resistant to all forms of battering. This held true into the twentieth century, when even modern explosive shells had some difficulty in breaking through tamped earth walls. The Chinese Wall Theory essentially rests on

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