136-527: The Birmingham pub bombings were carried out on 21 November 1974, when bombs exploded in two public houses in Birmingham , England, killing 21 people and injuring 182 others. The Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) never officially admitted responsibility for the Birmingham pub bombings, although a former senior officer of the organisation confessed to their involvement in 2014. In 2017, one of
272-416: A jukebox or dartboard ). By the 1970s, divisions between saloons and public bars were being phased out, usually by the removal of the dividing wall or partition. While the names of saloon and public bar may still be seen on the doors of pubs, the prices (and often the standard of furnishings and decoration) are the same throughout the premises. Most present day pubs now comprise one large room, although with
408-483: A 30-minute advance warning to security services was followed, and subsequent eyewitness accounts are accurate, the bombs would have been planted at these locations after 19:30 and before 19:47. According to testimony delivered at the 1975 trial of the six men wrongly convicted of the Birmingham pub bombings, the bomb planted inside the Mulberry Bush was concealed inside either a duffel bag or briefcase, whereas
544-669: A Griess test. Moreover, the tests conducted by Skuse had not succeeded in identifying nitroglycerine as the source of the positive results produced by the Griess tests, and the Crown had earlier conceded that an exhaustive search of the six men's homes had revealed no traces of nitroglycerine. Several weeks into the trial, Judge Bridge overruled motions from the defence counsel that the four written confessions obtained from their clients should be omitted from evidence due to their being extorted under extreme physical and mental pressure, instead citing
680-465: A brick wall and wedged between the rubble and underground electric cables took up to three hours to recover, as recovery operations were delayed until the power could be isolated . A passing West Midlands bus was also destroyed in the blast. This bomb killed nine people outright, and injured everyone in the pub—many severely; two later died of their injuries: 28-year-old barman Thomas Chaytor on 28 November, and 34-year-old James Craig on 10 December. After
816-415: A brick wall. Their remains were wedged between the rubble and live underground electric cables that supplied the city centre. One of the first police officers on the scene, Brian Yates, later testified that the scene which greeted his eyes was "absolutely dreadful", with several of the dead stacked upon one another, others strewn about the ruined pub, and several screaming survivors staggering aimlessly amongst
952-524: A day, was increasing and that 39,404 pubs in England and Wales remained open at the end of June. There was regulation of public drinking spaces in England from at least the 15th century. In 1496, under, Henry VII, an act was passed, "against vagabonds and beggers" (11 Hen. VII c2), that included a clause empowering two justices of the peace, "to rejecte and put awey comen ale-selling in tounes and places where they shall think convenyent, and to take suertie of
1088-548: A detailed internal investigation was underway to determine the possibility of any rogue members' involvement, although the Provisional IRA emphasised that the methodology of the attacks contradicted the official IRA code of conduct when attacking non-military targets, whereby adequate warnings would be sent to security services to ensure the safety of civilians. Ruairí Ó Brádaigh , then-president of Sinn Féin , conducted an internal investigation which, he stated, confirmed
1224-537: A historic interiors list in order that they can be preserved. The pub took the concept of the bar counter to serve the beer from gin palaces in the 18th century. Until that time beer establishments used to bring the beer out to the table or benches, as remains the practice in (for example) beer gardens and some other drinking establishments in Germany. A bar might be provided for the manager or publican to do paperwork while keeping an eye on his or her customers, and
1360-411: A particular kind of image, or in many cases simply as a pun on the word "in". The original services of an inn are now also available at other establishments. Hotels, lodges, and motels focus more on lodging customers than on other services but usually provide meals. Pubs are primarily alcohol-serving establishments. Restaurants and taverns serve food and drink. In North America, the lodging aspect of
1496-609: A patent in favour of John Lofting for a fire engine, but remarked upon and recommended another invention of his, for a beer pump: "Whereas their Majesties have been Graciously Pleased to grant Letters patent to John Lofting of London Merchant for a New Invented Engine for Extinguishing Fires which said Engine have found every great encouragement. The said Patentee hath also projected a Very Useful Engine for starting of beer and other liquors which will deliver from 20 to 30 barrels an hour which are completely fixed with Brass Joints and Screws at Reasonable Rates. Any Person that hath occasion for
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#17327935020901632-456: A policeman prodded the bags with his truncheon, but the bomb did not explode. The device was destroyed in a controlled explosion early the following morning. Altogether, 21 people were killed and 182 injured in the Birmingham pub bombings, making them the deadliest terrorist attack in mainland Britain during the Troubles. Residents of Birmingham have referred to the Birmingham pub bombings as
1768-526: A regeneration scheme by Argent Group PLC , regenerated an area of derelict warehouses alongside canals near Broad Street . Brindleyplace consists of three public squares, offices, retail units and the Sea Life Centre . Oozells Street Board School was refurbished to become the Ikon Gallery . On the opposite side of Broad Street Tunnel on the canal network is Gas Street Basin . Nearby is also
1904-543: A separate charge of conspiracy to cause explosions), James Francis Gavin (a.k.a. James Kelly, who had likewise been tried alongside the Birmingham Six and convicted of the possession of explosives), who had allegedly constructed each of the bombs, and Michael Sheehan. Murray was also charged with conspiracy to cause explosions across the Midlands, with Kelly and Sheehan charged with possession of explosives. Prior to
2040-679: A separate debate within the House of Commons as to whether those convicted of terrorist offences should face the death penalty was held on 11 December 1974. This motion drew the support of more than 200 MPs, although the majority of those in Parliament voted against the restoration of the death penalty, reportedly in part due to fear that such a move could have encouraged the IRA to use children to plant bombs. The Prevention of Terrorism Act became law on 29 November, and remained in force until superseded by
2176-651: A series of small rooms served drinks and food by waiting staff. By the early 1970s there was a tendency to change to one large drinking room as breweries were eager to invest in interior design and theming. Isambard Kingdom Brunel , the British engineer and railway builder, introduced the idea of a circular bar into the Swindon station pub in order that customers were served quickly and did not delay his trains. These island bars became popular as they also allowed staff to serve customers in several different rooms surrounding
2312-652: A short distance from the Rotunda and directly beneath the New Street Tax Office. Patrons there had heard the explosion at the Mulberry Bush , but did not believe that the sound (described by one survivor as a "muffled thump") was an explosion. Police had begun attempting to clear the Tavern in the Town when, at 20:27, a second bomb exploded there. The blast was so powerful that several victims were blown through
2448-425: A wider selection of better quality drinks that cost a penny or two more than those served in the public bar. By the mid-20th century, the standard of the public bar had generally improved. Many were built between the world wars as part of the "improved" pub movement and as "roadhouse" inns—with large car parks to attract passing trade. Pub patrons only had to choose between economy and exclusivity (or youth and age:
2584-421: Is also the hub for the national coach network. Birmingham Coach Station , which is currently in the process of being prepared for redevelopment, is owned and operated by National Express who are to move their headquarters to the city. It was built by Midland Red in 1929, and until 1997 was also used by Midland Red West as a depot. The shed to the rear of the coach station has been demolished and Spencer House,
2720-552: Is based in the city centre whilst Birmingham City University has educational facilities there. In the Eastside area are Birmingham Metropolitan College's Matthew Boulton College campus and BMC's New Technology Institute . Birmingham Ormiston Academy is also located on the edge of the centre. The area is sometimes called Aston Triangle . Round this area are many high rise buildings providing student accommodation as well as high rise educational buildings. New Street station
2856-587: Is one of several arcades in the city centre. Digbeth is the focus for many independent retailers. Broad Street is the main centre for Birmingham's nightlife . There are further nightclubs in Digbeth . Cultural attractions include Birmingham Central Library in Chamberlain Square and Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery and the Council House , Birmingham in the same building together with
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#17327935020902992-682: Is the central business district of Birmingham , England. The area was historically in Warwickshire . Following the removal of the Inner Ring Road , the city centre is now defined as being the area within the Middle Ring Road . The city centre is undergoing massive redevelopment with the Big City Plan , which means there are now nine emerging districts and the city centre is approximately five times bigger. Following
3128-542: Is the main railway station in the city centre with local and national railway connections. The station was first built in 1854 and rebuilt in 1967. The redevelopment of the station in a project named Gateway Plus was finished in 2016. The project cost £600m and included a new John Lewis department store and many other shops. The project took five years to build and is one of the most expensive and controversial regenerations in all of Europe . Moor Street , Snow Hill , Bordersley and Jewellery station are also located within
3264-420: Is when a pub owner allows patrons to continue drinking in the pub after the legal closing time, on the theory that once the doors are locked, it becomes a private party rather than a pub. Patrons may put money behind the bar before official closing time, and redeem their drinks during the lock-in so no drinks are technically sold after closing time. The origin of the British lock-in was a reaction to 1915 changes in
3400-594: The Birmingham Post newspaper. The call was answered by operator Ian Cropper. This caller said: "There is a bomb planted in the Rotunda and there is a bomb in New Street at the tax office. This is Double X", before terminating the call. ("Double X" was an IRA code word given to authenticate any warning call.) A similar warning was also sent to the Birmingham Evening Mail newspaper, with
3536-577: The Birmingham Six —maintained their innocence and insisted police had coerced them into signing false confessions through severe physical and psychological abuse . After 16 years in prison, and a lengthy campaign, their convictions were declared unsafe and unsatisfactory, and quashed by the Court of Appeal in 1991. The episode is seen as one of the worst miscarriages of justice in British legal history. The Birmingham pub bombings were one of
3672-660: The British Home Secretary vowed that such a funeral, and any associated sympathy marches, would be prevented. Councils in the West Midlands chose to ban any processions linked to the death of McDade under the Public Order Act 1936 . McDade's body was driven to Birmingham Airport and flown to Ireland on the afternoon of 21 November 1974. Initially, his body had been scheduled to be flown to Belfast Airport ; however, upon learning that staff at
3808-467: The Covid pandemic , followed by the wave of inflation that increased prices. By June 2022, pub numbers in England and Wales had fallen to a record low of 39,970, a loss of 7,000 in 10 years. Pubs also found it difficult to hire enough staff, with 142,000 jobs unfilled in the accommodation and food services sector by 2023. Figures published in 2023 showed that the rate of pub loss, equivalent to two closures
3944-694: The International Convention Centre and Birmingham Symphony Hall , which is considered one of the best performance venues in the world. This overlooks Centenary Square and is adjacent to the Birmingham Repertory Theatre . Centenary Square was redeveloped in 1989 and given its current name in that year. Within Centenary Square is the Hall of Memory and Baskerville House . Other public squares in
4080-566: The National Trust . The Birmingham Back to Backs are the last surviving court of back to back houses in the city. Colmore Row is the centre of the Colmore Row and Environs Conservation Area which consists of St. Philip's Cathedral . The Jewellery Quarter is also covered by a conservation area . Other quarters in the city centre are Birmingham Chinatown , Irish Quarter and Learning and Technology Quarter. Aston University
4216-463: The Rotunda . Prior to any attack upon civilian targets, a code of conduct was followed in which the attacker or attackers would send an anonymous telephone warning to police, with the caller reciting a confidential code word known only to the Provisional IRA and to police, to indicate the authenticity of the threat. On 14 November, James McDade, a 28-year-old UK-based member of the Provisional IRA,
Birmingham pub bombings - Misplaced Pages Continue
4352-524: The Terrorism Act in July 2000. An analysis of the remnants of the bombs placed at the Mulberry Bush and the Tavern in the Town revealed these devices had been constructed in a similar manner to the bomb placed at Hagley Road. Each bomb placed inside the public houses would have weighed between 25 and 30 lbs, and had contained numerous shards of metal. The forensic analyst was able to state that
4488-399: The alleged perpetrators, Michael Hayes, also claimed that the intention of the bombings had not been to harm civilians, and that their deaths had been caused by an unintentional delay in delivering an advance telephone warning to security services. Six Irishmen were arrested within hours of the blasts, and in 1975 sentenced to life imprisonment for the bombings. The men—who became known as
4624-696: The clock tower , Big Brum . Thinktank opened in the Millennium Point complex in Eastside in 2002, replacing the Museum of Science and Industry on Newhall Street . The history of the Jewellery Quarter is documented in the Museum of the Jewellery Quarter . Also in the Jewellery Quarter is the Royal Birmingham Society of Artists and St. Paul's Gallery . A group of back-to-back houses on Hurst Street were restored by
4760-574: The smoking ban of 2007 , intense competition from gastro-pubs, the availability of cheap alcohol in supermarkets or the general economic climate are either to blame, or are factors in the decline. Changes in demographics may be an additional factor. In 2015 the rate of pub closures came under the scrutiny of Parliament in the UK, with a promise of legislation to improve relations between owners and tenants. The Lost Pubs Project listed 42,519 closed English pubs on 6 August 2023, with photographs of over 29,000. In
4896-580: The "consequences of war" would incessantly be felt not only in Northern Ireland, but on the British mainland, until the British government announced their intentions to "disengage from Ireland". One week after the Birmingham Six had been charged with the murder of Jane Davis, Ó Conaill issued a further statement emphasising that none of the Birmingham Six had ever been members of the IRA. Ó Conaill further stated: If IRA members had carried-out such attacks, they would be court-martialled and could face
5032-576: The "darkest day" in their city's history. Many of those wounded were left permanently disabled, including one young man who lost both legs, and a young woman who was blinded by shrapnel. The majority of the dead and wounded were between the ages of 17 and 30, including a young couple on their first date, a young woman whose boyfriend had intended to propose to her on the evening of her death, and two Irishmen, brothers Desmond and Eugene Reilly (aged 21 and 23 respectively). The widow of Desmond Reilly gave birth to his first child four months after his death. One of
5168-459: The "weasel" is unclear but the two most likely definitions are: a flat iron used for finishing clothing; or rhyming slang for a coat ( weasel and stoat ). A few pubs have stage performances such as serious drama, stand-up comedy, musical bands, cabaret or striptease ; however, juke boxes , karaoke and other forms of pre-recorded music have otherwise replaced the musical tradition of a piano or guitar and singing. The public bar, or tap room,
5304-471: The 17th century, this represented a fundamental shift in the way that many pubs were operated and the period is now widely regarded as the birth of the tied house system. Decreasing numbers of free houses and difficulties in obtaining new licences meant a continual expansion of their tied estates was the only feasible way for breweries to generate new trade. By the end of the century more than 90 per cent of public houses in England were owned by breweries, and
5440-504: The 1980s). In the Manchester area, the public bar was known as the "vault", other rooms being the lounge and snug as usual elsewhere. The vault was a men-only bar, meant for working men in their dirty working clothes. This style was in marked contrast to the adjacent saloon or lounge bar which, by the early 20th century, was where male or accompanied female middle-class drinkers would drink. It had carpeted floors, upholstered seats, and
5576-501: The Birmingham IRA unit were "running high" over the disrupted funeral arrangements for James McDade. On the early evening of 21 November, at least three bombs connected to timing devices were planted inside two separate public houses and outside a bank located in and around central Birmingham . It is unknown precisely when these bombs were planted; if official IRA protocol of preceding attacks upon non-military installations with
Birmingham pub bombings - Misplaced Pages Continue
5712-459: The Birmingham pub bombings within the Midlands, Judge Bridge conceded to defence motions to move the trial away from the Midlands, and the trial was set to be heard within the Shire Hall and Crown Court of Lancaster Castle the following month. Also to stand trial with the Birmingham Six were three men: Mick Murray (a known member of the Provisional IRA who had previously been convicted of
5848-535: The British Director of Public Prosecutions recommended that 14 prison warders be charged with assault. These men were suspended from duty in December 1975; all 14 were found not guilty of 90 separate charges of misconduct and assault on 15 July 1976.) Dáithí Ó Conaill , then a member of the Provisional IRA's Army Council, had four days before the Birmingham pub bombings issued a statement declaring that
5984-469: The Griess test, before a second swab had revealed faint, positive traces of ammonium and nitrates . This testimony was refuted by Dr. Hugh Kenneth Black, a former Chief Inspector of Explosives for the Home Office , who testified that a range of innocuous substances and objects one could handle on a daily basis containing nitrocellulose (such as varnishes and paints) would produce a positive result to
6120-801: The IRA; to have conspired with McDade to cause explosions prior to his death; and to have planted the bombs at the Mulberry Bush and the Tavern in the Town public houses. As had been the case with William Power while detained at Morecambe police station, the three men later claimed that, before and during their transfer to Birmingham, officers had coerced them into signing these confessions through severe physical, psychological and emotional abuse. This mistreatment included beatings, deprivation of food and sleep, being subject to mock executions, intimidation, being burned with lit cigarettes, and being forced to stand or squat in various stress positions . In addition, each man had heard threats directed against their families. Hill and Hunter both claimed they had been subject to
6256-450: The Midlands went on strike in protest at the bombings, while workers at airports across England refused to handle flights bound for Ireland. Bridget Reilly, the mother of the two Irish brothers killed in the Tavern in the Town explosion, was herself refused service in local shops. The bombings were immediately blamed on the IRA, despite the organisation not having claimed responsibility. Due to anger against Irish people in Birmingham after
6392-489: The Rotunda were also damaged, and pedestrians in the street were struck by flying glass from shattered windows. Several of the victims died at the scene, including two youths who had been walking past the premises at the moment of the explosion. Ten people were killed in this explosion and dozens were injured, including many who lost limbs . Several casualties had been impaled by sections of wooden furniture; others had their clothes burned from their bodies. A paramedic called to
6528-675: The UK, soft drinks and often food), but less commonly accommodation. Inns tend to be older and grander establishments: historically they provided not only food and lodging, but also stabling and fodder for travellers' horses, and on some roads fresh horses for the mail coach . Famous London inns include the George, Southwark and the Tabard . There is, however, no longer a formal distinction between an inn and other kinds of establishment. Many pubs use "Inn" in their name, either because they are long established former coaching inns , or to summon up
6664-826: The Unready prescribes fines for breaching the peace at meetings held in alehouses. A traveller in the early Middle Ages could obtain overnight accommodation in monasteries, but later a demand for hostelries grew with the popularity of pilgrimages and travel. The Hostellers of London were granted guild status in 1446, and in 1514 the guild became the Worshipful Company of Innholders . A survey in 1577 of drinking establishment in England and Wales for taxation purposes recorded 14,202 alehouses, 1,631 inns, and 329 taverns, representing one pub for every 187 people. Inns are buildings where travellers can seek lodging and, usually, food and drink. They are typically located in
6800-509: The additional charges of possession of explosives. All six men emphatically maintained their innocence, stating they had never been members of the IRA; that they had not known James McDade had been a member of the Provisional Irish Republican Army until his death; and reiterating their earlier claims of having been subject to intense physical and psychological abuse upon their arrest. Sheehan and Kelly also denied
6936-421: The advent of gastropubs , some establishments have returned to maintaining distinct rooms or areas. The "snug" was a small private room or area, typically with access to the bar and a frosted glass window above head height. Customers in the snug paid a higher price for beer and nobody could look in and see the drinkers. Not only did wealthy visitors use these rooms, but also patrons who preferred not to be seen in
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#17327935020907072-534: The airport had refused to handle the coffin, McDade's body was instead flown to Dublin . All police leave was cancelled on this date, with an extra 1,300 officers drafted into Birmingham to quell any unrest as the hearse carrying McDade's coffin was driven to the airport. McDade's body was buried in Milltown Cemetery in Belfast on 23 November. According to a senior Provisional IRA figure, tensions within
7208-401: The anonymous caller(s) again giving the code word, but again failing to name the public houses in which the bombs had been planted. The Rotunda is a 25-storey office block, built in the 1960s, that housed the Mulberry Bush pub on its lower two floors. Within minutes of the warning, police arrived and began checking the upper floors of the Rotunda, but they did not have sufficient time to clear
7344-431: The bar. A "beer engine" is a device for pumping beer, originally manually operated and typically used to dispense beer from a cask or container in a pub's basement or cellar. The first beer pump known in England is believed to have been invented by John Lofting (born Netherlands 1659-d. Great Marlow Buckinghamshire 1742) an inventor, manufacturer and merchant of London. The London Gazette of 17 March 1691 published
7480-591: The big breweries to sell their tied houses, the Government introduced the Beer Orders in 1989. The result, however, was that the Big Six melted away into other sectors; selling their brewing assets and spinning off their tied houses, largely into the hands of branded pub chains, called pubcos. As these were not brewers, they were not governed by the Beer Orders and tens of thousands of pubs remain tied, much in
7616-475: The bomb planted inside the Tavern in the Town was concealed inside a briefcase or duffel bag (possibly concealed within a large, sealed plastic bag) and Christmas cracker boxes. The remnants of two alarm clocks recovered from the site of each explosion leaves the possibility that two bombs had been planted at each public house; the explosion crater at each location indicates that if two bombs had been planted at each public house, they would each have been placed in
7752-605: The bombings had not been sanctioned by the IRA leadership. The Provisional IRA never officially admitted responsibility for the Birmingham pub bombings. Within four days of the bombings, Roy Jenkins , the Home Secretary, announced that the Irish Republican Army was to be proscribed within the UK. Two days later, on 27 November, Jenkins introduced the Prevention of Terrorism Act 1974 , which granted
7888-465: The bombings, each man had been detained at Heysham Port and taken to Morecambe police station to undergo forensic tests to eliminate them as suspects in the bombings. Each man expressed their willingness to assist in these inquiries, having informed the officers of a half-truth as to the reason they had been travelling to Belfast: that they intended to visit their families, although they also intended to attend McDade's funeral. Between 03:00 and 06:10
8024-441: The bombings, the IRA's Army Council placed the city "strictly off-limits" to IRA active service units . In Northern Ireland, loyalist paramilitaries launched a wave of revenge attacks on Irish Catholics : within two days of the bombings, five Catholic civilians had been shot dead by loyalists . Two days after the bombings, the Provisional IRA issued a statement in which they denied any responsibility. This statement stressed that
8160-437: The brewery). Another common arrangement was (and is) for the landlord to own the premises (whether freehold or leasehold ) independently of the brewer, but then to take a mortgage loan from a brewery, either to finance the purchase of the pub initially, or to refurbish it, and be required as a term of the loan to observe the solus tie. Birmingham City Centre Birmingham city centre , also known as Central Birmingham ,
8296-469: The characteristics that make pubs instantly recognisable today. In particular, and contrary to the intentions of the Beerhouse Act, many drew inspiration from the gin houses and palaces. Bar counters had been an early adoption, but ornate mirrors, etched glass, polished brass fittings and lavishly tiled surfaces were all features that had first made their appearance in gin houses. Innovations such as
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#17327935020908432-423: The charges brought against them, with Murray simply refusing to acknowledge or speak throughout the entire proceedings. (No direct evidence was offered to link Murray, Sheehan or Kelly with the Birmingham pub bombings. Nonetheless, the Crown alleged they were part of the same IRA unit as the Birmingham Six, and contended the Birmingham pub bombs may have been planted "in some illogical way" to avenge or commemorate
8568-705: The city centre include Victoria Square , Chamberlain Square and Old Square . There are two public squares within the Bull Ring complex and another in the Custard Factory . Retail is mainly focused on the Bullring Shopping Centre , Corporation Street , New Street and High Street . Other retail centres in the city centre are The Mailbox on Suffolk Street and Grand Central Shopping Centre above New Street station . Great Western Arcade
8704-547: The city centre. Ten suburban and Inter-City heavy rail routes service the city centre. The first railway station to be built in the city centre was Curzon Street railway station , which acted as the terminus for both the London and Birmingham Railway and the Grand Junction Railway, with lines connecting Birmingham to London and to Manchester and Liverpool respectively. The building, designed by Philip Hardwick ,
8840-596: The construction of highrise buildings on the ridge. The city centre core is the historic heart of the city, where old and new features are juxtaposed, roughly bounded by the former Birmingham Inner Ring Road . Its pre-eminent features include Chamberlain Square , Old Square , Victoria Square , Birmingham Town Hall , Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery , Birmingham Central Library , St Philip's Cathedral , Methodist Central Hall , Victoria Law Courts and other Birmingham Law Courts . The city centre contains many tourist destinations as well as landmarks. Brindleyplace ,
8976-508: The construction of these devices was very similar to that of seven other bombs and incendiary devices discovered at various locations in Birmingham, Coventry and Wolverhampton in the 16 days prior to the Birmingham pub bombings, and that the explosive material used to construct the bomb discovered at Hagley Road was of a brand solely manufactured in the Republic of Ireland which could not legally be imported into Britain. All these factors led
9112-573: The country or along a highway. In Europe, they possibly first sprang up when the Romans built a system of roads two millennia ago. Some inns in Europe are several centuries old. In addition to providing for the needs of travellers, inns traditionally acted as community gathering places. In Europe, it is the provision of accommodation, if anything, that now distinguishes inns from taverns , alehouses and pubs. The latter tend to provide alcohol (and, in
9248-540: The crowded pub at street level. At 20:17, six minutes after the first telephone warning had been delivered to the Birmingham Post , the bomb—which had been concealed inside either a duffel bag or briefcase located close to the rear entrance to the premises—exploded, devastating the pub. The explosion blew a 40-inch (100 cm) crater in the concrete floor, collapsing part of the roof and trapping many casualties beneath girders and concrete blocks. Many buildings near
9384-784: The deadliest acts of the Troubles , and the deadliest act of terrorism to occur in England between the Second World War and the 2005 London bombings . In 1973, the Provisional IRA extended its campaign to mainland Britain, attacking military and symbolically important targets to both increase pressure on the British government , via popular British opinion, to withdraw from Northern Ireland , and to maintain morale amongst their supporters. By 1974, mainland Britain saw an average of one attack—successful or otherwise—every three days. These attacks included five explosions which had occurred in Birmingham on 14 July, one of which had occurred at
9520-463: The death of James McDade.) The primary evidence presented against the Birmingham Six linking them to the Birmingham pub bombings were their written confessions, the Griess tests conducted by Frank Skuse at Morecambe police station, and circumstantial evidence indicative of Irish republican sympathies which would be supported by character witnesses called to testify on behalf of the prosecution. Skuse testified as to his conducting Griess tests upon
9656-459: The death penalty. The IRA has clear guidelines for waging its war. Any attack on non-military installations must be preceded by a 30-minute warning so that no innocent civilians are endangered. At a committal hearing in May 1975, each man was formally charged with 21 counts of murder, with additional charges of conspiracy to cause explosions. Due to the wave of public outrage towards the perpetrators of
9792-458: The debris, rubble, and severed limbs. A survivor said the sound of the explosion was replaced by a "deafening silence" and the smell of burnt flesh. Rescue efforts at the Tavern in the Town were initially hampered as the bomb had been placed at the base of a set of stairs descending from the street which had been destroyed in the explosion, and the premises had been accessible solely via this entrance. The victims whose bodies had been blown through
9928-414: The defendants' assertions as to physical and psychological abuse while in the custody of both constabularies, Judge Bridge concluded: "These investigations both at Morecambe and Birmingham were carried out with scrupulous propriety by all your officers". Pub A pub (short for public house ) is in several countries a drinking establishment licensed to serve alcoholic drinks for consumption on
10064-410: The development of the large London Porter breweries, a trend grew for pubs to become tied houses that only sold beer from a single brewery. (A pub not 'tied' in this way was called a free house .) The usual arrangement for a tied house was that the brewery owned the pub but rented it out to a private individual (landlord) who ran it as a separate business (even though contracted to buy the beer from
10200-533: The drinks traditionally served include draught beer and cider , most also sell wine , spirits , tea , coffee , and soft drinks . Many pubs offer meals and snacks, and those considered to be gastro-pubs serve food in a manner akin to a restaurant. A licence is required to operate a pub; the licensee is known as the landlord or landlady, or the publican. Often colloquially referred to as their "local" by regular customers, pubs are typically chosen for their proximity to home or work, good food, social atmosphere,
10336-611: The equivalent of a one-year sentence, and he was released from prison on 23 August. After sentencing all nine defendants, Judge Bridge summoned the Chief Constable of Lancashire and the Assistant Chief Constable of the West Midlands to hear a final address; both were commended for their collective efforts in interrogating and obtaining the four confessions presented in evidence. In addressing
10472-537: The explosives expert to conclude that all three bombs had been manufactured by the same people, and that it was likely that whoever had constructed these bombs had also committed previous IRA attacks. This conclusion was further supported by the methodology of the attacks, and the official IRA code word given to the Birmingham Evening Mail and Birmingham Post newspapers minutes before the explosions. At 19:55 on 21 November (scarcely 20 minutes before
10608-490: The fifteen years to 2017 a quarter of London's pubs had closed. The closures have been ascribed to factors such as changing tastes and a rise in the cost of beer due to tax increases. Some London boroughs where there has been an increase in British Muslim population— Islam forbids alcohol to its adherents—have seen a high amount of closures. The industry suffered a major decline from 2020, due to reduced trade during
10744-615: The first bomb had exploded), five men—Patrick Hill, Gerard Hunter, Richard McIlkenny, William Power and John Walker—had boarded a train at Birmingham New Street station . These men—who, alongside Hugh Callaghan, would become known as the "Birmingham Six"—were originally from Northern Ireland. Five of the Birmingham Six hailed from Belfast, whereas John Walker had lived in Derry until age 16. All six men had lived in Birmingham for between 11 and 27 years respectively and, although they had known James McDade and/or his family to varying degrees, each man
10880-476: The first country in the world to ban smoking in all enclosed public areas. Scotland was the first UK nation to introduce a ban on indoor smoking in March 2006, followed by the rest of the UK in 2007. Australia introduced a similar ban in 2006 and now has some of the world's toughest anti-smoking laws, with some territories having also banned smoking in outside public areas. Some publicans raised concerns, prior to
11016-630: The first pubs, called tabernae (the origin of modern English " tavern "), began to appear. After the departure of Roman authority in the fifth century and the fall of the Romano-British kingdoms , the Anglo-Saxons established alehouses that may have grown out of domestic dwellings, first attested in the 10th century. These alehouses quickly evolved into meeting houses for folk to socially congregate, gossip and arrange mutual help within their communities. The Wantage law code of Æthelred
11152-526: The following day. Inside Winson Green Prison, all six men were subject to the same mistreatment at the hands of prison officers as they had endured at the hands of police, with one of the men losing four teeth in one assault. At a further court hearing on 28 November, each man was observed to have extensive facial injuries; an examination by a prison doctor revealed each man had received extensive injuries not only to their faces, but across their bodies. (Following an independent investigation into this mistreatment,
11288-592: The following morning, forensic scientist Frank Skuse conducted a series of Griess tests upon the hands, fingernails and belongings of the five men arrested at Heysham Port, to determine whether any of the men had handled the explosive nitroglycerine . He concluded with a 99% degree of certainty that both Patrick Hill and William Power had handled explosives, and remained uncertain as to the test results conducted on John Walker, whose right hand had tested positive, but whose left hand had tested negative. The test results upon Hunter and McIlkenny had been negative. Each man
11424-609: The growth from 1869 by introducing magisterial control and new licensing laws. These aimed to make it harder to obtain a licence, and control drunkenness, prostitution, and other undesirable conduct on licensed premises. In the United Kingdom, restrictions were tightened considerably following the advent of the First World War. The Defence of the Realm Act , along with introducing rationing and censorship of
11560-455: The hands of the six men following their arrest, stating as to his being 99% certain that both Hill and Power had handled explosive materials, and to a possibility Walker may also have done so. Skuse conceded that he could not rule out the possibility that Walker's right hand could have been contaminated from his (Skuse's) own hands, as Walker was the last of the five men to be swabbed at Morecambe police station, and had at first tested negative to
11696-494: The implementation of restrictions, that a smoking ban would have a negative impact on sales. The impact of the ban was mixed, with some pubs suffering declining sales, and others seeing an increase, particularly in food sales. By the end of the 18th century, a new room in the pub was established: the saloon. Beer establishments had always provided entertainment of some sort—singing, gaming or sport. Balls Pond Road in Islington
11832-566: The introduction of hand pumps (or beer engines ) allowed more people to be served, faster, while technological advances in the brewing industry and improved transportation links made it possible for breweries to deliver beer far from where it was brewed. The latter half of the 19th century saw increased competition within the brewing industry and, in an attempt to secure markets for their own products, breweries began rapidly buying local pubs and directly employing publicans to run them. Although some tied houses had existed in larger British towns since
11968-420: The jury returned unanimous guilty verdicts in relation to the 21 murder charges against the Birmingham Six. Upon passing sentence, Judge Nigel Bridge informed the defendants: "You stand convicted of each of 21 counts, on the clearest and most overwhelming evidence I have ever heard, of the crime of murder." All six men were sentenced to life imprisonment. None of the Birmingham Six displayed any emotion upon hearing
12104-508: The keepers of ale-houses in their gode behavyng by the discrecion of the seid justices, and in the same to be avysed and aggreed at the tyme of their sessions." The Beerhouse Act of 1830 is widely considered to be a milestone in the history of public houses. Gin was popularised in England in the late 17th century, largely because it provided an alternative to French brandy at a time of political and religious conflict between Britain and France. Because of its cheapness, gin became popular with
12240-590: The licensing laws in England and Wales, which curtailed opening hours to stop factory workers from turning up drunk and harming the war effort. From then until the start of the 21st century, UK licensing laws changed very little, retaining these comparatively early closing times. The tradition of the lock-in therefore remained. Since the implementation of the Licensing Act 2003 , premises in England and Wales may apply to extend their opening hours beyond 11 pm, allowing round-the-clock drinking and removing much of
12376-480: The need for lock-ins. Since the smoking ban , some establishments operated a lock-in during which the remaining patrons could smoke without repercussions but, unlike drinking lock-ins, allowing smoking in a pub was still a prosecutable offence. Concerns about the effects of cigarette smoke inhalation first surfaced in the 1950s and ultimately led many countries to ban or restrict smoking in specific settings, such as pubs and restaurants. Early in 2004, Ireland became
12512-673: The office building above the main waiting room, has been boarded up. A planning application for the refurbishment of the building has been submitted and is awaiting planning permission. A temporary coach station on the opposite side of the road is currently being used. Cars are not officially encouraged in the city centre. Some areas have been pedestrianised to prevent cars interfering with pedestrian traffic, and some roundabouts with pedestrian subway systems have been replaced with signal-controlled junctions, e.g. on Smallbrook Queensway, Moor St Queensway, James Watt Queensway and St Chad's Circus near St Chad's Cathedral . However, there are still
12648-414: The only practical way brewers could now grow their tied estates was to turn on each other. Buy-outs and amalgamations became commonplace, and by the end of the 1980s there were only six large brewers left in the UK, collectively known as the Big Six; Allied , Bass , Courage , Grand Metropolitan , Scottish & Newcastle and Whitbread . In an attempt to increase the number of free houses, by forcing
12784-434: The pavement and given first aid prior to the arrival of ambulance services. At 21:15, a third bomb, concealed inside two plastic bags, was found in the doorway of a Barclays Bank on Hagley Road, approximately two miles from the site of the first two explosions. This device consisted of 13.5 pounds (6.1 kg) of Frangex connected to a timer , and was set to detonate at 23:00. The detonator to this device activated when
12920-520: The police in mainland Britain the right to arrest, detain, and question people for up to seven days if they were suspected of the commission or preparation of an act of terrorism on the British mainland, and their subsequent deportation to either Northern Ireland or the Republic of Ireland if culpability was proven. Jenkins later described the measures of this Act as being "draconian measures unprecedented in peacetime". In response to public pressure,
13056-482: The poor standard of rural roads meant that, away from the larger towns, the only beer available was often brewed by the publican himself. With the arrival of the Industrial Revolution , many areas of the United Kingdom were transformed by a surge in industrial activity and rapid population growth. There was huge demand for beer and for venues where the public could engage in social interaction, but there
13192-586: The poor, eventually leading to a period of drunkenness and lawlessness, known as the Gin Craze . In the early 19th century, encouraged by a reduction of duties, gin consumption again began to rise and gin houses and gin palaces (an evolution of gin shops) began to spread from London to most towns and cities in Britain. Alarmed at the prospect of a return to the Gin Craze, the government attempted to counter
13328-640: The popular music hall form of entertainment—a show consisting of a variety of acts. A most famous London saloon was the Grecian Saloon in the Eagle, City Road , referenced by name in the 18th-century nursery rhyme : "Up and down the City Road / In and out the Eagle / That's the way the money goes / Pop goes the weasel ." This meant that the customer had spent all his money at the Eagle, and needed to pawn his "weasel" to get some more. The meaning of
13464-523: The premises . The term first appeared in England in the late 17th century, to differentiate private houses from those open to the public as alehouses, taverns and inns . Today, there is no strict definition, but the Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) states a pub has four characteristics: The history of pubs can be traced to taverns in Roman Britain , and through Anglo-Saxon alehouses, but it
13600-525: The presence of friends and acquaintances, and the availability of pub games such as darts , pool , or snooker . Pubs often screen sporting events, such as rugby , cricket and football . The pub quiz was established in the UK in the 1970s. Ale was a native British drink before the arrival of the Roman Empire in the first century, but it was with the construction of the Roman road network that
13736-535: The press, restricted pubs' opening hours to 12 noon–2:30 pm and 6:30 pm–9:30 pm. Opening for the full licensed hours was compulsory, and closing time was equally firmly enforced by the police. There was also a special case established under the State Management Scheme where the brewery and licensed premises were bought and run by the state, most notably in Carlisle . A "lock-in"
13872-410: The public bar. Ladies often enjoyed a private drink in the snug in a time when many frowned on women visiting a pub. The local police officer might nip in for a quiet pint, the parish priest for his evening whisky, or lovers for a rendezvous. The Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) has surveyed the 50,000 pubs in Britain and it believes that there are very few pubs that still have classic snugs. These are on
14008-521: The remnants of the Birmingham Inner Ring Road (Queensway) in existence despite much demolition and downgrading, with a de facto heavily trafficked "half-ring" with vehicular underpasses for through traffic on St Chads Queensway, Great Charles St Queensway and Suffolk St Queensway. Some at-grade pedestrian crossings go over these roads, but most remain subways or bridges. This "half-ring" does arguably reduce traffic in other parts of
14144-537: The removal of the Inner Ring Road , which acted as a "concrete collar" "under which pedestrians would be forced to walk through intimidating, dark and stinking underpasses" and prevented the expansion of the city centre, a massive urban regeneration project known as the Big City Plan has begun. Running through the city centre is the Birmingham Fault, a sandstone ridge. The "High Places" document produced and published by Birmingham City Council encouraged
14280-518: The room. Similar assaults were committed upon Power, Hunter, Hill and, to a lesser degree, McIlkenny; the officers who administered these beatings took great care to avoid marking the men's faces. At 12:55 on the afternoon of 22 November, while detained at Morecambe police station, William Power signed a confession admitting his involvement in the Birmingham pub bombings. This confession was extracted after Power had been subjected to extreme physical and psychological abuse, which included repeated kicking in
14416-769: The said Engines may apply themselves to the Patentee at his house near St Thomas Apostle London or to Mr. Nicholas Wall at the Workshoppe near Saddlers Wells at Islington or to Mr. William Tillcar, Turner, his agent at his house in Woodtree next door to the Sun Tavern London." "Their Majesties" referred to were William III of England and Mary II of England , who had recently arrived from the Netherlands and had been appointed joint monarchs. A further engine
14552-425: The same location and likely the same container. Reportedly, those who planted these bombs then walked to a preselected phone box to telephone the advance warning to security services; however, the phone box had been vandalised, forcing the caller to find an alternative phone box and thus shortening the amount of time police had to clear the locations. At 20:11, an unknown man with a distinct Irish accent telephoned
14688-402: The same mistreatment, and although both men had refused to sign false confessions, police later claimed that both men had verbally confessed their guilt. On 24 November, each man was initially charged with the murder of 17-year-old Jane Davis, who had been killed in the Tavern in the Town explosion. All six were remanded in custody at Winson Green Prison , and they were only assigned solicitors
14824-441: The same way that they had been previously. In reality, government interference did very little to improve Britain's tied house system and all its large breweries are now in the hands of foreign or multi-national companies. The number of pubs in the UK has declined year on year at least since 1982. Various reasons are put forward for this, such as the failure of some establishments to keep up with customer requirements. Others claim
14960-442: The scene of this explosion later described the carnage as being reminiscent of a slaughterhouse; one fireman said that, upon seeing a writhing, "screaming torso", he had begged police to allow a television crew inside the premises to film the dead and dying at the scene, in the hope the IRA would see the consequences of their actions; however, the police refused this request, fearing the reprisals would be extreme. One of those injured
15096-587: The second explosion, police evacuated all pubs and businesses in Birmingham city centre and commandeered all available rooms in the nearby City Centre Hotel as an impromptu first-aid post. All bus services into the city centre were halted, and taxi drivers were encouraged to transport those lightly injured in the explosions to hospital. Prior to the arrival of ambulances, rescue workers removed critically injured casualties from each scene upon makeshift stretchers constructed from devices such as tabletops and wooden planks. These severely injured casualties would be placed on
15232-693: The shortest possible time. The other, more private, rooms had no serving bar—they had the beer brought to them from the public bar. A number of pubs in the Midlands or the North still retain this set up, though now customers fetch the drinks themselves from the taproom or public bar. One of these is the Vine, known locally as the Bull and Bladder, in Brierley Hill near Birmingham, another the Cock at Broom, Bedfordshire
15368-483: The statements as admissible evidence . These written confessions were presented in evidence at the trial following an eight-day hearing conducted without the presence of the jury. The judge refused to allow the jury to view the written confessions, which would have disclosed not only that each of the four written confessions contradicted details contained within the three other confessions, but that they also contradicted testimony from forensic scientists delivered earlier in
15504-555: The stomach, head and legs, dragging by the hair, and the stretching of his scrotum. The five men were transferred to the custody of the West Midlands Serious Crime Squad on the afternoon of 22 November. At 22:45 that evening, Hugh Callaghan was arrested at his home in Birmingham and driven to Sutton Coldfield police station, where he was briefly questioned before being detained in a cell overnight, but intentionally denied sleep. The same evening Callaghan
15640-478: The term "bar" applied to the publican's office where one was built, but beer would be tapped directly from a cask or barrel on a table, or kept in a separate taproom and brought out in jugs. When purpose built Victorian pubs were built after the Beerhouse Act 1830 , the main room was the public room with a large serving bar copied from the gin houses, the idea being to serve the maximum number of people in
15776-518: The threat, and encourage the consumption of a more wholesome beverage, by introducing the Beerhouse Act of 1830. The Act introduced a new lower, and largely deregulated, tier of premises called "the beerhouse". Under the act any householder, upon payment of two guineas (roughly equal in value to £237 today), was permitted to brew and sell beer or cider in their own home. Beerhouses were not allowed to open on Sundays, or sell spirits and fortified wines; any beerhouse discovered to be breaking these rules
15912-412: The trial as to the devices used to conceal the bombs, and the locations in which they had been placed inside the public houses. For example, William Power had claimed in his written confession that he had placed the bomb which devastated the Mulberry Bush public house by a jukebox at the foot of a staircase to the premises; whereas a forensic scientist named Douglas Higgs had testified on the fourth day of
16048-439: The trial that the bomb which had detonated within these premises had been left by a wall located towards the rear of the premises. The trial lasted 45 days, and saw one hundred witnesses testify on behalf of the prosecution and defence. On 14 August 1975, the jury retired to consider their verdicts. These deliberations continued until the following day. On the afternoon of 15 August, having deliberated for over six-and-a-half hours,
16184-425: The trial, defence lawyers for the Birmingham Six applied for their clients to be tried separately from Sheehan, Kelly and, particularly, Murray, stating that their clients' presumptions of innocence and denials of association with the IRA would be tainted if they were tried alongside an admitted member of the Provisional IRA, who had been convicted of causing explosions. This application was rejected by Judge Bridge, who
16320-495: The verdict, although William Power saluted the judge. At the same trial, Michael Murray and Michael Sheehan were each convicted of conspiracy to cause explosions and sentenced to nine years' imprisonment. James Kelly was found not guilty of conspiracy to cause explosions, but guilty of the possession of explosives and sentenced to one year's imprisonment; his counsel, Edwin Jowett, successfully argued that his client had already served
16456-874: The victims, 18-year-old Maxine Hambleton, had only entered the Tavern in the Town to hand out tickets to friends for her housewarming party. She was killed seconds after entering the pub and had been standing directly beside the bomb when it exploded, killing her instantly. Her friend, 17-year-old Jane Davis, was one of two 17-year-olds killed in the bombings, and had entered the Tavern in the Town to view holiday photographs she had developed that afternoon. The bombings stoked considerable anti-Irish sentiment in Birmingham, which then had an Irish community of 100,000. Irish people were ostracised from public places and subjected to physical assaults, verbal abuse and death threats. Both in Birmingham and across England, Irish homes, pubs, businesses and community centres were attacked, in some cases with firebombs. Staff at thirty factories across
16592-529: The word "inn" lives on in hotel brand names like Holiday Inn , and in some state laws that refer to lodging operators as innkeepers. The Inns of Court and Inns of Chancery in London started as ordinary inns where barristers met to do business, but became institutions of the legal profession in England and Wales . Pubs as we know them today first appeared in the 19th century. Before this time alehouses were largely indistinguishable from private houses and
16728-401: Was 21-year-old Maureen Carlin, who had such extensive shrapnel wounds to her stomach and bowel she told her fiancé, Ian Lord (himself badly wounded in the explosion): "If I die, just remember I love you". Carlin was given the last rites , with surgeons initially doubtful she would live, although she recovered from her injuries. The Tavern in the Town was a basement pub on New Street located
16864-510: Was adamant they had not known of his IRA affiliations. When the bombs exploded, the booking clerk from whom the men had purchased tickets informed police that a man with an Irish accent, dressed in a dust-covered purple suit, had purchased a ticket to travel to the coastal village of Heysham , en route to Belfast. The man had then run onto the train. A spot check on ticket sales that evening revealed that four further tickets to travel to Belfast via Heysham had also been issued. Within three hours of
17000-494: Was also intense competition for customers. Gin houses and palaces became increasingly popular, while the Beerhouse Act of 1830 caused a proliferation of beerhouses. By the mid-19th century, pubs were widely purpose-built, and could incorporate architectural features that distinguished them from private houses to make them stand out from the competition. Many existing public houses were also redeveloped at this time, borrowing features from other building types and gradually developing
17136-547: Was arrested, the homes of all six men were extensively—and unsuccessfully—searched for explosives and explosive material. Following their transfer to the custody of the West Midlands Crime Squad, three other members of the Birmingham Six (Callaghan, McIlkenny and Walker) signed false confessions on 23 November. In these three further false statements obtained by the West Midlands Crime Squad, Callaghan, McIlkenny and Walker each falsely claimed to be members of
17272-513: Was built by the developers of Snowhill , adjacent to Snow Hill station. Birmingham city centre used to have a trolleybus system in the 19th century and early-20th century which extended towards the suburbs. The trolleybus system was replaced by motor buses and the city centre is now the hub for the bus system in the city. The buses mainly terminate at Bull Street, Corporation Street and Moor Street, Queensway. The majority of these buses are operated by National Express West Midlands . The city centre
17408-476: Was built in 1838 and is Grade I listed . The West Midlands Metro system, opened in 1999, terminates at Grand Central and has stops at Bull Street , St Chads , St Paul's and Jewellery Quarter . Line One is currently being extended to Centenary Square, and on to Five Ways in the future. In 2007, construction of a new viaduct to carry the Metro line over Great Charles Street Queensway commenced. The viaduct
17544-443: Was closed down and the owner heavily fined. Within eight years 46,000 new beerhouses opened and, because operating costs were so low, huge profits were often made. The combination of increasing competition and high profits eventually led to what has been described as a golden age of pub building when many landlords extended or redeveloped their properties, adopting many features modern pubs still have. Authorities attempted to check
17680-407: Was invented in the late 18th century by the locksmith and hydraulic engineer Joseph Bramah (1748–1814). Strictly the term refers to the pump itself, which is normally manually operated, though electrically powered and gas powered pumps are occasionally used. When manually powered, the term "handpump" is often used to refer to both the pump and the associated handle. In the 18th century, after
17816-470: Was killed in a premature explosion as he attempted to plant a bomb at a telephone exchange and postal sorting office in Coventry . Another man, Raymond McLaughlin, was arrested near the scene; he was charged with unlawfully killing McDade and causing an explosion. The republican movement in England had planned to bury McDade in Birmingham, with a paramilitary guard of honour . These plans were altered after
17952-405: Was named after an establishment run by a Mr. Ball that had a duck pond at the rear, where drinkers could, for a fee, go out and take a potshot at the ducks. More common, however, was a card room or a billiards room. The saloon was a room where, for an admission fee or a higher price of drinks, singing, dancing, drama, or comedy was performed and drinks would be served at the table. From this came
18088-502: Was not until the early 19th century that pubs, as they are today, first began to appear. The model also became popular in countries and regions of British influence, where pubs are often still considered to be an important aspect of their culture . In many places, especially in villages, pubs are the focal point of local communities. In his 17th-century diary, Samuel Pepys described the pub as "the heart of England". Pubs have been established in other countries in modern times. Although
18224-414: Was ordered to change his clothes. A search of Walker's possessions revealed several mass cards printed in reference to the upcoming funeral of James McDade. Upon discovering these mass cards, two officers led Walker into an adjacent room, where he was repeatedly punched, kicked and, later, burned with a lit cigarette by three officers as his arms were restrained by the two policemen who had escorted him into
18360-428: Was to preside over the trial. On 9 June 1975, the Birmingham Six stood trial at Lancaster Crown Court before Judge Nigel Bridge. Each man was charged with 21 counts of murder and conspiring with the deceased James McDade to cause explosions across the Midlands between August and November 1974. Murray, Kelly and Sheehan were also charged with conspiracy to cause explosions across the Midlands, with Kelly and Sheehan facing
18496-454: Was where the working class were expected to congregate and drink. It had unfurnished floorboards, sometimes covered with sawdust to absorb the spitting and spillages (known as "spit and sawdust"), bare bench seats and stools. Drinks were generally lower-quality beers and liquors. Public bars were seen as exclusive areas for only men; strictly enforced social etiquettes barred women from entering public bars (some pubs did not lift this rule until
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