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50-508: Reading is the complex cognitive process of decoding symbols to derive meaning. Reading also commonly refers to Reading, Berkshire , a town in England. The common noun or verb reading (pronounced as / ˈ r iː d ɪ ŋ / ) or the proper noun Reading (pronounced as / ˈ r ɛ d ɪ ŋ / ) may also refer to: Reading Reading is the process of taking in the sense or meaning of symbols , often specifically those of
100-463: A written language, by means of sight or touch . For educators and researchers , reading is a multifaceted process involving such areas as word recognition, orthography (spelling), alphabetics , phonics , phonemic awareness , vocabulary, comprehension, fluency, and motivation. Other types of reading and writing, such as pictograms (e.g., a hazard symbol and an emoji ), are not based on speech-based writing systems . The common link
150-640: A "rigorous and systematic phonics programme". In 2016, out of 50 countries, the United States achieved the 15th highest score in grade-four reading ability. The ten countries with the highest overall reading average are the Russian Federation, Singapore, Hong Kong SAR, Ireland, Finland, Poland, Northern Ireland, Norway, Chinese Taipei and England (UK). Some others are: Australia (21st), Canada (23rd), New Zealand (33rd), France (34th), Saudi Arabia (44th), and South Africa (50th). Spoken language
200-421: A German study of 50 kindergartens compared children who, at age 5, had spent a year either "academically focused", or "play-arts focused" and found that in time the two groups became inseparable in reading skill. The authors conclude that the effects of early reading are like "watering a garden before a rainstorm; the earlier watering is rendered undetectable by the rainstorm, the watering wastes precious water, and
250-447: A discussion on academic kindergartens, professor of child development David Elkind has argued that, since "there is no solid research demonstrating that early academic training is superior to (or worse than) the more traditional, hands-on model of early education", educators should defer to developmental approaches that provide young children with ample time and opportunity to explore the natural world on their own terms. Elkind emphasized
300-610: A draft position paper on DPA saying "The notion that young children are not ready for academic subject matter is a misunderstanding of developmentally appropriate practice; particularly in grades 1 through 3, almost all subject matter can be taught in ways that are meaningful and engaging for each child". And, researchers at The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential say it is a myth that early readers are bored or become trouble makers in school. Other researchers and educators favor limited amounts of literacy instruction at
350-411: A five-year span beginning in 2018, 85% of these students who graduated from high school did not pass a 12th-grade reading assessment. Between 2013 and 2024, 37 US States passed laws or implemented new policies related to evidence-based reading instruction. In 2023, New York City set about to require schools to teach reading with an emphasis on phonics . In that city, less than half of the students from
400-688: A new word can be inferred because it occurs in the same context as familiar words (e.g., lion is often seen with cowardly and king ). As British linguist John Rupert Firth says, "You shall know a word by the company it keeps". The environment in which children live may also impact their ability to acquire reading skills. Children who are regularly exposed to chronic environmental noise pollution, such as highway traffic noise, have been known to show decreased ability to discriminate between phonemes (oral language sounds) as well as lower reading scores on standardized tests. Children learn to speak naturally – by listening to other people speak. However, reading
450-421: A particular field (e.g., computer literacy , ecological literacy , health literacy , media literacy , quantitative literacy ( numeracy ) and visual literacy ). In order to understand a text, it is usually necessary to understand the spoken language associated with that text. In this way, writing systems are distinguished from many other symbolic communication systems. Once established, writing systems on
500-633: A tentative definition of the concept: "Visual literacy refers to a group of vision-competencies a human being can develop by seeing and at the same time having and integrating other sensory experiences." A white paper drawn up in January 2004, defines visual literacy as "understanding how people perceive objects, interpret what they see, and what they learn from them". However, because multiple disciplines such as visual literacy in education , art history and criticism , rhetoric , semiotics , philosophy , information design , and graphic design make use of
550-686: Is fundamentally flawed in its underlying view of education, its implementation, and its interpretation and impact on education globally. The reading levels of adults, ages 16–65, in 39 countries are reported by the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC). Between 2011 and 2018, PIAAC reports the percentage of adults reading at-or-below level one (the lowest of five levels). Some examples are Japan 4.9%, Finland 10.6%, Netherlands 11.7%, Australia 12.6%, Sweden 13.3%, Canada 16.4%, England (UK) 16.4%, and
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#1732780847501600-570: Is going on in this photograph?" and "What comes to mind when you first look at this photograph?". This allows students to begin the analyzing process. When looking at visuals, students should be able to see, understand, think, create and communicate graphically. In order to do all, the student must always carefully observe. Film director Martin Scorsese emphasizes how children should begin developing visual literacy skills at an early age. This involves exploring how ideas and emotions are expressed and
650-494: Is not a natural process, and many children need to learn to read through a process that involves "systematic guidance and feedback". So, "reading to children is not the same as teaching children to read". Nonetheless, reading to children is important because it socializes them to the activity of reading; it engages them; it expands their knowledge of spoken language; and it enriches their linguistic ability by hearing new and novel words and grammatical structures. However, there
700-896: Is some evidence that "shared reading" with children does help to improve reading if the children's attention is directed to the words on the page as they are being read to. There is some debate as to the optimum age to teach children to read. The Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSS) in the United States has standards for foundational reading skills in kindergarten and grade one that include instruction in print concepts, phonological awareness, phonics, word recognition, and fluency. However, some critics of CCSS say that "To achieve reading standards usually calls for long hours of drill and worksheets – and reduces other vital areas of learning such as math, science, social studies, art, music and creative play". The PISA 2007 OECD data from 54 countries demonstrates "no association between school entry age ... and reading achievement at age 15". Also,
750-405: Is that reading proficiency is an easily understood metric of learning, reading is a student's gateway to learning in every other area, and reading proficiency can serve as a proxy for foundational learning in other subjects. They suggest five pillars to reduce learning poverty: Learning to read or reading skills acquisition is the acquisition and practice of the skills necessary to understand
800-442: Is the foundation of learning to read (long before children see any letters) and children's knowledge of the phonological structure of language is a good predictor of early reading ability. Spoken language is dominant for most of childhood; however, reading ultimately catches up and surpasses speech. By their first birthday most children have learned all the sounds in their spoken language. However, it takes longer for them to learn
850-416: Is the interpretation of symbols to extract the meaning from the visual notations or tactile signals (as in the case of braille ). Reading is generally an individual activity, done silently, although on occasion a person reads out loud for other listeners; or reads aloud for one's own use, for better comprehension. Before the reintroduction of separated text (spaces between words) in the late Middle Ages ,
900-639: The Association of College & Research Libraries in 2011. They were "developed over a period of 19 months, informed by current literature, shaped by input from multiple communities and organizations, reviewed by individuals from over 50 institutions, and approved by 3 ACRL committees and the ACRL Board of Directors". There are many different formats of visual literacy and also many different ways of teaching students how to interpret visual literacy. Questions to be asked when looking at visuals can be "What
950-599: The proficient level of the Nation's Report Card . Also, in 2012, in the United Kingdom it has been reported that 15-year-old students are reading at the level expected of 12-year-old students. As a result, many governments put practices in place to ensure that students are reading at grade level by the end of grade three. An example of this is the Third Grade Reading Guarantee created by
1000-470: The 21st century has a wider scope. Educators are recognizing the importance of helping students develop visual literacies in order to survive and communicate in a highly complex world. Many scholars from the New London Group such as Courtney Cazden, James Gee , Gunther Kress , and Allan Luke advocate against the dichotomy of visual literacy versus linguistic literacy. Instead, they stress
1050-620: The NAEP Basic level, which was 3 points lower compared to 2019. According to a 2023 study in California, only 46.6% of grade three students achieved the English reading standards. Another report states that many teenagers who've spent time in California's juvenile detention facilities get high school diplomas with grade-school reading skills. "There are kids getting their high school diplomas who aren't able to even read and write." During
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#17327808475011100-482: The State of Ohio in 2017. This is a program to identify students from kindergarten through grade three that are behind in reading, and provide support to make sure they are on track for reading success by the end of grade three. This is also known as remedial education . Another example is the policy in England whereby any pupil who is struggling to decode words properly by year three must "urgently" receive help through
1150-455: The UK which includes developing children's phonemic awareness in preschool and teaching reading from age four. Visual literacy Visual literacy is the ability to interpret , negotiate, and make meaning from information presented in the form of an image , extending the meaning of literacy , which commonly signifies interpretation of a written or printed text . Visual literacy is based on
1200-608: The US, several research studies show that, in the absence of additional support, there is nearly a 90 percent chance that a poor reader in Grade 1 will remain a poor reader. In Canada, the province of Ontario reported that 27% of grade three students did not meet the provincial reading standards in 2023. Also in Ontario, 53% of grade three students with special education needs (students who have an Individual Education Plan), were not meeting
1250-711: The United States 16.9%. According to the World Bank , 53% of all children in low-and-middle-income countries suffer from 'learning poverty'. In 2019, using data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, they published a report entitled Ending Learning Poverty: What will it take? . Learning poverty is defined as being unable to read and understand a simple text by age 10. Although they say that all foundational skills are important, include reading, numeracy, basic reasoning ability, socio-emotional skills, and others – they focus specifically on reading. Their reasoning
1300-471: The United States and elsewhere, it is widely believed that students who lack proficiency in reading by the end of grade three may face obstacles for the rest of their academic career. For example, it is estimated that they would not be able to read half of the material they will encounter in grade four. In 2019, among American fourth-graders in public schools, only 58% of Asian, 45% of Caucasian, 23% of Hispanic, and 18% of Black students performed at or above
1350-528: The United States failed to perform at or above the Basic reading level . There was a significant difference by race and ethnicity (e.g., black students at 52% and white students at 23%). After the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic the average basic reading score dropped by 3% in 2022. See more about the breakdown by ethnicity in 2019 and 2022 here . In 2022, 30% of grade eight students failed to perform at or above
1400-686: The ability to read silently was considered rather remarkable. Major predictors of an individual's ability to read both alphabetic and non-alphabetic scripts are oral language skills, phonological awareness , rapid automatized naming and verbal IQ . As a leisure activity , children and adults read because it is enjoyable and interesting. In the US, about half of all adults read one or more books for pleasure each year. About 5% read more than 50 books per year. Americans read more if they: have more education, read fluently and easily, are female, live in cities, and have higher socioeconomic status . Children become better readers when they know more about
1450-616: The academic field, some view literacy in a more philosophical manner and propose the concept of "multiliteracies". For example, they say, "this huge shift from traditional print-based literacy to 21st century multiliteracies reflects the impact of communication technologies and multimedia on the evolving nature of texts, as well as the skills and dispositions associated with the consumption, production, evaluation, and distribution of those texts (Borsheim, Meritt, & Reed, 2008, p. 87)". According to cognitive neuroscientist Mark Seidenberg these "multiple literacies" have allowed educators to change
1500-570: The age of four and five, in addition to non-academic, intellectually stimulating activities. Reviews of the academic literature by the Education Endowment Foundation in the UK have found that starting literacy teaching in preschool has "been consistently found to have a positive effect on early learning outcomes" and that "beginning early years education at a younger age appears to have a high positive impact on learning outcomes". This supports current standard practice in
1550-445: The end of the first or second year of school, yet in many countries 20% or more do not meet that expectation. A 2012 study in the U.S. found that 33% of grade three children had low reading scores – however, they comprised 63% of the children who did not graduate from high school. Poverty also had an additional negative impact on high school graduation rates. According to the 2019 Nation's Report card , 34% of grade four students in
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1600-401: The highest overall reading average are the Russian Federation, Singapore, Hong Kong SAR, Ireland and Finland. Some others are: England 10th, United States 15th, Australia 21st, Canada 23rd, and New Zealand 33rd. The Programme for International Student Assessment ( PISA ) measures 15-year-old school pupils scholastic performance on mathematics, science, and reading. Critics, however, say PISA
1650-464: The idea that pictures can be "read" and that meaning can be discovered through a process of reading. The notion of visual literacy has been around for quite some time. Classical and Medieval theories of memory and learning, for instance, placed a strong emphasis on how the visual format of words and lies affected the ordering of information in the mind. During the Enlightenment new emphasis
1700-406: The meaning behind printed words. For a skilled reader, the act of reading feels simple, effortless, and automatic. However, the process of learning to read is complex and builds on cognitive, linguistic, and social skills developed from a very early age. As one of the four core language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing), reading is vital to gaining a command of written language. In
1750-613: The national educations systems that were emerging in Europe and North America, with educational reformers like Sir John Lubbock arguing for visual tools like diagrams and models to be used in the classroom. Although there are previous well documented uses of the term "visual literacy" between the late 30s and early 60s, the term it is usually credited to John Debes, co-founder of the International Visual Literacy Association . In 1969 Debes offered
1800-422: The necessary critical attitude, principles, tools and feedback to develop their own high-quality visualization formats for specific problems (problem-based learning). The commonalities of good visualization in diverse areas, and exploration of the specificities of visualization in the field of specialization (through real-life case studies). Visual literacy standards for teaching in higher education were adopted by
1850-437: The necessity of accepting the co-presence of linguistic literacies and visual literacies as interacting and interlacing modalities which complement one another in the meaning making process. Visual literacy is not limited to modern mass media and new technologies . The graphic novel Understanding Comics by Scott McCloud discusses the history of narrative in visual media. Also, animal drawings in ancient caves, such as
1900-670: The one in Lascaux , France , are early forms of visual literacy. Hence, even though the name visual literacy itself as a label dates to the 1960s, the concept of reading signs and symbols is prehistoric . Visual literacy is the ability to evaluate, apply, or create conceptual visual representations. Skills include the evaluation of advantages and disadvantages of visual representations, to improve shortcomings, to use them to create and communicate knowledge, or to devise new ways of representing insights. The didactic approach consists of rooting visualization in its application contexts, i.e. giving
1950-407: The phonological form of words and to begin developing a spoken vocabulary. Children acquire a spoken language in a few years. Five-to-six-year-old English learners have vocabularies of 2,500 to 5,000 words, and add 5,000 words per year for the first several years of schooling. This rapid learning rate cannot be accounted for by the instruction they receive. Instead, children learn that the meaning of
2000-468: The principle that "early education must start with the child, not with the subject matter to be taught". In response, Grover J. Whitehurst , Director, Brown Center on Education Policy, (part of Brookings Institution ) said David Elkind is relying too much on philosophies of education rather than science and research. He continues to say education practices are "doomed to cycles of fad and fancy" until they become more based on evidence-based practice . On
2050-677: The provincial standards in 2022. The province of Nova Scotia reported that 32% of grade three students did not meet the provincial reading standards in 2022. The province of New Brunswick reported that 43.4% and 30.7% did not meet the Reading Comprehension Achievement Levels for grades four and six respectively in 2023. The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study ( PIRLS ) publishes reading achievement for fourth graders in 50 countries. The five countries with
Reading (disambiguation) - Misplaced Pages Continue
2100-476: The senior years. Research suggests that reading books and writing are among the brain-stimulating activities that can slow down cognitive decline in seniors. Reading has been the subject of considerable research and reporting for decades. Many organizations measure and report on reading achievement for children and adults (e.g., NAEP , PIRLS , PISA PIAAC , and EQAO ). Researchers have concluded that approximately 95% of students can be taught to read by
2150-528: The subject of Finland's academic results, as some researchers point out, prior to starting school Finnish children must participate in one year of compulsory free pre-primary education and most are reading before they start school. And, with respect to developmentally appropriate practice (DPA), in 2019 the National Association for the Education of Young Children , Washington, D.C., released
2200-519: The term visual literacy, arriving at a common definition of visual literacy has been contested since its first appearance in professional publications. Since technological advances continue to develop at an unprecedented rate, educators are increasingly promoting the learning of visual literacies as indispensable to life in the information age . Similar to linguistic literacy ( meaning-making derived from written or oral human language) commonly taught in schools, most educators would agree that literacy in
2250-431: The third grade to the eighth grade of school scored as proficient on state reading exams. More than 63% of Black and Hispanic test-takers did not make the grade. Globally, the COVID-19 pandemic created a substantial overall learning deficit in reading abilities and other academic areas. It arose early in the pandemic and persists over time, and is particularly large among children from low socio-economic backgrounds. In
2300-425: The topic from reading and writing to "Literacy". He goes on to say that some educators, when faced with criticisms of how reading is taught, "didn't alter their practices, they changed the subject". Also, some organizations might include numeracy skills and technology skills separately but alongside of literacy skills. In addition, since the 1940s the term literacy is often used to mean having knowledge or skill in
2350-484: The watering detracts the gardener from other important preparatory groundwork". Some scholars favor a developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) in which formal instruction on reading begins when children are about six or seven years old. And to support that theory some point out that children in Finland start school at age seven (Finland ranked 5th in the 2016 PIRLS international grade four reading achievement.) In
2400-759: The whole change more slowly than their spoken counterparts, and often preserve features and expressions which are no longer current in the spoken language. The great benefit of writing systems is their ability to maintain a persistent record of information expressed in a language, which can be retrieved independently of the initial act of formulation. Reading for pleasure has been linked to increased cognitive progress in vocabulary and mathematics during adolescence. Sustained high volume lifetime reading has been associated with high levels of academic attainment. Research suggests that reading can improve stress management, memory, focus, writing skills, and imagination . The cognitive benefits of reading continue into mid-life and
2450-431: The world in general, and when they perceive reading as fun rather than as a chore to be performed. Reading is an essential part of literacy , yet from a historical perspective literacy is about having the ability to both read and write. Since the 1990s, some organizations have defined literacy in a wide variety of ways that may go beyond the traditional ability to read and write. The following are some examples: In
2500-399: Was placed on training the senses through print and manuscript technologies in a way that benefitted the rising middle class. In addition to learning to read visual material like tables and figures, many schoolchildren learned how to write and draw in graphic patterns that made their notes more accessible and easier to access. By the nineteenth century visual literacy was a core component of
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