Theognis of Megara ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Θέογνις ὁ Μεγαρεύς , Théognis ho Megareús ) was a Greek lyric poet active in approximately the sixth century BC. The work attributed to him consists of gnomic poetry quite typical of the time, featuring ethical maxims and practical advice about life. He was the first Greek poet known to express concern over the eventual fate and survival of his own work and, along with Homer , Hesiod and the authors of the Homeric Hymns , he is among the earliest poets whose work has been preserved in a continuous manuscript tradition (the work of other archaic poets is preserved as scattered fragments). In fact more than half of the extant elegiac poetry of Greece before the Alexandrian period is included in the approximately 1,400 lines of verse attributed to him, though several poems traditionally attributed to him were composed by others, e.g. Solon and Euenus . Some of these verses inspired ancient commentators to value him as a moralist yet the entire corpus is valued today for its "warts and all" portrayal of aristocratic life in archaic Greece.
133-435: The verses preserved under Theognis' name are written from the viewpoint of an aristocrat confronted by social and political revolution typical of Greek cities in the archaic period. Part of his work is addressed to Cyrnus, who is presented as his erōmenos . The author of the poems celebrated him in his verse and educated him in the aristocratic values of the time, yet Cyrnus came to symbolize much about his imperfect world that
266-670: A scholiast on Plato cites Didymus for the rival theory that the poet was born in a Megara in Attica , and ventures the opinion that Theognis might have later migrated to the Sicilian Megara (a similar theory had assigned an Attic birthplace to the Spartan poet Tyrtaeus ). Modern scholars in general opt for a birthplace in mainland Greek Megara though a suitable context for the poems could be found just about anywhere in archaic Greece and there are options for mix-and-match, such as
399-523: A birth date on or just before 600 BC, while others place his birth around 550 BC to fit in with the Persian invasion under either Darius or Xerxes. There is confusion also about his place of birth, "Megara", which Plato for example understood to be Megara Hyblaea in Sicily, while a scholiast on Plato cites Didymus for the rival theory that the poet was born in a Megara in Attica , and ventures
532-490: A birth in mainland Megara and then migration to Sicilian Megara (lines 1197–1201 mention dispossession/exile and lines 783–88 journeys to Sicily, Euboea and Sparta). The elegiac verses attributed to Theognis present him as a complex character and an exponent of traditional Greek morality. Thus for example Isocrates includes him among "the best advisers for human life", although all consider words of advice both in poetry and in prose to be most useful, they certainly do not derive
665-497: A child, you have deceived me with words. In spite of such self-disclosures, almost nothing is known about Theognis the man: little is recorded by ancient sources and modern scholars question the authorship of most of the poems preserved under his name. Ancient commentators, the poems themselves and even modern scholars offer mixed signals about the poet's life. Some of the poems respond in a personal and immediate way to events widely dispersed in time. Ancient sources record dates in
798-425: A complex character and an exponent of traditional Greek morality. Thus for example Isocrates includes him among "the best advisers for human life", although all consider words of advice both in poetry and in prose to be most useful, they certainly do not derive the greatest pleasure from listening to them, but their attitude towards them is the same as their attitude towards those who admonish: for although they praise
931-422: A continuous series of elegiac couplets featuring frequent, sudden changes in subject and theme, in which different people are addressed and even the speaker seems to change persona, voicing contradictory statements and, on a couple of occasions, even changing sex. It looks like a miscellaneous collection by different authors (some verses are in fact attributed elsewhere to other poets) but it is not known when or how
1064-421: A continuous series of elegiac couplets featuring frequent, sudden changes in subject and theme, in which different people are addressed and even the speaker seems to change persona, voicing contradictory statements and, on a couple of occasions, even changing sex. It looks like a miscellaneous collection by different authors (some verses are in fact attributed elsewhere to other poets) but it is not known when or how
1197-540: A copy of his work at the Artemisium . Friedrich Nietzsche , the German philosopher, already studied the work of Theognis during his school days at Schulpforta , the subject of his thesis entitled De Theognide Megarensi, an activity which he continued during his studies at Leipzig University. His first published article (in an influential classical journal, Rheinisches Museum ) concerned the historical transmission of
1330-427: A copy of his work at the Artemisium . Friedrich Nietzsche , the German philosopher, already studied the work of Theognis during his school days at Schulpforta , the subject of his thesis entitled De Theognide Megarensi, an activity which he continued during his studies at Leipzig University. His first published article (in an influential classical journal, Rheinisches Museum ) concerned the historical transmission of
1463-448: A core sequence of verses that can be reliably attributed to Theognis since they contain mention of Cyrnus and are attested by 4th century authorities such as Plato and Aristotle, though the rest of the corpus could still contain some authentic verses. West however acknowledges that the whole collection is valuable since it represents a cross-section of elegiac poetry composed in the sixth and early fifth centuries. According to another view,
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#17327878523361596-446: A core sequence of verses that can be reliably attributed to Theognis since they contain mention of Cyrnus and are attested by 4th century authorities such as Plato and Aristotle, though the rest of the corpus could still contain some authentic verses. West however acknowledges that the whole collection is valuable since it represents a cross-section of elegiac poetry composed in the sixth and early fifth centuries. According to another view,
1729-409: A cultural norm that conceals a more complicated reality", as the erômenos is known to have frequently felt intense affection for his erastês and there is evidence that he experienced sexual arousal with him as well. In Plato's Phaedrus , it is related that, with time, the erômenos develops a "passionate longing" for his erastês and a "reciprocal love" ( anteros ) for him that is a replica of
1862-539: A dichotomy based on a class distinction between aristocrats and "others", typical of the period but usually implicit in the works of earlier poets such as Homer—"In Theognis it amounts to an obsession". The verses are addressed to Cyrnus and other individuals of unknown identity, such as Scythes, Simonides, Clearistus, Onomacritus, Democles, Academus, Timagoras, Demonax and Argyris and "Boy". Poems are also addressed to his own heart or spirit, and deities such as Zeus , Apollo , Artemis , Castor and Pollux , Eros , Ploutos ,
1995-538: A dichotomy based on a class distinction between aristocrats and "others", typical of the period but usually implicit in the works of earlier poets such as Homer—"In Theognis it amounts to an obsession". The verses are addressed to Cyrnus and other individuals of unknown identity, such as Scythes, Simonides, Clearistus, Onomacritus, Democles, Academus, Timagoras, Demonax and Argyris and "Boy". Poems are also addressed to his own heart or spirit, and deities such as Zeus , Apollo , Artemis , Castor and Pollux , Eros , Ploutos ,
2128-426: A drinking cup. Other costly gifts followed. Upon their return to the city, the youth sacrificed the ox to Zeus , and his friends joined him at the feast. He received special clothing that in adult life marked him as kleinos , "famous, renowned". The initiate was called a parastatheis , "he who stands beside", perhaps because, like Ganymede the cup-bearer of Zeus, he stood at the side of the philetor during meals in
2261-804: A girl would be. No inferences about social customs should be based on this element of the courtship scene alone. There are many pederastic references among the works of the Megaran poet Theognis addressed to Cyrnus (Greek Kyrnos ). Some portions of the Theognidean corpus are probably not by the individual from Megara, but rather represent "several generations of wisdom poetry ". The poems are "social, political, or ethical precepts transmitted to Cyrnus as part of his formation into an adult Megarian aristocrat in Theognis' own image". The relationship between Theognis and Kyrnos eludes categorization. Although it
2394-446: A lover of boys". The erastês himself might only be in his early twenties, and thus the age difference between the two males who engage in sexual activity might be negligible. The word erômenos , or "beloved" (ἐρώμενος, plural eromenoi ), is the masculine form of the present passive participle from erô , viewed by Dover as the passive or subordinate sexual participant. An erômenos can also be called pais , "child". The pais
2527-487: A man of standing in his city, whose public actions however arouse some discontent; a man who sings to his drinking-comrades of his anxieties about the political situation; a man of cliques who finds himself betrayed by those he trusted, dispossessed of his lands in a democratic revolution, an impoverished and embittered exile dreaming of revenge. One forms a clear impression of his personality, sometimes high-spirited but more often despondent, and cynical even in his love poetry;
2660-525: A man of strong feelings and candid in their expression. It was probably his reputation as a moralist, significant enough to deserve comment by Aristotle and Plato, that guaranteed the survival of his work through the Byzantine period. However, it is clear that we do not possess his total output. The Byzantine Suda , for example, mentions 2800 lines of elegiacs, twice the number preserved in medieval manuscripts. Different scholars have different theories about
2793-467: A man of strong feelings and candid in their expression. It was probably his reputation as a moralist, significant enough to deserve comment by Aristotle and Plato, that guaranteed the survival of his work through the Byzantine period. However, it is clear that we do not possess his total output. The Byzantine Suda , for example, mentions 2800 lines of elegiacs, twice the number preserved in medieval manuscripts. Different scholars have different theories about
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#17327878523362926-403: A man who sings to his drinking-comrades of his anxieties about the political situation; a man of cliques who finds himself betrayed by those he trusted, dispossessed of his lands in a democratic revolution, an impoverished and embittered exile dreaming of revenge. One forms a clear impression of his personality, sometimes high-spirited but more often despondent, and cynical even in his love poetry;
3059-413: A metaphor for sexual pursuit. These animal gifts were commonly given to boys, whereas women often received money as a gift for sex. This difference in gifts furthered the closeness of pederastic relations. Women received money as a product of the sexual exchange and boys were given culturally significant gifts. Gifts given to boys are commonly depicted in ancient Greek art , but money given to women for sex
3192-479: A more varied picture of the behaviors and values associated with paiderastia . Although ancient Greek writers use erastês and erômenos in a pederastic context, the words are not technical terms for social roles, and can refer to the "lover" and "beloved" in other hetero- and homosexual couples. The Greek practice of pederasty came suddenly into prominence at the end of the Archaic period of Greek history. There
3325-421: A negative connotation. The Greek word paiderastia ( παιδεραστία ) is an abstract noun . It is formed from paiderastês , which in turn is a compound of pais ("child", plural paides ) and erastês (see below). Although the word pais can refer to a child of either sex, paiderastia is defined by Liddell and Scott 's Greek-English Lexicon as "the love of boys", and the verb paiderasteuein as "to be
3458-588: A playful but nonethless important way. Here we should note the repeated use of the word βάσανος ('touchstone', 'test': Theog. 415–18, 447–52, 1105–6, 1164; Pl. Laws 649d10, 650a2, 650b4) to describe the symposium. Moreover at the symposium poetry plays a significant part in teaching the participants the characteristics required of them to be good men.—N.T. Croally Sympotic topics covered by Theognis include wine, politics, friendship, war, life's brevity, human nature, wealth and love. Distinctions are frequently made between "good" ( ἐσθλοί ) and "bad" ( κακοί ),
3591-579: A playful but nonethless important way. Here we should note the repeated use of the word βάσανος ('touchstone', 'test': Theog. 415–18, 447–52, 1105–6, 1164; Pl. Laws 649d10, 650a2, 650b4) to describe the symposium. Moreover at the symposium poetry plays a significant part in teaching the participants the characteristics required of them to be good men.—N.T. Croally Sympotic topics covered by Theognis include wine, politics, friendship, war, life's brevity, human nature, wealth and love. Distinctions are frequently made between "good" ( ἐσθλοί ) and "bad" ( κακοί ),
3724-407: A relationship ("association") between a man and a boy could be tolerated, but only if it was based around friendship and love and not solely around physical, sexual attraction, in which case it was considered "an abomination" tantamount to incest. Conversely, Plutarch states that, when Spartan boys reached puberty, they became available for sexual relationships with older males. Aelian talks about
3857-459: A spurious addition, including the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (see Nietzsche and Theognis below). However, many modern scholars consider the verses of Book 2 an integral part of the collection. The rest of the work also raises issues about authenticity, since some couplets look like lines attributed by ancient sources to other poets ( Solon , Euenus , Mimnermus and Tyrtaeus). and other couplets are repeated with few or no changes elsewhere in
3990-456: A spurious addition, including the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (see Nietzsche and Theognis below). However, many modern scholars consider the verses of Book 2 an integral part of the collection. The rest of the work also raises issues about authenticity, since some couplets look like lines attributed by ancient sources to other poets ( Solon , Euenus , Mimnermus and Tyrtaeus). and other couplets are repeated with few or no changes elsewhere in
4123-564: A youth would be of an age when an aristocrat began his formal military training, that is, from fifteen to seventeen. As an indication of physical maturity, the erômenos was sometimes as tall as or taller than the older erastês , and may have his first facial hair. Another word used by the Greeks for the younger sexual participant was paidika , a neuter plural adjective ("things having to do with children") treated syntactically as masculine singular. In poetry and philosophical literature,
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4256-441: A youth, enlisted the chosen one's friends to help him, and carried off the object of his affections to his andreion , a sort of men's club or meeting hall. The youth received gifts, and the philetor along with the friends went away with him for two months into the countryside, where they hunted and feasted. At the end of this time, the philetor presented the youth with three contractually required gifts: military attire, an ox, and
4389-460: Is a brass plaque from Crete , about 650–625 BC, which is the oldest surviving representation of pederastic custom. Such representations appear from all over Greece in the next century; literary sources show it as being established custom in many cities by the 5th century BC. Cretan pederasty as a social institution seems to have been grounded in an initiation which involved abduction . A man ( Ancient Greek : φιλήτωρ – philetor , "lover") selected
4522-530: Is a major source for scholars seeking to understand attitudes and practices associated with paiderastia . Hundreds of pederastic scenes are depicted on Attic black-figure vases . In the early 20th century, John Beazley classified pederastic vases into three types: Certain gifts traditionally given by the erômenos became symbols that contributed to interpreting a given scene as pederastic. Animal gifts—most commonly hares and roosters, but also deer and felines—point toward hunting as an aristocratic pastime and as
4655-415: Is able to implant so well as love. Of what am I speaking? Of the sense of honor and dishonor, without which neither states nor individuals ever do any good or great work… And if there were only some way of contriving that a state or an army should be made up of lovers and their loves, they would be the very best governors of their own city, abstaining from all dishonor and emulating one another in honor; and it
4788-469: Is associated with lamentation. In ancient Greece it was a much more flexible medium, suitable for performance at drinking parties and public festivals, urging courage in war and surrender in love. It gave the hexameter line of epic verse a lyrical impulse by the addition of a shorter "pentameter" line, in a series of couplets accompanied by the music of the aulos or pipe. Theognis was conservative and unadventurous in his use of language, frequently imitating
4921-468: Is associated with lamentation. In ancient Greece it was a much more flexible medium, suitable for performance at drinking parties and public festivals, urging courage in war and surrender in love. It gave the hexameter line of epic verse a lyrical impulse by the addition of a shorter "pentameter" line, in a series of couplets accompanied by the music of the aulos or pipe. Theognis was conservative and unadventurous in his use of language, frequently imitating
5054-417: Is himself not in need of anything beyond himself. He is unwilling to let himself be explored by the other's needy curiosity, and he has, himself, little curiosity about the other. He is something like a god, or the statue of a god. Dover insisted that the active role of the erastês and the passivity of the erômenos is a distinction "of the highest importance", but subsequent scholars have tried to present
5187-415: Is much disputed by scholars (see Modern scholarship below). All the poetry attributed to Theognis deals with subjects typically discussed at aristocratic symposia —drinking parties that had symbolic and practical significance for the participants: Authors as distant from each other as Theognis and Plato agree in seeing the symposium as a model for the city, a gathering where men may examine themselves in
5320-415: Is much disputed by scholars (see Modern scholarship below). All the poetry attributed to Theognis deals with subjects typically discussed at aristocratic symposia —drinking parties that had symbolic and practical significance for the participants: Authors as distant from each other as Theognis and Plato agree in seeing the symposium as a model for the city, a gathering where men may examine themselves in
5453-464: Is never to have been born at all Nor ever to have set eyes on the bright light of the sun But, since he is born, a man should make utmost haste through the gates of Death And then repose, the earth piled into a mound round himself. The lines were much quoted in antiquity, as for example by Stobaeus and Sextus Empiricus , and it was imitated by later poets, such as Sophocles and Bacchylides . Theognis himself might be imitating others: each of
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5586-463: Is never to have been born at all Nor ever to have set eyes on the bright light of the sun But, since he is born, a man should make utmost haste through the gates of Death And then repose, the earth piled into a mound round himself. The lines were much quoted in antiquity, as for example by Stobaeus and Sextus Empiricus , and it was imitated by later poets, such as Sophocles and Bacchylides . Theognis himself might be imitating others: each of
5719-400: Is not. The explicit nature of some images has led in particular to discussions of whether the erômenos took active pleasure in the sex act. In most images of pederastic scenes the youthful beloved is pictured without an erection; his penis "remains flaccid even in circumstances to which one would expect the penis of any healthy adolescent to respond willy-nilly". One painting on a bowl from
5852-410: Is pleasure in song and to people yet unborn You also will be a song, while the earth and sun remain, Yet I am treated by you without even the least mark of respect And, as if I were a child, you have deceived me with words. In spite of such self-disclosures, almost nothing is known about Theognis the man: little is recorded by ancient sources and modern scholars question the authorship of most of
5985-636: Is scarcely an exaggeration to say that when fighting at each other's side, although a mere handful, they would overcome the world. In Laws , Plato takes a much more austere stance to homosexuality than in previous works, stating: ... one certainly should not fail to observe that when male unites with female for procreation the pleasure experienced is held to be due to nature, but contrary to nature when male mates with male or female with female, and that those first guilty of such enormities [the Cretans] were impelled by their slavery to pleasure. And we all accuse
6118-599: Is set at Callias III 's house during a banquet hosted by him for his beloved Autolykos in honour of a victory gained by the handsome young man in the pentathlon at the Panathenaic Games . In Crete , in order for the suitor to carry out the ritual abduction, the father had to approve him as worthy of the honor. Among the Athenians, as Socrates claims in Xenophon 's Symposium, "Nothing [of what concerns
6251-518: Is the same as that for depictions of women mounting men who are seated and aroused for intercourse. As a cultural norm considered apart from personal preference, anal penetration was most often seen as dishonorable to the one penetrated, or shameful, because of "its potential appearance of being turned into a woman" and because it was feared that it may distract the erômenos from playing the active, penetrative role later in life. A fable attributed to Aesop tells how Aeschyne (Shame) consented to enter
6384-516: The Alexandrian period is included in the approximately 1,400 lines of verse attributed to him, though several poems traditionally attributed to him were composed by others, e.g. Solon and Euenus . Some of these verses inspired ancient commentators to value him as a moralist yet the entire corpus is valued today for its "warts and all" portrayal of aristocratic life in archaic Greece. The verses preserved under Theognis' name are written from
6517-511: The Muses and Graces . Theognis also details the heightened political tensions within Megara during the seventh century. His works depict the arrival of "other men" that have challenged and displaced former members of the elite. His works, particularly lines 53-58, demonstrate that increasing urbanization among the rural populace surrounding Megara has resulted in heightened social pressures within
6650-406: The Muses and Graces . Theognis also details the heightened political tensions within Megara during the seventh century. His works depict the arrival of "other men" that have challenged and displaced former members of the elite. His works, particularly lines 53-58, demonstrate that increasing urbanization among the rural populace surrounding Megara has resulted in heightened social pressures within
6783-567: The Olympian gods except Ares are purported to have had these relationships, which some scholars argue demonstrates that the specific customs of paiderastia originated in initiatory rituals. Myths attributed to the homosexuality of Dionysus are very late and often post-pagan additions. The tale of Dionysus and Ampelos was written by the Egyptian poet Nonnus sometime between the 4th and 5th centuries CE, making it unreliable. Likewise,
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#17327878523366916-557: The andreion and served him from the cup that had been ceremonially presented. In this interpretation, the formal custom reflects myth and ritual . The erastês-erômenos relationship played a role in the Classical Greek social and educational system, had its own complex social-sexual etiquette and was an important social institution among the upper classes. Pederasty has been understood as educative, and Greek authors from Aristophanes to Pindar felt it naturally present in
7049-404: The erastês ’ love. The erômenos is also said to have a desire "similar to the erastes', albeit weaker, to see, to touch, to kiss and to lie with him". Many of the practices described above concern Athens, while Attic pottery is a major source for modern scholars attempting to understand the institution of pederasty. In Athens, as elsewhere, pederastia appears to have been characteristic of
7182-459: The erômenos is often an embodiment of idealized youth; a related ideal depiction of youth in Archaic culture was the kouros , the long-haired male statuary nude . In The Fragility of Goodness , Martha Nussbaum , following Dover, defines the ideal erômenos as [a] beautiful creature without pressing needs of his own. He is aware of his attractiveness, but self-absorbed in his relationship with those who desire him. He will smile sweetly at
7315-497: The 57th Olympiad (552–49 BC)—yet it is not clear whether Suda in this case means a date of birth or some other significant event in the poet's life. Some scholars have argued that the sources could have derived their dates from lines 773–82 under the assumption that these refer to Harpagus's attack on Ionia in the reign of Cyrus The Great . Chronological evidence from the poems themselves is hampered by their uncertain authenticity. Lines 29–52, if composed by Theognis, seem to portray
7448-571: The Athenians Harmodius and Aristogeiton , who were credited (perhaps symbolically) with the overthrow of the tyrant Hippias and the establishment of democracy, and also Chariton and Melanippus . Others, such as Aristotle , claimed that the Cretan lawgivers encouraged pederasty as a means of population control , by directing love and sexual desire into non-procreative channels: and the lawgiver has devised many wise measures to secure
7581-613: The Athens National Museum shows a pederastic scene where both of the figures have erect penises. Fondling the youth's genitals was one of the most common images of pederastic courtship on vases, a gesture indicated also in Aristophanes ' comedy Birds (line 142). Some vases do show the younger partner as sexually responsive, prompting one scholar to wonder, "What can the point of this act have been unless lovers in fact derived some pleasure from feeling and watching
7714-515: The Cretans of concocting the story about Ganymede . Plato states here that "we all", possibly referring to society as a whole or simply his social group, believe the story of Ganymede's homosexuality to have been fabricated by the Cretans to justify immoral behaviours. The Athenian stranger in Plato's Laws blames pederasty for promoting civil strife and driving many to their wits' end, and recommends
7847-672: The Genealogy of Morality , he describes the poet as a 'mouthpiece' of the Greek nobility: Theognis represents superior virtues as traits of the aristocracy and thus distinguishes (in Nietzsche's own words) the "truthful" aristocrat from the "lying common man". Charles Darwin represented a widespread preference for a biological interpretation of such statements when he commented on the above lines thus: The Grecian poet, Theognis ... saw how important selection, if carefully applied, would be for
7980-506: The Genealogy of Morality , he describes the poet as a 'mouthpiece' of the Greek nobility: Theognis represents superior virtues as traits of the aristocracy and thus distinguishes (in Nietzsche's own words) the "truthful" aristocrat from the "lying common man". Charles Darwin represented a widespread preference for a biological interpretation of such statements when he commented on the above lines thus: The Grecian poet, Theognis ... saw how important selection, if carefully applied, would be for
8113-667: The Gods. The story tells of Poseidon's love for a mortal boy, Pelops, who wins a chariot race with help from his admirer Poseidon. Though examples of such a custom exist in earlier Greek works, myths providing examples of young men who were the lovers of gods began to emerge in Classical literature , around the 6th century BC. In these later tales, pederastic love is ascribed to Zeus (with Ganymede ), Poseidon (with Pelops ), Apollo (with Cyparissus , Hyacinthus and Admetus ), Orpheus , Heracles , Dionysus , Hermes , and Pan . All
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#17327878523368246-499: The Persian invasion of mainland Greece in the reign of Xerxes , at the end of the first quarter of the fifth century . Even some modern scholars have interpreted those lines in that time-frame, deducing a birth date on or just before 600 BC, while others place his birth around 550 BC to fit in with the Persian invasion under either Darius or Xerxes. There is confusion also about his place of birth, "Megara", which Plato for example understood to be Megara Hyblaea in Sicily, while
8379-409: The admiring lover; he will show appreciation for the other's friendship, advice, and assistance. He will allow the lover to greet him by touching, affectionately, his genitals and his face, while he looks, himself, demurely at the ground. … The inner experience of an erômenos would be characterized, we may imagine, by a feeling of proud self-sufficiency. Though the object of importunate solicitation, he
8512-413: The allocation of those functions and declared themselves ineligible if they were somehow mistakenly elected to perform those specific functions, they were safe from prosecution and punishment. As non-citizens visiting or residing in a city-state could not perform official functions in any case whatsoever, they could prostitute themselves as much as they wanted. Transgressions of the customs pertaining to
8645-508: The aristocracy. The age of youth depicted has been estimated variously from 12 to 18. A number of Athenian laws addressed the pederastic relationship. Unlike the Dorians , where an older male would usually have only one erômenos (younger boy), in the east a man might have several erômenoi over the course of his life. Poems of Alcaeus indicate that the older male would customarily invite his erômenos to dine with him. Greek pederasty
8778-441: The benefit of moderation at table, and the segregation of the women in order that they may not bear many children, for which purpose he instituted association with the male sex. Phaedrus in Plato's Symposium remarks: For I know not any greater blessing to a young man who is beginning in life than a virtuous lover, or to a lover than a beloved youth. For the principle, I say, neither kindred, nor honor, nor wealth, nor any motive
8911-400: The boy's developing organ wake up and respond to their manual stimulation?" Chronological study of the vase paintings reveals a changing aesthetic in the depiction of the erômenos . In the 6th century BC, he is a young beardless man with long hair, of adult height and physique, usually nude. As the 5th century begins, he has become smaller and slighter, "barely pubescent", and often draped as
9044-504: The boy] is kept hidden from the father, by an ideal lover". To protect their sons from inappropriate attempts at seduction, fathers appointed slaves called pedagogues to watch over their sons. However, according to Aeschines , Athenian fathers would pray that their sons would be handsome and attractive, with the full knowledge that they would then attract the attention of men and "be the objects of fights because of erotic passions". The age range when boys entered into such relationships
9177-535: The camps. Separatists have agreed with Theodor Bergk (1843) that the collection was originally assembled as the work of Theognis, into which a large admixture of foreign matter has somehow found its way, or they have believed it was compiled originally as a textbook for use in schools or else as a set of aristocratic drinking songs, in which some verses of Theognis happen to be strongly represented. Quite recently Martin Litchfield West identified 306 lines as
9310-469: The camps. Separatists have agreed with Theodor Bergk (1843) that the collection was originally assembled as the work of Theognis, into which a large admixture of foreign matter has somehow found its way, or they have believed it was compiled originally as a textbook for use in schools or else as a set of aristocratic drinking songs, in which some verses of Theognis happen to be strongly represented. Quite recently Martin Litchfield West identified 306 lines as
9443-532: The city. His writings are thought by modern scholars to largely represent the aristocratic viewpoint of the Megarian elite. However, it is difficult for modern scholars to ascertain both Theognis' position in Megarian society and his role in writing these lines due to possible later additions to his works and the confusion surrounding his origins. Theognis wrote in the archaic elegiac style. An "elegy" in English
9576-421: The city. His writings are thought by modern scholars to largely represent the aristocratic viewpoint of the Megarian elite. However, it is difficult for modern scholars to ascertain both Theognis' position in Megarian society and his role in writing these lines due to possible later additions to his works and the confusion surrounding his origins. Theognis wrote in the archaic elegiac style. An "elegy" in English
9709-499: The collected verses. Nietzsche was an ardent exponent of "catchword theory", which explains the arrangement of the Theognidean verses as pairs of poems, each pair linked by a shared word or catchword that could be placed anywhere in either poem, as for example in these pairs: However a later scholar has observed that the catchword principle can be made to work for just about any anthology as a matter of coincidence due to thematic association. Nietzsche valued Theognis as an archetype of
9842-497: The collected verses. Nietzsche was an ardent exponent of "catchword theory", which explains the arrangement of the Theognidean verses as pairs of poems, each pair linked by a shared word or catchword that could be placed anywhere in either poem, as for example in these pairs: However a later scholar has observed that the catchword principle can be made to work for just about any anthology as a matter of coincidence due to thematic association. Nietzsche valued Theognis as an archetype of
9975-524: The collection was finalized. Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker , sometime known as "the father of Theognidean criticism", was the first modern scholar to edit the collection with a view to separating authentic verses from spurious additions (1826), Ernest Harrison ( Studies in Theognis 1902) subsequently defended the authenticity of the collection, and thus the scholarly world divided into two camps, which one recent scholar half-jokingly referred to as "separatists" and "unitarians" There have also been divisions within
10108-522: The collection was finalized. Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker , sometime known as "the father of Theognidean criticism", was the first modern scholar to edit the collection with a view to separating authentic verses from spurious additions (1826), Ernest Harrison ( Studies in Theognis 1902) subsequently defended the authenticity of the collection, and thus the scholarly world divided into two camps, which one recent scholar half-jokingly referred to as "separatists" and "unitarians" There have also been divisions within
10241-569: The context of aristocratic education ( paideia ). In general, pederasty as described in Greek literary sources is an institution reserved for free citizens, perhaps to be regarded as a dyadic mentorship. According to historian Sarah Iles Johnston , "pederasty was widely accepted in Greece as part of a male's coming-of-age, even if its function is still widely debated". The scene of Xenophon's Symposium , and also that of Plato 's Protagoras ,
10374-406: The early 10th century, includes an end section titled "Book 2" (sometimes referred to as Musa Paedica ), which features some hundred additional couplets and which "harps on the same theme throughout—boy love." The quality of the verse in the end section is radically diverse, ranging from "exquisite and simple beauty" to "the worst specimens of the bungler's art", and many scholars have rejected it as
10507-405: The early 10th century, includes an end section titled "Book 2" (sometimes referred to as Musa Paedica ), which features some hundred additional couplets and which "harps on the same theme throughout—boy love." The quality of the verse in the end section is radically diverse, ranging from "exquisite and simple beauty" to "the worst specimens of the bungler's art", and many scholars have rejected it as
10640-407: The embattled aristocrat, describing him as "...a finely formed nobleman who has fallen on bad times", and "a distorted Janus -head" at the crossroads of social change. Not all the verses in the collection however fitted Nietzsche's notion of Theognis, the man, and he rejected Musa Paedica or "Book 2" as the interpolation of a malicious editor out to discredit him. In one of his seminal works, On
10773-404: The embattled aristocrat, describing him as "...a finely formed nobleman who has fallen on bad times", and "a distorted Janus -head" at the crossroads of social change. Not all the verses in the collection however fitted Nietzsche's notion of Theognis, the man, and he rejected Musa Paedica or "Book 2" as the interpolation of a malicious editor out to discredit him. In one of his seminal works, On
10906-464: The epic phrasing of Homer , even using his Ionian dialect rather than the Dorian spoken in Megara, and possibly borrowing inspiration and entire lines from other elegiac poets, such as Tyrtaeus, Mimnermus and Solon. His verses are not always melodious or carefully constructed but he often places key words for good effect and he employs linguistic devices such as asyndeton , familiar in common speech. He
11039-410: The epic phrasing of Homer , even using his Ionian dialect rather than the Dorian spoken in Megara, and possibly borrowing inspiration and entire lines from other elegiac poets, such as Tyrtaeus, Mimnermus and Solon. His verses are not always melodious or carefully constructed but he often places key words for good effect and he employs linguistic devices such as asyndeton , familiar in common speech. He
11172-517: The greatest pleasure from listening to them, but their attitude towards them is the same as their attitude towards those who admonish: for although they praise the latter, they prefer to associate with those who share in their follies and not with those who seek to dissuade them. As proof one could cite the poetry of Hesiod , Theognis and Phocylides ; for people say that they have been the best advisers for human life, but while saying this they prefer to occupy themselves with one another's follies than with
11305-400: The human body from behind only as long as Eros did not follow the same path, and would fly away at once if he did. A man who acted as the receiver during anal intercourse may have been the recipient of the insult "kinaidos" , meaning effeminate. No shame was associated with intercrural penetration or any other act that did not involve anal penetration. This interpretation is largely based on
11438-578: The improvement of mankind. He saw likewise that wealth often checks the proper action of sexual selection. — Charles Darwin Pederasty in ancient Greece#Terminology Pederasty in ancient Greece was a socially acknowledged relationship between an older male (the erastes ) and a younger male (the eromenos ) usually in his teens. It was characteristic of the Archaic and Classical periods . Some scholars locate its origin in initiation ritual , particularly rites of passage on Crete , where it
11571-564: The last line of the Greek is imitated here in the English by mound round . According to Diogenes Laërtius , the second volume of the collected works of Antisthenes includes a book entitled Concerning Theognis . The work does not survive. The field of Theognidean studies is battle-scarred, strewn with theories dead or dying, the scene of bitter passions and blind partisanship...combat has been continuous, except for interruptions due to real wars. —David A. Campbell The collection of verses attributed to Theognis has no overall structure, being
11704-562: The last line of the Greek is imitated here in the English by mound round . According to Diogenes Laërtius , the second volume of the collected works of Antisthenes includes a book entitled Concerning Theognis . The work does not survive. The field of Theognidean studies is battle-scarred, strewn with theories dead or dying, the scene of bitter passions and blind partisanship...combat has been continuous, except for interruptions due to real wars. —David A. Campbell The collection of verses attributed to Theognis has no overall structure, being
11837-589: The latter, they prefer to associate with those who share in their follies and not with those who seek to dissuade them. As proof one could cite the poetry of Hesiod , Theognis and Phocylides ; for people say that they have been the best advisers for human life, but while saying this they prefer to occupy themselves with one another's follies than with the precepts of those poets."—Isocrates, To Nicocles 42–4, cited and translated by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry , Loeb Classical Library (1999), page 171–3, yet Plato's Socrates cites some Theognidean verses to dismiss
11970-463: The longer hexameter lines is loosely paraphrased in the shorter pentameter lines, as if he borrowed the longer lines from some unknown source(s) and added the shorter lines to create an elegiac version. Moreover, the last line could be imitating an image from Homer's Odyssey (5.482), where Odysseus covers himself with leaves though some scholars think the key word ἐπαμησάμενον might be corrupted. The smothering accumulation of eta ( η ) sounds in
12103-459: The longer hexameter lines is loosely paraphrased in the shorter pentameter lines, as if he borrowed the longer lines from some unknown source(s) and added the shorter lines to create an elegiac version. Moreover, the last line could be imitating an image from Homer's Odyssey (5.482), where Odysseus covers himself with leaves though some scholars think the key word ἐπαμησάμενον might be corrupted. The smothering accumulation of eta ( η ) sounds in
12236-608: The lovely bloom of boyhood ( paideia ). So, don't be astonished, Simonides , that I too have been revealed as captivated by love for a handsome boy. The myth of Ganymede's abduction, however, was not taken seriously by some in Athenian society, and deemed to be a Cretan fabrication designed to justify homoeroticism . The 5th century BC poet Pindar constructed the story of a sexual pederastic relationship between Poseidon and Pelops , intended to replace an earlier story of cannibalism that Pindar deemed an unsavoury representation of
12369-460: The mid-sixth century— Eusebius dates Theognis in the 58th Olympiad (548–45 BC), Suda the 59th Olympiad (544–41 BC) and Chronicon Paschale the 57th Olympiad (552–49 BC)—yet it is not clear whether Suda in this case means a date of birth or some other significant event in the poet's life. Some scholars have argued that the sources could have derived their dates from lines 773–82 under the assumption that these refer to Harpagus's attack on Ionia in
12502-427: The most controversial in Theognidean scholarship and there is a large body of literature dedicated to their explanation. The 'seal' has been theorized to be the name of Theognis or of Cyrnus or, more generally, the distinct poetic style or else the political or ethical content of the 'poems', or even a literal seal on a copy entrusted to some temple, just as Heraclitus of Ephesus was said once to have sealed and stored
12635-426: The most controversial in Theognidean scholarship and there is a large body of literature dedicated to their explanation. The 'seal' has been theorized to be the name of Theognis or of Cyrnus or, more generally, the distinct poetic style or else the political or ethical content of the 'poems', or even a literal seal on a copy entrusted to some temple, just as Heraclitus of Ephesus was said once to have sealed and stored
12768-606: The opinion that Theognis might have later migrated to the Sicilian Megara (a similar theory had assigned an Attic birthplace to the Spartan poet Tyrtaeus ). Modern scholars in general opt for a birthplace in mainland Greek Megara though a suitable context for the poems could be found just about anywhere in archaic Greece and there are options for mix-and-match, such as a birth in mainland Megara and then migration to Sicilian Megara (lines 1197–1201 mention dispossession/exile and lines 783–88 journeys to Sicily, Euboea and Sparta). The elegiac verses attributed to Theognis present him as
12901-485: The pederastic relationship as heavily pedagogical. Theocritus , a Hellenistic poet, describes a kissing contest for youths that took place at the tomb of a certain Diocles of Megara , a warrior renowned for his love of boys; he notes that invoking Ganymede was proper to the occasion. Vase paintings and references to the erômenos 's thighs in poetry indicate that when the pederastic couple engaged in sex acts,
13034-422: The poems preserved under his name. Ancient commentators, the poems themselves and even modern scholars offer mixed signals about the poet's life. Some of the poems respond in a personal and immediate way to events widely dispersed in time. Ancient sources record dates in the mid-sixth century— Eusebius dates Theognis in the 58th Olympiad (548–45 BC), Suda the 59th Olympiad (544–41 BC) and Chronicon Paschale
13167-552: The poet as a confused and self-contradictory sophist whose teachings are not to be trusted, while a modern scholar excuses self-contradictions as typical of a lifelong poet writing over many years and at the whim of inspiration. The Theognidea might in fact be a collection of elegiac poems by different authors (see Modern scholarship below) and the "life" that emerges from them depends on which poems editors consider authentic. Two modern authorities have drawn these portraits of Theognis, based on their own selections of his work: ...
13300-417: The poet bitterly resented: πᾶσι δ᾽ ὅσοισι μέμηλε καὶ ἐσσομένοισιν ἀοιδὴ :ἔσσῃ ὁμῶς, ὄφρ᾽ ἂν γῆ τε καὶ ἠέλιος, αὐτὰρ ἐγὼν ὀλίγης παρὰ σεῦ οὐ τυγχάνω αἰδοῦς, :ἀλλ᾽ ὥσπερ μικρὸν παῖδα λόγοις μ᾽ ἀπατᾷς. To all to whom there is pleasure in song and to people yet unborn You also will be a song, while the earth and sun remain, Yet I am treated by you without even the least mark of respect And, as if I were
13433-564: The political situation in Megara before the rise of the tyrant Theagenes , about the latter half of the seventh century , but lines 891–95 describe a war in Euboea in the second quarter of the sixth century , and lines 773–82 seem to refer to the Persian invasion of mainland Greece in the reign of Xerxes , at the end of the first quarter of the fifth century . Even some modern scholars have interpreted those lines in that time-frame, deducing
13566-437: The precepts of those poets."—Isocrates, To Nicocles 42–4, cited and translated by Douglas E. Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry , Loeb Classical Library (1999), page 171–3, yet Plato's Socrates cites some Theognidean verses to dismiss the poet as a confused and self-contradictory sophist whose teachings are not to be trusted, while a modern scholar excuses self-contradictions as typical of a lifelong poet writing over many years and at
13699-430: The preferred form was intercrural . To preserve his dignity and honor, the erômenos limits the man who desires him to penetration between closed thighs. Some vase paintings, which historian William Percy considers a fourth type of pederastic scene in addition to Beazley 's three, show the erastês seated with an erection and the erômenos either approaching or climbing into his lap. The composition of these scenes
13832-488: The prohibition of sexual intercourse with youths, laying out a path whereby this may be accomplished. The myth of Ganymede 's abduction by Zeus was invoked as a precedent for the pederastic relationship, as Theognis asserts to a friend: There is some pleasure in loving a boy ( paidophilein ), since once in fact even the son of Cronus [that is, Zeus], king of immortals, fell in love with Ganymede, seized him, carried him off to Olympus , and made him divine, keeping
13965-426: The proper expression of homosexuality within the bounds of pederaistia could be used to damage the reputation of a public figure. In his speech " Against Timarchus " in 346 BC, the Athenian politician Aeschines argues against further allowing Timarchus, an experienced middle-aged politician, certain political rights, as Attic law prohibited anyone who had prostituted himself from exercising those rights and Timarchus
14098-545: The publication in 1978 of Kenneth Dover 's work Greek Homosexuality , the terms erastês and erômenos have been standard for the two pederastic roles. Both words derive from the Greek verb erô , erân , "to love"; see also eros . In Dover's strict dichotomy, the erastês ( ἐραστής , plural erastai ) is the older sexual actor, seen as the active or dominant participant, with the suffix -tês (- τής ) denoting agency . Erastês should be distinguished from Greek paiderastês , which meant "lover of boys" usually with
14231-433: The quest for authentically Theognidean elegies is rather beside the point—the collection owes its survival to the political motivations of Athenian intellectuals in the 5th and 4th century, disappointed with democracy and sympathetic to old aristocratic values: "The persona of the poet is traditionally based, ideologically conditioned and generically expressed." According to this view, the verses were drinking songs in so far as
14364-433: The quest for authentically Theognidean elegies is rather beside the point—the collection owes its survival to the political motivations of Athenian intellectuals in the 5th and 4th century, disappointed with democracy and sympathetic to old aristocratic values: "The persona of the poet is traditionally based, ideologically conditioned and generically expressed." According to this view, the verses were drinking songs in so far as
14497-432: The reign of Cyrus The Great . Chronological evidence from the poems themselves is hampered by their uncertain authenticity. Lines 29–52, if composed by Theognis, seem to portray the political situation in Megara before the rise of the tyrant Theagenes , about the latter half of the seventh century , but lines 891–95 describe a war in Euboea in the second quarter of the sixth century , and lines 773–82 seem to refer to
14630-440: The responsibilities of an older Spartan citizen to younger less sexually experienced males. Theognis#Modern scholarship Theognis of Megara ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Θέογνις ὁ Μεγαρεύς , Théognis ho Megareús ) was a Greek lyric poet active in approximately the sixth century BC. The work attributed to him consists of gnomic poetry quite typical of the time, featuring ethical maxims and practical advice about life. He
14763-442: The symposium was understood to be a microcosm of society, where multiple views were an aspect of adaptive behaviour by the embattled aristocracy, and where even eroticism had political symbolism: "As the polis envisaged by Theognis is degenerate, erotic relationships are filled with pain..." In lines 19–22, the poet announces his intention of placing a "seal" on the verses to protect them from theft and corruption. The lines are among
14896-441: The symposium was understood to be a microcosm of society, where multiple views were an aspect of adaptive behaviour by the embattled aristocracy, and where even eroticism had political symbolism: "As the polis envisaged by Theognis is degenerate, erotic relationships are filled with pain..." In lines 19–22, the poet announces his intention of placing a "seal" on the verses to protect them from theft and corruption. The lines are among
15029-485: The tale of Dionysus and Polymnus , which tells that the former anally masturbated with a fig branch over the latter's grave, was written by Christians , whose aim was to discredit pagan mythology. Dover , however, believed that these myths are only literary versions expressing or explaining the "overt" homosexuality of Greek Archaic culture , the distinctiveness of which he contrasted to attitudes in other ancient societies such as Egypt and Israel. Greek vase painting
15162-493: The text. Ironically, Theognis mentions to his friend Cyrnus precautions that he has taken to ensure the fidelity of his legacy: "Cyrnus, as I compose my poems for you, let a seal be placed on the verses; if stolen they will never pass undetected nor will anyone exchange their present good content for worse, but everyone will say: They are the verses of Theognis of Megara, a name known to all mankind. "—lines 19–23 The nature of this seal and its effectiveness in preserving his work
15295-491: The text. Ironically, Theognis mentions to his friend Cyrnus precautions that he has taken to ensure the fidelity of his legacy: "Cyrnus, as I compose my poems for you, let a seal be placed on the verses; if stolen they will never pass undetected nor will anyone exchange their present good content for worse, but everyone will say: They are the verses of Theognis of Megara, a name known to all mankind. "—lines 19–23 The nature of this seal and its effectiveness in preserving his work
15428-424: The thesis presented by Kenneth Dover in 1979. Oral sex is likewise not depicted, or directly suggested; anal and oral penetration seem to have been reserved for prostitutes or slaves. Dover maintained that the erômenos was ideally not supposed to feel "unmanly" desire for the erastês . Nussbaum argues that the depiction of the erômenos as deriving no sexual pleasure from sex with the erastês "may well be
15561-514: The transmission of the text to account for the discrepancy. The surviving manuscripts of Theognis preserve an anthology of ancient elegy, including selections from other elegists such as Tyrtaeus ; scholars disagree over which parts were written by Theognis. The collection is preserved in more than forty manuscripts, comprising a continuous series of elegiac couplets that modern editors now separate into some 300 to 400 "poems", according to personal preferences. The best of these manuscripts, dated to
15694-511: The transmission of the text to account for the discrepancy. The surviving manuscripts of Theognis preserve an anthology of ancient elegy, including selections from other elegists such as Tyrtaeus ; scholars disagree over which parts were written by Theognis. The collection is preserved in more than forty manuscripts, comprising a continuous series of elegiac couplets that modern editors now separate into some 300 to 400 "poems", according to personal preferences. The best of these manuscripts, dated to
15827-604: The viewpoint of an aristocrat confronted by social and political revolution typical of Greek cities in the archaic period. Part of his work is addressed to Cyrnus, who is presented as his erōmenos . The author of the poems celebrated him in his verse and educated him in the aristocratic values of the time, yet Cyrnus came to symbolize much about his imperfect world that the poet bitterly resented: πᾶσι δ᾽ ὅσοισι μέμηλε καὶ ἐσσομένοισιν ἀοιδὴ :ἔσσῃ ὁμῶς, ὄφρ᾽ ἂν γῆ τε καὶ ἠέλιος, αὐτὰρ ἐγὼν ὀλίγης παρὰ σεῦ οὐ τυγχάνω αἰδοῦς, :ἀλλ᾽ ὥσπερ μικρὸν παῖδα λόγοις μ᾽ ἀπατᾷς. To all to whom there
15960-429: The whim of inspiration. The Theognidea might in fact be a collection of elegiac poems by different authors (see Modern scholarship below) and the "life" that emerges from them depends on which poems editors consider authentic. Two modern authorities have drawn these portraits of Theognis, based on their own selections of his work: ... a man of standing in his city, whose public actions however arouse some discontent;
16093-582: Was an acceptable form of homoeroticism that had other, less socially accepted manifestations, such as the sexual use of slaves or being a pornos ( prostitute ) or hetairos (the male equivalent of a hetaira ). Male prostitution was treated as a perfectly routine matter and visiting prostitutes of either sex was considered completely acceptable for a male citizen. However, adolescent citizens of free status who prostituted themselves were sometimes ridiculed, and were permanently prohibited by Attic law from performing some seven official functions because it
16226-567: Was associated with entrance into military life and the religion of Zeus . It has no formal existence in the Homeric epics , and may have developed in the late 7th century BC as an aspect of Greek homosocial culture , which was characterized also by athletic and artistic nudity , delayed marriage for aristocrats, symposia , and the social seclusion of women. Pederasty was both idealized and criticized in ancient literature and philosophy . The argument has recently been made that idealization
16359-402: Was assumed in antiquity that Kyrnos was the poet's erômenos , the poems that are most explicitly erotic are not addressed to him—the poetry on "the joys and sorrows" of pederasty seem more apt for sharing with a fellow erastês , perhaps in the setting of the symposium —"the relationship, in any case, is left vague". In general, Theognis (and the tradition that appears under his name) treats
16492-484: Was believed that since they had sold their own body "for the pleasure of others" ( ἐφ' ὕβρει , eph' hybrei ), they would not hesitate to sell the interests of the community as a whole. If they, or an adult citizen of free status who had prostituted himself, performed any of the official functions prohibited to them by law (in later life), they were liable to prosecution and punishment. However, if they did not perform those specific functions, did not present themselves for
16625-452: Was capable of arresting imagery and memorable statements in the form of terse epigrams. Some of these qualities are evident in the following lines [425-8], considered to be "the classic formulation of Greek pessimism": Πάντων μὲν μὴ φῦναι ἐπιχθονίοισιν ἄριστον, μηδ᾽ ἐσιδεῖν αὐγὰς ὀξέος ἠελίου. φύντα δ᾽ ὅπως ὤκιστα πύλας Ἀΐδαο περῆσαι καὶ κεῖσθαι πολλὴν γῆν ἐπαμησάμενον. Best of all for mortal beings
16758-449: Was capable of arresting imagery and memorable statements in the form of terse epigrams. Some of these qualities are evident in the following lines [425-8], considered to be "the classic formulation of Greek pessimism": Πάντων μὲν μὴ φῦναι ἐπιχθονίοισιν ἄριστον, μηδ᾽ ἐσιδεῖν αὐγὰς ὀξέος ἠελίου. φύντα δ᾽ ὅπως ὤκιστα πύλας Ἀΐδαο περῆσαι καὶ κεῖσθαι πολλὴν γῆν ἐπαμησάμενον. Best of all for mortal beings
16891-498: Was consonant with that of Greek girls given in marriage, often to adult husbands many years their senior. Boys, however, usually had to be courted and were free to choose their mate, while marriages for girls were arranged for economic and political advantage at the discretion of father and suitor. Typically, after their sexual relationship had ended and the young man had married, the older man and his protégé would remain on close terms throughout their life. In parts of Greece, pederasty
17024-575: Was known to have spent his adolescence as the sexual partner of a series of wealthy men in order to obtain money. Such a law existed because it was believed that anyone who had sold their own body would not hesitate to sell the interests of the city-state. Aeschines won his case, and Timarchus was sentenced to atimia (disenfranchisement and civic disempowerment). By contrast, as expressed in Pausanias' speech in Plato 's Symposium , pederastic love
17157-493: Was regarded as a future citizen, not an "inferior object of sexual gratification", and was portrayed with respect in art. The word can be understood as an endearment such as a parent might use, found also in the poetry of Sappho and a designation of only relative age. Both art and other literary references show that the erômenos was at least a teen, with modern age estimates ranging from 13 to 20, or in some cases up to 30. Most evidence indicates that to be an eligible erômenos ,
17290-503: Was said to be favorable to democracy and feared by tyrants, because the bond between the erastês and erômenos was stronger than that of obedience to a despotic ruler. Athenaeus states that "Hieronymus the Aristotelian says that love with boys was fashionable because several tyrannies had been overturned by young men in their prime, joined together as comrades in mutual sympathy". He gives as examples of such pederastic couples
17423-538: Was seemingly already institutionalized in Crete at the time of Thaletas , which included a "Dance of Naked Youths". It has been suggested both Crete and Sparta influenced Athenian pederasty. The nature of Spartan pederasty is in dispute among ancient sources and modern historians. Some think Spartan views on pederasty and homoeroticism were more chaste than those of other parts of Greece, while others find no significant difference between them. According to Xenophon ,
17556-481: Was the first Greek poet known to express concern over the eventual fate and survival of his own work and, along with Homer , Hesiod and the authors of the Homeric Hymns , he is among the earliest poets whose work has been preserved in a continuous manuscript tradition (the work of other archaic poets is preserved as scattered fragments). In fact more than half of the extant elegiac poetry of Greece before
17689-624: Was universal in the Archaic period; criticism began in Athens as part of the general Classical Athenian reassessment of Archaic culture. Scholars have debated the role or extent of pederasty, which is likely to have varied according to local custom and individual inclination. The English word " pederasty " in present-day usage might imply the abuse of minors in certain jurisdictions, but Athenian law, for instance, recognized both consent and age as factors in regulating sexual behavior. Since
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