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134-524: In the United States, the term tenement initially meant a large building with multiple small spaces to rent. As cities grew in the nineteenth century, there was increasing separation between rich and poor . With rapid urban growth and immigration , overcrowded houses with poor sanitation gave tenements a reputation as shanty towns. The expression "tenement house" was used to designate a building subdivided to provide cheap rental accommodation, which

268-712: A pit latrine ("long drop"). However, in British English "outhouse" means any outbuilding, such as a shed or barn. In Australia and parts of Canada an outdoor toilet is known as a "dunny". "Privy", an archaic variant of "private", is used in North America, Scotland, and northern England. "Bog" is common throughout Britain (used to coin the neologism " tree bog ") and is also used informally in Britain, as well as Canada and Australia to refer to any toilet. The name "little house" (as tŷ bach ) continues as

402-415: A "pack it in, pack it out" rule. Many reports document the use of containers for the removal of excrement, which must be packed in and packed out on Mount Everest . Also known as "expedition barrels" or "bog barrels", the cans are weighed to make sure that groups do not dump them along the way. "Toilet tents" are erected. There has been an increasing awareness that the mountain needs to be kept clean, for

536-478: A century ago. As a result, the world urban population growth curve has up till recently followed a quadratic-hyperbolic pattern. From the development of the earliest cities in Indus valley civilization , Mesopotamia and Egypt until the 18th century, an equilibrium existed between the vast majority of the population who were engaged in subsistence agriculture in a rural context, and small centres of populations in

670-492: A diameter of less than 2.5 micrometres (PM 2.5 ), can cause DNA methylation of CpG sites in immune cells, which increases children's risk of developing asthma. Studies have shown a positive correlation between Foxp3 methylation and children's exposure to NO 2 , CO, and PM 2.5 . Furthermore, any amount of exposure to high levels of air pollution have shown long term effects on the Foxp3 region. Outhouse An outhouse

804-733: A euphemism for any toilet in both the Welsh language and the Welsh English dialect . Other terms include "back house", "house of ease", and "house of office". The last was common in 17th-century England and appeared in Samuel Pepys 's Diary on numerous occasions. A regional name for an outhouse in North America used especially in Virginia is "johnnyhouse" or "johnny house". In the Scouting Movement in North America,

938-407: A family in each room and contain a population of between 40 and 50 souls. We have visited one house that we found to be occupied by 98 persons, another by 74 and a third by 73. The entrance to all tenement houses is by a common door off either a street, lane or alley, and, in most cases, the door is never shut, day or night. The passages and stairs are common and the rooms all open directly either off

1072-536: A farmer was described as "hot and exhausting". "Everyone says the farmer works the hardest but gets the least amount of money". In an effort to counter this impression, the Agriculture Department of Thailand is seeking to promote the impression that farming is "honorable and secure". However, in Thailand, urbanization has also resulted in massive increases in problems such as obesity. Shifting from

1206-520: A few feet wide and often filled with privies . Interior rooms were unventilated. Early in the 19th century, many of the poor were housed in cellars, which became even less sanitary after the Croton Aqueduct brought running water to wealthier New Yorkers: the reduction in well use caused the water table to rise, and the cellar dwellings flooded. Early housing reformers urged the construction of tenements to replace cellars, and beginning in 1859

1340-815: A five-story brick former tenement building in Manhattan that is a National Historic Site , is a museum devoted to tenements in the Lower East Side. Other famous tenements in the US include tenement housing in Chicago , in which various housing areas were built to the same affect as tenements in New York. Tenements make up a large percentage of the housing stock of Glasgow and Edinburgh in Scotland. Glasgow tenements were built to provide high-density housing for

1474-458: A greater risk for obesity, diabetes and related chronic disease. Overall, body mass index and cholesterol levels increase sharply with national income and the degree of urbanization. [40] Food deserts in the United States are most commonly found in low-income and predominately African American neighbourhoods. One study on food deserts in Denver , Colorado found that, in addition to minorities,

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1608-535: A grocery store are associated with higher rates of obesity and other health disparities. Food deserts in developed countries often correspond to areas with a high density of fast food chains and convenience stores that offer little to no fresh food. Urbanization has been shown to be associated with the consumption of less fresh fruits, vegetables, and whole grains and a higher consumption of processed foods and sugar-sweetened beverages. Poor access to healthy food and high intakes of fat, sugar and salt are associated with

1742-451: A growing increase for addressing other areas of life cycle consumption has occurred from initial stage reduction to heat recovery and recycling of materials. For example, concerns for mass consumption and fast fashion have moved to the forefront of the urban consumers' priorities. Aside from environmental concerns (e.g. climate change effects), other urban concerns for waste management are public health and land access. Urbanization can have

1876-459: A higher content of meat, sugars, refined grains and fats. Urban residents typically have reduced time available for at-home food preparation combined with increased disposable income, facilitating access to convenience foods and ready-to-eat meals. One such effect is the formation of food deserts . Nearly 23.5 million people in the United States lack access to supermarkets within one mile of their home. Several studies suggest that long distances to

2010-548: A hole drilled through it to allow easy hanging on a nail, was popular. Paper was often kept in a can or other container to protect it from mice, etc. The catalogs served a dual purpose, also giving one something to read. Outdoor toilets are referred to by many terms throughout the English-speaking world. The term "outhouse" is used in North American English for the structure over a toilet, usually

2144-531: A hole in it, above a small pit. Others, often in more rural, older areas in European countries, simply have a hole with two indents on either side for the user's feet. In Eastern societies, there is a hole in the floor, over which the user crouches. A roll of toilet paper is usually available. Old corn cob , leaves, or other types of paper may instead be used. The decoration on the outhouse door has no standard. The well-known crescent moon on American outhouses

2278-573: A large effect on biodiversity by causing a division of habitats and thereby alienation of species, a process known as habitat fragmentation . Habitat fragmentation does not destroy the habitat, as seen in habitat loss , but rather breaks it apart with things like roads and railways This change may affect a species ability to sustain life by separating it from the environment in which it is able to easily access food, and find areas that they may hide from predation With proper planning and management, fragmentation can be avoided by adding corridors that aid in

2412-601: A lot that had originally housed 25. Purpose-built tenements copied their form. By 1907 there were some 2,500 conventillos, with 150,000 occupants. El conventillo de la Paloma was particularly famous and is the title of a play by Alberto Vaccarezza . "Chawls" are found in India . They are typically four to five story buildings with 10 to 20 kholis (tenements) on each floor, kholis literally meaning ' rooms '. Many chawl buildings can be found in Mumbai , where chawls were constructed by

2546-473: A more acidic environment. Rapid growth of communities creates new challenges in the developed world and one such challenge is an increase in food waste also known as urban food waste. Food waste is the disposal of food products that can no longer be used due to unused products, expiration, or spoilage. The increase of food waste can raise environmental concerns such as increase production of methane gases and attraction of disease vectors . Landfills are

2680-456: A museum of Dublin tenement life. The last tenements were closed in the 1970s, families being rehoused in new suburbs such as Ballymun . In Buenos Aires the tenements, called conventillos , developed from subdividing one- or two-story houses built around courtyards for well-off families. These were long and narrow, three to six times as long as they were wide, and the size of the patios was reduced until as many as 350 people could be living on

2814-584: A negative impact on population health particularly affecting people's susceptibility to asthma. In low and middle income countries many factors contribute to the high numbers of people with asthma. Similar to areas in the United States with increasing urbanization, people living in growing cities in low income countries experience high exposure to air pollution, which increases the prevalence and severity of asthma among these populations. Links have been found between exposure to traffic-related air pollution and allergic diseases. Children living in poor, urban areas in

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2948-509: A quarter of workers were housed in tenements. One reason New York had so many tenements was the large number of immigrants; another was that the grid plan on which streets were laid out, and the economic practice of building on individual 25-by-100-foot (7.6 by 30.5 m) lots, combined to produce high land coverage. Prior to 1867, tenements often covered more than 90 percent of the lot, were five or six stories high, and had 18 rooms per floor, of which only two received direct sunlight. Yards were

3082-473: A reputation for being inhabited by poor people and families that depend on government money and welfare programs to support them; kamienice are often used as public housing. Those areas are often considered dangerous. The buildings are often neglected, in bad shape (both the exteriors and the interiors), in need of general renovations, sometimes without access to heating or hot water. Urbanization Urbanization (or urbanisation in British English )

3216-646: A result of individual, collective and state action. Living in a city can be culturally and economically beneficial since it can provide greater opportunities for access to the labour market, better education, housing, and safety conditions, and reduce the time and expense of commuting and transportation. Conditions like density, proximity, diversity, and marketplace competition are elements of an urban environment that deemed beneficial. However, there are also harmful social phenomena that arise: alienation, stress, increased cost of living, and mass marginalization that are connected to an urban way of living. Suburbanization , which

3350-408: A rural environment to an urbanized community also caused a transition to a diet that was mainly carbohydrate-based to a diet higher in fat and sugar, consequently causing a rise in obesity. City life, especially in modern urban slums of the developing world, is certainly hardly immune to pestilence or climatic disturbances such as floods, yet continues to strongly attract migrants. Examples of this were

3484-498: A thousand year old Viking outhouse were discovered in 2017. This is the oldest known outhouse in the country, even though evidence cannot establish it to be "the first". This discovery was considered to be culturally significant. Outhouses are typically built on one level, but two-story models are to be found in unusual circumstances. One double-decker was built to serve a two-story building in Cedar Lake, Michigan . The outhouse

3618-527: A toilet and a bath or shower; 19 percent had only a toilet, and 66 percent shared staircase toilets. Heating was provided by stoves burning charcoal briquettes. By the 19th and early 20th century, Dublin's tenements ( Irish : tionóntán ) were infamous, often described as the worst in Europe. Many tenement buildings were originally the Georgian townhouses of upper-class families, neglected and subdivided over

3752-546: A toilet tent (e.g. in humanitarian relief operations), or even be installed inside a house that is beyond the reach of sewers. The Swedish Pacto toilet uses a continuous roll of plastic to collect and dispose of waste. Incinerating toilets are installed in several thousand cabins in Norway . These toilets incinerate waste into ashes, using only propane and 12 volt battery electricity. Outhouse design, placement, and maintenance has long been recognized as being important to

3886-399: A toilet, particularly an outhouse. For other uses of the word, see Dunny (disambiguation) . In suburban areas not connected to the sewerage, outhouses were not always built over pits. Instead, these areas utilized a pail closet , where waste was collected into large cans positioned under the toilet seat, to be collected by contractors (or night soil collectors) hired by property owners or

4020-459: A trove of common objects from the past—a veritable inadvertent time capsule—which yields historical insight into the lives of the bygone occupants. This is also called privy digging . It is especially common to find old bottles, which seemingly were secretly stashed or trashed, so their content could be privately imbibed. Fossilised feces ( coprolites ) yield much information about diet and health. "Dunny" or "dunny can" are Australian words for

4154-467: A vault that often became clogged) were squeezed into the small open spaces between buildings. In parts of the Lower East Side, buildings were older and had courtyards , generally occupied by machine shops, stables, and other businesses. Such tenements were particularly prevalent in New York, where in 1865 a report stated that 500,000 people lived in unhealthy tenements, whereas in Boston in 1845, less than

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4288-543: A vector to spread to humans. An example of this could be dengue fever. Urbanization has also been associated with an increased risk of asthma as well. Throughout the world, as communities transition from rural to more urban societies, the number of people affected by asthma increases. The odds of reduced rates of hospitalization and death from asthmas has decreased for children and young adults in urbanized municipalities in Brazil. This finding indicates that urbanization may have

4422-400: A visual screen and some protection from the elements. The outhouse also has the secondary role of protecting the toilet hole from sudden influxes of rainwater, which would flood the hole and flush untreated wastes into the underlying soils before they can decompose. Outhouses are commonly humble and utilitarian, made of lumber or plywood . This is especially so they can easily be moved when

4556-403: A wide variety of shapes and placements employed. The shelter may cover very different sorts of toilets. An outhouse often provides the shelter for a pit latrine , which collects human feces in a hole in the ground. When properly built and maintained they can decrease the spread of disease by reducing the amount of human feces in the environment from open defecation . When the pit fills to

4690-423: A widespread term for outhouse is "kybo". This appears to have originated from camps which used Kybo brand coffee cans to hold lye or lime which was sprinkled down the hole to reduce odor. "Keep Your Bowels Open" may be a backronym . Temporary encampments may use a tent or tarpaulin over a shallow pit; one name for this is a " hudo ", acronym of "Houd uw darmen open" (Dutch for "Keep Your Bowels Open"). In Poland

4824-503: A window in every room. There were also fire-safety requirements. These rules are still the basis of New York City law on low-rise buildings, and they have made single-lot development uneconomical. Most of the purpose-built tenements in New York were not slums, although they were not pleasant to be inside, especially in hot weather, so people congregated outside, made heavy use of the fire escapes, and slept in summer on fire escapes, roofs, and sidewalks. The Lower East Side Tenement Museum ,

4958-407: Is a Polish term describing a type of residential tenement building made of brick or stone , with at least two floors. There are two basic types: one designed as a single-family residence, which existed until the 1800s (a burgher house ), and the other designed as multi-family housing, which emerged in the 19th century and was the basic type of housing in cities. From the architectural point of view,

5092-478: Is a common effect of urbanization. Precipitation from rooftops, roads, parking lots and sidewalks flows to storm drains , instead of percolating into groundwater . The contaminated stormwater in the drains is typically untreated and flows to nearby streams, rivers or coastal bays. Eutrophication in water bodies is another effect large populations in cities have on the environment. When rain occurs in these large cities, it filters CO 2 and other pollutants in

5226-679: Is a small structure, separate from a main building, which covers a toilet . This is typically either a pit latrine or a bucket toilet , but other forms of dry (non-flushing) toilets may be encountered. The term may also be used to denote the toilet itself, not just the structure. Outhouses were in use in cities of developed countries (e.g. Australia) well into the second half of the twentieth century. They are still common in rural areas and also in cities of developing countries . Outhouses that are covering pit latrines in densely populated areas can cause groundwater pollution . Outhouses vary in design and construction. They are by definition outside

5360-552: Is an area of approximately 1 km and at one time had an estimated 90,000 people living in its tenements, leading to very poor living conditions. The population now is roughly 10,000. Tenement demolition was to a significantly lesser extent in Edinburgh, thus making its later World Heritage designations in 1985 possible. Largely, such clearances were limited to pre-Victorian buildings outside the New Town area and were precipitated by

5494-411: Is compulsory to promote a fair society. Furthermore, urbanization improves environmental eminence through superior facilities and standards in urban areas as compared to rural areas. Lastly, urbanization curbs pollution emissions by increasing innovations. In his 2009 book Whole Earth Discipline , Stewart Brand argues that the effects of urbanization are primarily positive for the environment. First,

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5628-476: Is happening in the cities of the largest developing countries, may be regarded as an attempt to balance these harmful aspects of urban life while still allowing access to the large extent of shared resources. In cities, money, services, wealth and opportunities are centralized. Many rural inhabitants come to the city to seek their fortune and alter their social position. Businesses, which provide jobs and exchange capital, are more concentrated in urban areas. Whether

5762-641: Is most prevalent especially in centers of historical cities such as Kraków , Poznań , Wrocław , and Toruń , whereas the second type is most prominent in Łódź . City which is known for beautiful kamienice in Art Nouveau style is Bydgoszcz . The name derives from the Polish word kamień (stone) and dates from the 15th century. Late 19th century and early 20th century kamienice often took form of city palaces with ornamental facades, high floors and spacious, representative and heavily decorated interiors. Later in

5896-539: Is no uncommon thing to find halls and landings, yards and closets of the houses in a filthy condition, and, in nearly every case, human excreta is to be found scattered about the yards and in the floors of the closets and, in some cases, even in the passages of the house itself. Tenement life often appeared in fiction, such as the "Dublin trilogy" of plays by Seán O'Casey , Oliver St. John Gogarty 's play Blight , and James Plunkett 's novel Strumpet City ( adapted for television in 1980). 14 Henrietta Street serves as

6030-437: Is no yard, when it is to be found in the basement where there is little light or ventilation. The closet accommodation is common not only to the occupants of the house, but to anyone who likes to come in off the street, and is, of course, common to both sexes. The roofs of the tenement houses are, as a rule, bad . . . Having visited a large number of these houses in all parts of the city, we have no hesitation in saying that it

6164-566: Is predicted to generate artificial scarcities of land, lack of drinking water, playgrounds and so on for most urban dwellers. The predicted urban population growth is equivalent to approximately 3 billion urbanites by 2050, much of which will occur in Africa and Asia . Notably, the United Nations has also recently projected that nearly all global population growth from 2017 to 2030 will be by cities, with about 1.1 billion new urbanites over

6298-461: Is said that a woman could uncover the future by going to the outhouse to ask Tsi-Ku. See toilet god . Construction and maintenance of outhouses in the US is subject to state and local governmental restriction, regulation and prohibition. It is potentially both a public health issue, which has been addressed both by law and by education of the public as to good methods and practices ( e.g. , separation from drinking water sources). This also becomes

6432-404: Is the bucket toilet , consisting of a seat and a portable receptacle (bucket or pail). These may be emptied by their owners into composting piles in the garden (a low-tech composting toilet ), or collected by contractors for larger-scale disposal. Historically, this was known as the pail closet ; the municipality employed workers, often known as "nightmen" (from night soil ), to empty and replace

6566-421: Is the population shift from rural to urban areas , the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It can also mean population growth in urban areas instead of rural ones. It is predominantly the process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more people begin living and working in central areas. Although

6700-404: Is whether this is due to agglomeration effects or whether cities simply attract those who are more productive. Urban geographers have shown that there exists a large productivity gain due to locating in dense agglomerations. It is thus possible that agents locate in cities in order to benefit from these agglomeration effects. The dominant conurbation (s) of a country can get more benefits from

6834-430: The 2011 Thailand floods and 2007 Jakarta flood . Urban areas are also far more prone to violence , drugs , and other urban social problems. In the United States, industrialization of agriculture has negatively affected the economy of small and middle-sized farms and strongly reduced the size of the rural labour market. – Madhura Swaminathan, economist at Kolkata's Indian Statistical Institute Particularly in

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6968-706: The Garnethill area of Glasgow preserves the interior, fittings and equipment of a well-kept, upper middle-class tenement from the late 19th century. Many tenements in Glasgow were demolished in the 1960s and 1970s because of slum conditions, overcrowding and poor maintenance of the buildings. Perhaps the most striking case of this is seen in the Gorbals , where virtually all the tenements were demolished to make way for tower blocks, many of which have in turn have been demolished and replaced with newer structures. The Gorbals

7102-660: The Overseas Development Institute have proposed policies that encourage labour-intensive to make use of the migration of less skilled workers. One problem these migrant workers are involved with is the growth of slums . In many cases, the rural-urban unskilled migrant workers are attracted by economic opportunities in cities. Unfortunately, they cannot find a job and or pay for houses in urban areas and have to live in slums. Urban problems, along with developments in their facilities, are also fuelling suburb development trends in less developed nations, though

7236-502: The city centre for the working class . Urbanization rapidly spread across the Western world and, since the 1950s, it has begun to take hold in the developing world as well. At the turn of the 20th century, just 15% of the world population lived in cities. According to the UN , the year 2007 witnessed the turning point when more than 50% of the world population were living in cities, for

7370-439: The simile " built like a brick shithouse ." That phrase's meaning and application is subject to some debate; but (depending upon the country) it has been applied to men, women, or inanimate objects. With regards to anal cleansing , old newspapers and mail order catalogs, such as those from Montgomery Ward or Sears Roebuck , were common before toilet paper was widely available. The Old Farmer's Almanac , manufactured with

7504-408: The sociological process of rationalization . Urbanization can be seen as a specific condition at a set time (e.g. the proportion of total population or area in cities or towns), or as an increase in that condition over time. Therefore, urbanization can be quantified either in terms of the level of urban development relative to the overall population, or as the rate at which the urban proportion of

7638-405: The working class out of the market, including officials and employees of the local districts. For example, Eric Hobsbawm 's book The age of revolution: 1789–1848 (published 1962 and 2005) chapter 11, stated "Urban development in our period was a gigantic process of class segregation, which pushed the new labouring poor into great morasses of misery outside the centres of government, business, and

7772-546: The 1850s. The term tenement originally referred to tenancy and therefore to any rented accommodation. The New York State legislature defined it in the Tenement House Act of 1867 in terms of rental occupancy by multiple households, as Any house, building, or portion thereof, which is rented, leased, let, or hired out to be occupied or is occupied, as the home or residence of more than three families living independently of one another and doing their own cooking upon

7906-462: The 19th century, immigrants and workers from the countryside were housed in former middle-class houses and other buildings, such as warehouses, which were bought up and divided into small dwellings. Beginning as early as the 1830s in New York City 's Lower East Side or possibly the 1820s on Mott Street , three- and four-story buildings were converted into " railroad flats ," so called because

8040-555: The 20th century, especially after the Second World War , large apartments would be divided into several smaller flats due to general lack of habitable space caused by vast destruction of cities, thus lowering the generally high standard of living in so-called grand city tenements ( Polish : kamienice wielkomiejskie ). Examples of kamienice include Korniakt Palace and Black Kamienica in Lviv . Some kamienice in some areas have

8174-605: The Earth's atmosphere as emissions increase with the rise in urban development. In fact, the ocean absorbs a quarter of the CO 2 produced by humans. This helps to lessen the harmful effects of greenhouse gases. But it also makes the ocean more acidic. A drop in pH the prevents the proper formation of calcium carbonate, which sea creatures need to build or keep shells or skeletons. This is especially true for many species of molluscs and coral. However, some species have been able to thrive in

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8308-557: The Lower East Side having 800 inhabitants per acre (2,000/ha), denser than Bombay . It used both charts and photographs, the first such official use of photographs. Together with the publication in 1895 by the US Department of Labor of a special report on housing conditions and solutions elsewhere in the world, The Housing of Working People, it ultimately led to the passage of the Tenement House Act of 1901 , known as

8442-583: The New Law, which implemented the Tenement House Committee's recommendation of a maximum of 70 percent lot coverage and mandated strict enforcement, specified a minimum of 12 feet (3.7 m) for a rear yard and 6 feet (1.8 m) for an air and light shaft at the lot line or 12 feet (3.7 m) in the middle of the building (all of these being increased for taller buildings), and required running water and water closets in every apartment and

8576-458: The Tenement House Act of 1879, known as the Old Law, which required lot coverage of no more than 65 percent. As of 1869, New York State law defined a "tenement house" as "any house or building, or portion thereof, which is rented, leased let or hired out, to be occupied, or is occupied as the home or residence of three families or more living independently of each other, and doing their cooking upon

8710-582: The United States now have an increased risk of morbidity due to asthma in comparison to other low-income children in the United States. In addition, children with croup living in urban areas have higher hazard ratios for asthma than similar children living in rural areas. Researchers suggest that this difference in hazard ratios is due to the higher levels of air pollution and exposure to environmental allergens found in urban areas. Exposure to elevated levels of ambient air pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter with

8844-509: The affected neighbourhoods also had a high proportion of children and new births. In children, urbanization is associated with a lower risk of under-nutrition but a higher risk of being overweight . Urbanization has also been linked to the spread of communicable diseases, which can spread more rapidly in the favourable environment with more people living in a smaller area. Such diseases can be respiratory infections and gastrointestinal infections. Other infections could be infections, which need

8978-415: The aforementioned chemicals. In these ideal conditions, they choke surface water, blocking sunlight and nutrients from other life forms. Overgrowth of algal blooms makes water worse overall and disrupts the natural balance of aquatic ecosystems. Furthermore, as algal blooms die, CO 2 is produced. This makes the ocean more acidic, a process called acidification. The ocean's surface can absorb CO 2 from

9112-408: The air onto the ground. These chemicals are washed directly into rivers, streams, and oceans, making water worse and damaging ecosystems in them. Eutrophication is a process which causes low levels of oxygen in water and algal blooms that may harm aquatic life. Harmful algal blooms make dangerous toxins. They live best in nitrogen- and phosphorus-rich places which include the oceans contaminated by

9246-519: The back fence, so that the pan could be collected from the dunny lane through a trap-door". The person who appeared weekly to empty the buckets beneath the seats was known as the "dunnyman", see gong farmer . The "dunny lanes" provided access to collectors. These access lanes can now be worth considerable sums see Ransom strip . The Great Australian Dunny Race has become an icon during the Weerama Festival at Werribee . The remains of

9380-463: The back of a terraced house, normally with its roof. One of the earliest examples of a tenement is Morris Castle in Swansea , Wales . The castle was built sometime before 1775 by Sir John Morris to house workers in the rapidly industrializing area. The castle's location was hazardous and impractical and many workers preferred to live in individual cottages. As such, the tenement was abandoned in

9514-570: The best of which had windows facing the street. One notorious Berlin Mietskaserne was Meyers Hof  [ de ] in Gesundbrunnen , which at times housed 2,000 people and required its police officer to keep order. Between 1901 and 1920, a Berlin clinic investigated and documented in photographs the living conditions of its patients, revealing that many lived in damp basements and garrets, spaces under stairs, and apartments where

9648-450: The birth rate of new urban dwellers falls immediately to replacement rate and keeps falling, reducing environmental stresses caused by population growth. Secondly, emigration from rural areas reduces destructive subsistence farming techniques, such as improperly implemented slash and burn agriculture. Alex Steffen also speaks of the environmental benefits of increasing the urbanization level in "Carbon Zero: Imagining Cities that can save

9782-522: The buckets. This system was associated in particular with the English town of Rochdale , to the extent that it was described as the "Rochdale System" of sanitation . 20th century books report that similar systems were in operation in parts of France and elsewhere in continental Europe. The system of municipal collection was widespread in Australia; "dunny cans" persisted well into the second half of

9916-573: The capital, are normal cities instead. A conurbation's dominance can be measured by output, wealth, and especially population, each expressed as a percentage of the entire country's. Greater Seoul is one conurbation that dominates South Korea. It is home to 50% of the entire national population. Though Greater Busan-Ulsan (15%, 8 million) and Greater Osaka (14%, 18 million) dominate their respective countries, their populations are moving to their even more dominant rivals, Seoul and Tokyo respectively. As cities develop, costs will skyrocket. This often takes

10050-410: The center (usually fitted to the shafts in the adjacent buildings), and it typically covered 80 percent of the lot. James E. Ware is credited with the design; he had won a contest the previous year held by Plumber and Sanitary Engineer Magazine to find the most practical improved tenement design, in which profitability was the most important factor to the jury. Public concern about New York tenements

10184-549: The centuries to house dozens of Dublin's poor. Henrietta Street 's fifteen buildings housed 835 people. In 1911 nearly 26,000 families lived in inner-city tenements, and 20,000 of these families lived in a single room. Disease was common, with death rates of 22.3 per thousand (compared with 15.6 for London at the same time). The collapse of 65–66 Church Street in 1913, which killed seven residents, led to inquiries into housing. A housing committee report of 1914 said, There are many tenement houses with seven or eight rooms that house

10318-484: The city in its subtitle as "the largest tenement city in the world." They were built during a period of great increases in population between 1860 and 1914, particularly after German unification in 1871, in a broad ring enclosing the old city center, sometimes called the Wilhelmian or Wilhelmine Ring . The buildings are almost always five stories high because of the mandated maximum height. The blocks are large because

10452-798: The combination of ill-health and poverty entrenches disadvantage over time." Many of the urban poor have difficulty accessing health services due to their inability to pay for them; so they resort to less qualified and unregulated providers. While urbanization is associated with improvements in public hygiene , sanitation and access to health care , it also entails changes in occupational, dietary , and exercise patterns. It can have mixed effects on health patterns, alleviating some problems, and accentuating others. Traditionally, rural populations have tended to eat plant-based diets rich in grains, fruits and vegetables, and with low fat content. However, rural people migrating to urban areas often shift towards diets that rely more on processed foods characterized by

10586-741: The connection of areas and allow for easier movement around urbanized regions. Depending on the various factors, such as level of urbanization, both increases or decreases in "species richness" can be seen. This means that urbanization may be detrimental to one species but also help facilitate the growth of others. In instances of housing and building development, many times vegetation is completely removed immediately in order to make it easier and less expensive for construction to occur, thereby obliterating any native species in that area. Habitat fragmentation can filter species with limited dispersal capacity. For example, aquatic insects are found to have lower species richness in urban landscapes. The more urbanized

10720-550: The developing world, conflict over land rights due to the effects of globalization has led to less politically powerful groups, such as farmers, losing or forfeiting their land, resulting in obligatory migration into cities. In China, where land acquisition measures are forceful, there has been far more extensive and rapid urbanization (54%) than in India (36%), where peasants form militant groups (e.g. Naxalites ) to oppose such efforts. Obligatory and unplanned migration often results in

10854-587: The developing world, urbanization does not translate into a significant increase in life expectancy . Rapid urbanization has led to increased mortality from non-communicable diseases associated with lifestyle, including cancer and heart disease . Differences in mortality from contagious diseases vary depending on the particular disease and location. Urban health levels are on average better in comparison to rural areas. However, residents in poor urban areas such as slums and informal settlements suffer "disproportionately from disease, injury, premature death, and

10988-417: The dwelling, and are not connected to plumbing , sewer , or septic system . The World Health Organization recommends they be built a reasonable distance from the house balancing issues of easy access versus that of smell. The superstructure exists to shelter the user, and also to protect the toilet itself. The primary purpose of the building is for privacy and human comfort, and the walls and roof provide

11122-465: The earthen pit fills up. Depending on the size of the pit and the amount of use, this can be fairly frequent, sometimes yearly. As pundit "Jackpine" Bob Cary wrote: "Anyone can build an outhouse, but not everyone can build a good outhouse." Floor plans typically are rectangular or square, but hexagonal outhouses have been built. The arrangements inside the outhouse vary by culture. In Western societies, many, though not all, have at least one seat with

11256-509: The face of increased urbanization is at the centre of international policy in Sustainable Development Goal 11 "Sustainable cities and communities." Urbanization is not merely a modern phenomenon, but a rapid and historic transformation of human social roots on a global scale, whereby predominantly rural culture is being rapidly replaced by predominantly urban culture . The first major change in settlement patterns

11390-451: The first time in human history . Yale University in June 2016 published urbanization data from the time period 3700 BC to 2000 AD, the data was used to make a video showing the development of cities on the world during the time period. The origins and spread of urban centres around the world were also mapped by archaeologists . Urbanization occurs either organically or planned as

11524-489: The growing population of urban regions, according to UN experts, will strain basic sanitation systems and health care, and potentially cause a humanitarian and environmental disaster. Urban heat islands have become a growing concern over the years. An urban heat island is formed when industrial areas absorb and retain heat. Much of the solar energy reaching rural areas is used to evaporate water from plants and soil. In cities, there are less vegetation and exposed soil. Most of

11658-533: The health of the climbers at least. Worm hold privies, another variant of the composting toilet, are being used by Vermont's Green Mountain Club . These simple outhouses are stocked with red worms (a staple used by home composters). Composting toilets are also subject to regulations. The " Clivus Multrum " is another type of composting toilet which can be inside of an outhouse. There are other types of toilet that may be covered by an outhouse superstructure, or

11792-611: The inconvenience of trips across them frequently combine to make marketplace competition harsher in cities than in rural areas. In many developing countries where economies are growing, the growth is often random and based on a small number of industries. Youths in these nations lack access to financial services and business advisory services, cannot get credit to start a business, and have no entrepreneurial skills. Therefore, they cannot seize opportunities in these industries. Making sure adolescents have access to excellent schools and infrastructure to work in such industries and improve schools

11926-453: The increased volume of people engaged in activities such as mountaineering and kayaking. The growing popularity of paddling , hiking , and climbing has created special waste disposal issues throughout the world. It is a dominant topic for outdoor organizations and their members. For example, in some places the human waste is collected in drums which need to be helicoptered in and out at considerable expense. Alternatively, some parks mandate

12060-523: The large number of people immigrating to the city in the 19th and early 20th century as a result of the Industrial Revolution , when the city's population boomed to more than 1 million people. Edinburgh's tenements are much older, dating from the 17th century onwards, and some were up to 15 storeys high when first built, which made them among the tallest houses in the world at that time. Glasgow tenements were generally built no taller than

12194-437: The local council. The used cans were replaced with empty, cleaned cans. Brisbane relied on "dunny carts" until the 1950s; because the population was so dispersed, it was difficult to install sewerage. Tar, creosote, and disinfectant kept the smell down. Academic George Seddon claimed that "the typical Australian back yard in the cities and country towns" had, throughout the first half of the twentieth century, "a dunny against

12328-417: The new industrial cities like Manchester and Birmingham which were experiencing a boom in commerce, trade, and industry. Growing trade around the world also allowed cereals to be imported from North America and refrigerated meat from Australasia and South America . Spatially, cities also expanded due to the development of public transport systems , which facilitated commutes of longer distances to

12462-565: The newly specialized residential areas of the bourgeoisie. The almost universal European division into a 'good' west end and a 'poor' east end of large cities developed in this period." This is probably caused by the south-west wind which carries coal smoke and other pollutants down, making the western edges of towns better than the eastern ones. Similar problems now affect less developed countries, as rapid development of cities makes inequality worse. The drive to grow quickly and be efficient can lead to less fair urban development. Think tanks such as

12596-469: The next 10 years. In the long term, urbanization is expected to significantly impact the quality of life in negative ways. Urbanization is relevant to a range of disciplines, including urban planning , geography , sociology , architecture , economics , education , statistics , and public health . The phenomenon has been closely linked to globalization , modernization , industrialization , marketization , administrative/institutional power , and

12730-411: The number of people living in cellars began to decline. The Tenement House Act of 1866, the state legislature's first comprehensive legislation on housing conditions, prohibited cellar apartments unless the ceiling was 1 foot (30 cm) above street level; required one water closet per 20 residents and the provision of fire escapes; and paid some attention to space between buildings. This was amended by

12864-500: The onset of the British Agricultural Revolution and Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century, this relationship was finally broken and an unprecedented growth in urban population took place over the course of the 19th century, both through continued migration from the countryside and due to the tremendous demographic expansion that occurred at that time. In England and Wales , the proportion of

12998-593: The opportunity to join, develop, and seek out social communities. Urbanization also creates opportunities for women that are not available in rural areas. This creates a gender-related transformation where women are engaged in paid employment and have access to education. This may cause fertility to decline. However, women are sometimes still at a disadvantage due to their unequal position in the labour market, their inability to secure assets independently from male relatives and exposure to violence. People in cities are more productive than in rural areas. An important question

13132-574: The outhouse (usually after but sometimes both) a scoop or two of lime is sprinkled into the lid holes to cover the waste as to suppress the odor which also can help with the insect issues. This method of using powdered lime is also used (and for the same reasons) in common/mass graves. One of the purposes of outhouses is to avoid spreading parasites such as intestinal worms , notably hookworms , which might otherwise be spread via open defecation . Old outhouse pits are seen as excellent places for archeological and anthropological excavations , offering up

13266-399: The passages or landings. Most of these houses have yards at the back, some of which are a fair size, while others are very small, and some few houses have no yards at all. Generally, the only water supply of the house is furnished by a single water tap, which is in the yard. The yard is common and the closet accommodation [ toilet ] is to be found there, except in some few cases in which there

13400-552: The planet",. However, existing infrastructure and city planning practices are not sustainable. In July 2013 a report issued by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs warned that with 2.4 billion more people by 2050, the amount of food produced will have to increase by 70%, straining food resources, especially in countries already facing food insecurity due to changing environmental conditions. The mix of changing environmental conditions and

13534-492: The population is increasing. Urbanization creates enormous social, economic and environmental challenges, which provide an opportunity for sustainability with the "potential to use resources much less or more efficiently, to create more sustainable land use and to protect the biodiversity of natural ecosystems." However, current urbanization trends have shown that massive urbanization has led to unsustainable ways of living. Developing urban resilience and urban sustainability in

13668-687: The population living in cities with more than 20,000 people jumped from 17% in 1801 to 54% in 1891. Moreover, and adopting a broader definition of urbanization, while the urbanized population in England and Wales represented 72% of the total in 1891, for other countries the figure was 37% in France , 41% in Prussia and 28% in the United States . As labourers were freed up from working the land due to higher agricultural productivity they converged on

13802-421: The premises, or by more than two families upon a floor, so living and cooking and having a common right in the halls, stairways, yards, water-closets, or privies, or some of them. In Scotland, it continues to be the most common word for a multiple-occupancy building , but elsewhere it is used as a pejorative in contrast to apartment building or block of flats . Tenement houses were either adapted or built for

13936-434: The premises, or by more than two families upon any floor, so living and cooking, but having a right in the halls, stairways, yards, water-closets or privies, or some of them." L 1867, ch 908. The New York City Board of Health was empowered to enforce these regulations, but it declined to do so. As a compromise, the " Old Law tenement " became the standard: this had a "dumbbell" shape, with air and light shafts on either side in

14070-618: The public health. See posters created by the Works Progress Administration during the 1930s and early 1940s. Some types of flying insects such as the housefly are attracted to the odor of decaying material, and will use it for food for their offspring, laying eggs in the decaying material. Other insects such as mosquitoes seek out standing water that may be present in the pit for the breeding of their offspring. Both of these are undesirable pests to humans, but can be easily controlled without chemicals by enclosing

14204-546: The rapid growth of slums. This is also similar to areas of violent conflict, where people are driven off their land due to violence. Cities offer a larger variety of services, including specialist services not found in rural areas. These services require workers, resulting in more numerous and varied job opportunities. Elderly people may be forced to move to cities where there are doctors and hospitals that can cater to their health needs. Varied and high-quality educational opportunities are another factor in urban migration, as well as

14338-515: The relative overall quality of life is very subjective, and may certainly surpass that of the city. Farm living has always been susceptible to unpredictable environmental conditions, and in times of drought , flood or pestilence, survival may become extremely problematic. – Iam Thongdee, Professor of Humanities, Mahidol University in Bangkok In a New York Times article concerning the acute migration away from farming in Thailand, life as

14472-475: The rooms were linked together like the cars of a train, with windowless internal rooms. The adapted buildings were also known as " rookeries ," and these were a particular concern, as they were prone to collapse and fire. Mulberry Bend and Five Points were the sites of notorious rookeries that the city worked for decades to clear. In both rookeries and purpose-built tenements, communal water taps and water closets (either privies or "school sinks," which opened into

14606-532: The same things cities offer, attracting the rural population and urban and suburban populations from other cities. Dominant conurbations are quite often disproportionately large cities , but do not have to be. For instance Greater Manila is a conurbation instead of a city. Its total population of 20 million (over 20% national population) make it a primate city, but Quezon City (2.7 million), the largest municipality in Greater Manila, and Manila (1.6 million),

14740-481: The so-called "Penny Tenement" incident of 1959 in which a tenement collapsed. Apartments in tenement buildings in both cities are now often highly sought after, due to their locations, often large rooms, high ceilings, ornamentation and period features. In German, the term corresponding to tenement is Mietskaserne , "rental barracks", and the city especially known for them is Berlin. In 1930, Werner Hegemann 's polemic Das steinerne Berlin (Stony Berlin) referred to

14874-518: The source is trade or tourism, it is also through the ports or banking systems, commonly located in cities, that foreign money flows into a country. Many people move into cities for economic opportunities, but this does not fully explain the very high recent urbanization rates in places like China and India. Rural flight is a contributing factor to urbanization. In rural areas, often on small family farms or collective farms in villages, it has historically been difficult to access manufactured goods, though

15008-412: The streets were required to be able to handle heavy traffic, and the lots are therefore also large: required to have courtyards large enough for a fire truck to turn around, the buildings have front, rear, and cross buildings enclosing several courtyards. Buildings within the courtyards were the location of much of Berlin's industry until the 1920s, and noise and other nuisances affected the apartments, only

15142-652: The sun's energy is instead absorbed by buildings and asphalt; leading to higher surface temperatures. Vehicles, factories, and heating and cooling units in factories and homes release even more heat. As a result, cities are often 1 to 3 °C (1.8 to 5.4 °F) warmer than other areas near them. Urban heat islands also make the soil drier and absorb less carbon dioxide from emissions. A Qatar University study found that land-surface temperatures in Doha increased annually by 0.65 °C from 2002 to 2013 and 2023. Urban runoff , polluted water created by rainfall on impervious surfaces,

15276-464: The surrounding of habitat is, the fewer species can reach the habitat. Other times, such as with birds, urbanization may allow for an increase in richness when organisms are able to adapt to the new environment. This can be seen in species that may find food while scavenging developed areas or vegetation that has been added after urbanization has occurred i.e. planted trees in city areas – Jack Finegan, Urban Programme Specialist at UN-Habitat In

15410-470: The third leading cause of the release of methane, causing a concern on its impact to our ozone and on the health of individuals. Accumulation of food waste causes increased fermentation, which increases the risk of rodent and bug migration. An increase in migration of disease vectors creates greater potential of disease spreading to humans. Waste management systems vary on all scales from global to local and can also be influenced by lifestyle. Waste management

15544-461: The thousands to house people migrating to the large city because of its booming cotton mills and overall strong economy. A typical chawl tenement consists of one all-purpose room, which functions both as a living and sleeping space, and a kitchen which also serves as a dining room. A frequent practice is for the kitchen to also serve as a bedroom for a newly married couple in order to give them some degree of privacy. Kamienica (plural kamienice )

15678-551: The time and the place. For example, an opulent 19th century antebellum example (a three-holer) is at the plantation area at the state park in Stone Mountain, Georgia . The outhouses of Colonial Williamsburg varied widely, from simple expendable temporary wood structures to high-style brick. Thomas Jefferson designed and had built two brick octagons at his vacation home. Such outhouses are sometimes considered to be overbuilt, impractical and ostentatious, giving rise to

15812-509: The top of the pit with tight-fitting boards or concrete , using a sufficiently sealed toilet hole cover that is closed after every use, and by using fine-grid insect screen to cover the inlet and outlet vent holes. This prevents flying insect entry by all potential routes. It is common (at least in the United States) for outhouses to have a bucket or a bag of powdered lime with a scoop of some kind in it. Either before or after using

15946-433: The top, it should be either emptied or a new pit constructed and the shelter moved or re-built at the new location. The management of the fecal sludge removed from the pit is complicated. There are both environment and health risks if not done properly. As of 2013 pit latrines are used by an estimated 1.77 billion people. This is mostly in the developing world as well as in rural and wilderness areas. Another system

16080-402: The towns where economic activity consisted primarily of trade at markets and manufactures on a small scale. Due to the primitive and relatively stagnant state of agriculture throughout this period, the ratio of rural to urban population remained at a fixed equilibrium. However, a significant increase in the percentage of the global urban population can be traced in the 1st millennium BCE. With

16214-539: The trend for core cities in said nations tends to continue to become ever denser. Development of cities is often viewed negatively, but there are positives in cutting down on transport costs, creating new job opportunities, providing education and housing, and transportation. Living in cities permits individuals and families to make use of their closeness to workplaces and diversity. While cities have more varied markets and goods than rural areas, facility congestion, domination of one group, high overhead and rental costs, and

16348-518: The twentieth century, see below . In Scandinavia and some other countries, outhouses are built over removable containers that enable easy removal of the waste and enable much more rapid composting in separate piles. A similar system operates in India, where hundreds of thousands of workers engage in manual scavenging , i.e. emptying pit latrines and bucket toilets without any personal protective equipment . A variety of systems are used in some national parks and popular wilderness areas, to cope with

16482-438: The two concepts are sometimes used interchangeably, urbanization should be distinguished from urban growth . Urbanization refers to the proportion of the total national population living in areas classified as urban, whereas urban growth strictly refers to the absolute number of people living in those areas. It is predicted that by 2050 about 64% of the developing world and 86% of the developed world will be urbanized. This

16616-641: The width of the street on which they were located; therefore, most are about 3–5 storeys high. Virtually all Glasgow tenements were constructed using red or blonde sandstone, which has become distinctive. In Edinburgh, residential dwellings in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of the medieval Old Town and Georgian New Town (as well as the Victorian city centre districts immediately surrounding them) are almost exclusively tenements. The Tenement House historic house museum in

16750-559: The windows were blocked by courtyard businesses. Many apartments in the Wilhelmian Ring were very small, only one room and a kitchen. Also, apartments were laid out with their rooms reached via a common internal corridor, which even the Berlin Architects' Association recognized was unhealthy and detrimental to family life. Sanitation was inadequate: in a survey of one area in 1962, only 15 percent of apartments had both

16884-484: The wooden outdoor toilets are commonly called "Sławojka", a name that refers to the former Prime Minister Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski who used to monitor scrupulously the implementation of the provisions imposed by the construction law of 1928 , making it mandatory for outdoor toilet pits to be surrounded by walls. Tsi-Ku, also known as Tsi Ku Niang, is described as the Chinese goddess of the outhouse and divination. It

17018-432: The word is usually used to describe a building that abuts other similar buildings forming the street frontage , in the manner of a terraced house . The ground floor often consists of shops and other businesses, while the upper floors are apartments, oftentimes spanning the entire floor. Kamienice have large windows in the front, but not in the side walls, since the buildings are close together. The first type of kamienica

17152-431: The working class as cities industrialized, and came to be contrasted with middle-class apartment houses, which started to become fashionable later in the 19th century. Late-19th-century social reformers in the United States were hostile to both tenements (for fostering disease, and immorality in the young) and apartment houses (for fostering "sexual immorality, sloth, and divorce"). As the United States industrialized during

17286-511: Was connected by walkways . It still stands (but not the building). The waste from "upstairs" is directed down a chute separate from the "downstairs" facility in these instances, so contrary to various jokes about two-story outhouses, the user of the lower level has nothing to fear if the upper level is in use at the same time. The Boston Exchange Coffee House (1809–1818) was equipped with a four-story outhouse with windows on each floor. Some outhouses were built surprisingly ornately, considering

17420-457: Was initially a subdivision of a large house. Beginning in the 1850s, purpose-built tenements of up to six stories held several households on each floor. Various names were introduced for better dwellings, and eventually modern apartments predominated in American urban living. In parts of England, especially Devon and Cornwall , the word refers to an outshot, or additional projecting part at

17554-570: Was not a primary concern until after the Industrial Revolution. As urban areas continued to grow along with the human population, proper management of solid waste became an apparent concern. To address these concerns, local governments sought solutions with the lowest economic impacts which meant implementing technical solutions at the very last stage of the process. Current waste management reflects these economically motivated solutions, such as incineration or unregulated landfills. Yet,

17688-421: Was popularized by cartoonists and had a questionable basis in fact. There are authors who claim the practice began during the colonial period as an early "mens"/"ladies" designation for an illiterate populace (the sun and moon being popular symbols for the sexes during those times). Others dismiss the claim as an urban legend . What is certain is that the purpose of the hole is for venting and light and there were

17822-518: Was stirred by publication in 1890 of Jacob Riis 's How the Other Half Lives , and in 1892 by Riis's The Children of the Poor. The New York State Assembly Tenement House Committee report of 1894 surveyed 8,000 buildings with approximately 255,000 residents and found New York to be the most densely populated city in the world, at an average of 143 inhabitants per acre (350/ha), with part of

17956-449: Was the accumulation of hunter-gatherers into villages many thousands of years ago. Village culture is characterized by common bloodlines, intimate relationships, and communal behaviour, whereas urban culture is characterized by distant bloodlines, unfamiliar relations, and competitive behaviour. This unprecedented movement of people is forecast to continue and intensify during the next few decades, mushrooming cities to sizes unthinkable only

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