Model humanity:
101-499: Tianxia , 'all under Heaven ', is a Chinese term for a historical Chinese cultural concept that denoted either the entire geographical world or the metaphysical realm of mortals, and later became associated with political sovereignty. In ancient China and imperial China , tianxia denoted the lands, space, and area divinely appointed to the Chinese sovereign by universal and well-defined principles of order. The center of this land
202-439: A "sovereign nation", equal to itself. This made it impossible for China to continue dealing with other nations under the traditional tianxia system, and forced it to establish a foreign affairs bureau . Due to the liberal international order arguably being based on Westphalian sovereignty , the idea that sovereign nations deal with each other as equals, China's traditional tianxia worldview collapsed. After China's defeat in
303-443: A "supreme power reigning over lesser gods and human beings" that brought "order and calm...or catastrophe and punishment", a deity, destiny , an impersonal force that controls events, a holy world or afterlife containing other worlds or afterlives, or one or more of these. The modern Chinese character 天 and early seal script both combine dà 大 ' great; large ' and yī 一 ' one ' , but some of
404-550: A clean and orderly place for nature gods in Shinto. Zuozhuan The Zuo Zhuan ( Chinese : 左傳 ; Wade–Giles : Tso chuan ; [tswò ʈʂwân] ), often translated as The Zuo Tradition or as The Commentary of Zuo , an ancient Chinese narrative history, is traditionally regarded as a commentary on the ancient Chinese chronicle the Spring and Autumn Annals . It comprises 30 chapters covering
505-648: A commentary on the Annals . Kang's theory was that Liu Xin—who with his father Liu Xiang , the imperial librarian, was one of the first to have access to the rare documents in the Han dynasty's imperial archives—took the Discourses of the States and forged it into a chronicle-like work to fit the format of the Annals in an attempt to lend credibility to the policies of his master, the usurper Wang Mang . Kang's theory
606-411: A famously terse and succinct quality that was admired and imitated throughout Chinese history and usually focus either on speeches that illustrate ethical values, or on anecdotes in which the details of the story illuminate specific ethical points. Its narratives are characterized by parataxis , where clauses are juxtaposed with little verbal indication of their causal relationships with each other. On
707-495: A hierarchy of multiple, sphere-like realms that contained morally ambiguous creatures and spirits such as fox spirits and fire-breathing dragons . The Tao realm was thought to exist by many ancient folk religion practitioners. Ahom religion ethnically originated from Dai people of Yunnan in Southwest China has a concept of Mong Phi (Heavenly Kingdom) which is often identified as Tian. In Yiguandao , Tian
808-505: A long, drawn-out controversy when he proposed, by emphasizing certain discrepancies between it and the Annals , that the Zuo Zhuan was not originally a commentary on the Annals . Liu's theory was taken much further by the prominent scholar and reformer Kang Youwei , who argued that Liu Xin did not really find the "ancient script" version of the Zuo Zhuan in the imperial archives, as historical records describe, but actually forged it as
909-596: A military leader who served in the State of Wei and who, according to the Han Feizi , was from a place called 左氏 ; zǔoshì . In 1792, the scholar Yao Nai wrote: "The [ Zuo Zhuan ] did not come from one person. There were repeated accretions and additions, with those of Wu Qi and his followers being especially numerous...." In the early 19th century, the Chinese scholar Liu Fenglu ( 劉逢祿 ; 1776–1829) initiated
1010-527: A number of developments in governmental complexity and specialization that preceded China's imperial unification in 221 BC by the First Emperor of Qin . The latter years of this period also saw the appearance of Confucius , who later became the preeminent figure in Chinese cultural history. The Zuo Zhuan is one of the only surviving written sources for the history of the Spring and Autumn period, and
1111-592: A quote from the Great Learning , became widespread, producing large shifts in Confucianism . The philosopher Wang Fuzhi believed that tianxia was of a fixed, unchangeable dimension, notwithstanding the fact that the Great Learning's mentioning of harmonizing tianxia was actually in reference to government. Using these arguments, Wang was highly critical of Neo-Confucianism. On the other hand,
SECTION 10
#17327918210181212-680: A relation to that cause. While Heaven does not let the cause of truth perish, what can the people of Kuang do to me?" For Mozi , Heaven is the divine ruler, just as the Son of Heaven is the earthly ruler. Mozi believed that spirits and minor demons exist or at least rituals should be performed as if they did for social reasons, but their function is to carry out the will of Heaven, watching for evil-doers and punishing them. Mozi taught that Heaven loves all people equally and that each person should similarly love all human beings without distinguishing between his own relatives and those of others. Mozi criticized
1313-469: A series of linguistic and philological analyses he carried out in the 1920s, that the Zuo Zhuan is a genuine ancient text "probably to be dated between 468 and 300 BC." While Liu's hypothesis that the Zuo Zhuan was not originally an Annals commentary has been generally accepted, Kang's theory of Liu Xin forging the Zuo Zhuan is now considered discredited. The oldest surviving Zuo Zhuan manuscripts are six fragments that were discovered among
1414-612: A voiceless lateral onset, either a cluster or a single consonant, respectively. Baxter & Sagart pointed to attested dialectal differences in Eastern Han Chinese , the use of 天 as a phonetic component in phono-semantic compound Chinese characters , and the choice of 天 to transcribe foreign syllables, all of which prompted them to conclude that, around 200 CE, 天 's onset had two pronunciations: coronal * tʰ and dorsal * x , both of which likely originated from an earlier voiceless lateral * l̥ˤ . Further etymology
1515-637: A way that teaches and illustrates moral principles. The German sinologist Martin Kern observed: "Instead of offering authorial judgments or catechistic hermeneutics, the Zuo Zhuan lets its moral lessons unfold within the narrative itself, teaching at once history and historical judgment." Unlike the Histories of Herodotus or the History of the Peloponnesian War of Thucydides , with which it
1616-569: A whole, which is "the basis for a sincere mind." The Emperor of China as Tianzi was formerly vital to Confucianism. Mount Tai is seen as a sacred place in Confucianism and was traditionally the most revered place where Chinese emperors offered sacrifices to Heaven and Earth. The concept of Tian is pervasive in Confucianism . Confucius had a deep trust in Heaven and believed that Heaven overruled human efforts. He also believed that he
1717-455: Is Heaven - that knows me!" Perhaps the most remarkable saying, recorded twice, is one in which Confucius expresses complete trust in the overruling providence of Heaven: The Master was put in fear in Kuang. He said, "After the death of King Wen, was not the cause of truth lodged here in me? If Heaven had wished to let this cause of truth perish, then I, a future mortal, should not have got such
1818-525: Is concretely known of the life or identity of the Zuo Qiuming of the Analects , nor of what connection he might have with the Zuo Zhuan . This traditional assumption that the title's "Master Zuo" refers to the Zuo Qiuming of the Analects is not based on any specific evidence, and was challenged by scholars as early as the 8th century. Some modern scholars have observed that even if the Zuo Qiuming of
1919-464: Is divided into three vertical worlds. Li Tian ( 理天 ) 'heaven of truth', Qi Tian ( 氣天 ) 'heaven of spirit' and Xiang Tian ( 象天 ) 'heaven of matter'. In some cases, the heavens in Shinto were thought to be a hierarchy of multiple, sphere-like realms that contained kami such as fox spirits . Myths about the kami were told "of their doings on Earth and in heaven." Heaven was thought to be
2020-529: Is possibly derived from the title "Son of Heaven". In 2013, the Singaporean historian Wang Gungwu coined the term " American Tianxia " to refer to the contemporary world order led by the United States. Tian Main philosophical traditions: Ritual traditions: Devotional traditions: Salvation churches and sects : Confucian churches and sects: Tian ( 天 ) is one of
2121-523: Is roughly contemporary, the Zuo Zhuan ′s narration always remains in the third person and presents as a dispassionate recorder of facts. Several of the Zuo Zhuan ′s most famous sections are those dealing with critical historical battles, such as the Battle of Chengpu and the Battle of Bi . The Battle of Chengpu, the first of the Zuo Zhuan ′s great battles, took place in the summer of 632 BC at Chengpu (now Juancheng County , Shandong Province ) in
SECTION 20
#17327918210182222-458: Is something that "[t]he ways of man should conform to, or else" frustration will result. Many Confucianists, both historically and in current times, use the I Ching to divine events through the changes of Tian and other natural forces. Historical and current Confucianists were/are often environmentalists out of their respect for Heaven and the other aspects of nature and the principle that comes from their unity and, more generally, harmony as
2323-428: Is that a tianxia system existed at various points in Chinese history. Historical views differ, however, on exactly when it was in place. How a system of tianxia operated varied over time, ranging from vassal states accepted the authority of a Chinese emperor to when vassal states nominally paid tribute while in fact exercising their own authority. In the most expansive historical view, a tianxia system existed between
2424-581: Is that of Duke Zhuang of Zheng , who ruled the State of Zheng from 743 to 701 BC. Duke Zhuang was born "in a manner that startled" his mother (probably breech birth ), which caused her to later seek to persuade her husband to name Duke Zhuang's younger brother as the heir apparent instead of him. The story ends with eventual reconciliation between mother and son, thus exemplifying the traditional Chinese virtues of both 礼 ; lǐ ; 'ritual propriety' and 孝 ; xiào ; 'filial piety', which made it consistently popular with Chinese readers over
2525-412: Is unknown. It is proposed that transcriptions of a Xiongnu word for "sky", haak-lin 赫連 , is related. Tian is one of the components in hundreds of Chinese compounds . Some significant ones include: "Lord Heaven" and " Jade Emperor " were terms for a supreme deity in Confucianism and Taoism who was an anthropromorphized Tian, and some conceptions of it thought of the names as synonymous. Tian
2626-571: The Zuozhuan and Guoyu . The theme of unification applied to tianxia can be seen in Sun Tzu 's The Art of War where the supreme goal of offensive strategy was to conquer without destroying that which you sought to conquer: 必以全爭於 天下 ，故兵不頓而利可全，此謀攻之法也。 Your aim must be to take All-under-Heaven intact. Thus your troops are not worn out and your gains will be complete. This is the art of offensive strategy. During Qin's wars of unification ,
2727-406: The Analects is the "Zuo" referenced in the Zuo Zhuan ′s title, this attribution is questionable because the Zuo Zhuan describes events from the late Spring and Autumn period ( c. 771 – 476 BC) that Zuo could not have known. Alternatively, a number of scholars, beginning in the 18th century, have suggested that the Zuo Zhuan was actually the product of Wu Qi ,
2828-596: The Annals after Confucius's death. Zuo therefore gathered together Confucius's scribal records and used them to compile the Zuo Annals in order to "preserve the true teachings." The "Zuo Qiuming" whom Sima Qian references was traditionally assumed to be the Zuo Qiuming who briefly appears in the Analects of Confucius when Confucius praises him for his moral judgment. Other than this brief mention, nothing
2929-399: The Chinese school of international relations . Various academics have noted that the current discourse of tianxia has been produced for domestic consumption and risks alienating foreigners. Danish academics Klaas Dykmann and Ole Bruun state, "[f]oreign observers, particularly in democratic societies, will further note the glaring inconsistencies between the “harmonious world” conception and
3030-678: The Dunhuang manuscripts in the early 20th century by the French Sinologist Paul Pelliot and are now held at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France . Four of the fragments date to the Six Dynasties period (3rd to 6th centuries), while the other two date to the early Tang dynasty (7th century). The oldest known complete Zuo Zhuan manuscript is the "ancient manuscript scroll" preserved at
3131-604: The First Sino-Japanese War , the Japanese terminated Korea's traditional status as a tributary state of China, and the system of feudal enfeoffment and vassalage that had been practiced since the Han dynasty came to an end, a move that greatly changed attitudes toward the tianxia concept. At the end of the 19th century, Chinese Ambassador to Britain Xue Fucheng took the traditional Hua-Yi distinction in
Tianxia - Misplaced Pages Continue
3232-677: The Kanazawa Bunko Museum in Yokohama, Japan . The Zuo Zhuan recounts the major political, military, and social events of the Spring and Autumn period from the perspective of the State of Lu . The book is famous "for its dramatic power and realistic details". It contains a variety of tense and dramatic episodes: battles and fights, royal assassinations and murder of concubines, deception and intrigue, excesses, citizens' oppression and insurgences, and appearances of ghosts and cosmic portents. Each Zuo Zhuan chapter begins with
3333-682: The Khitan -led Liao dynasty , the Jurchen -led Jin dynasty , and the Tangut -led Western Xia dynasty. After being threatened by these northern states and realizing the possible effects of a war to the country and people, the Song rulers invented a false concept of kinship with the Jurchens in an attempt to improve relations. The Mongol -led Yuan dynasty divided Chinese subjects into two types: those of
3434-720: The Mandate of Heaven . During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods comprising the latter half of the Zhou dynasty, the power of local rulers developed rapidly, and several regions outside the Zhou cultural sphere became powerful states themselves. As many of these states had shared cultural heritage and economic interests, the concept of a great nation centered on the Yellow River Plain gradually expanded. The term tianxia began to appear in classical texts such as
3535-462: The Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu) entry for the year, which is usually terse and brief, followed by the Zuo Zhuan content for that year, which often contains long and detailed narratives. The entries follow the strict chronological format of the Annals , so interrelated episodes and the actions of individual characters are sometimes separated by events that occurred in the intervening years. The following entry, though unusually short, exemplifies
3636-549: The State of Wey . On one side were the troops of the powerful State of Chu , from what was then far southern China, led by the Chu prime minister Cheng Dechen . They were opposed by the armies of the State of Jin , led by Chong'er, Duke of Jin , one of the most prominent and well known figures in the Zuo Zhuan . Chu suffered a disastrous defeat in the battle itself, and it resulted in Chong'er being named hegemon ( 霸 ; bà ) of
3737-643: The United Nations system, which is characterized as more akin to a political market, in which political operations are limited and constrained by parochial national interests. Historian Steve Tsang states that the concept of Community of Common Destiny presumes a vision of tianxia over and above the liberal international order. Applying the tianxia system to a modern framework, Chinese political scientist Yan Xuetong argues that great powers seeking international respect must use "humane authority" instead of seeking to impose hegemony. These concepts influence
3838-512: The Zuo Zhuan as paragons of Classical Chinese prose, more than any other source. These passages are still part of the Classical Chinese curriculum in mainland China and Taiwan today. The 400-year period the Zuo Zhuan covers is now known as the Spring and Autumn period , after the Spring and Autumn Annals , but the Zuo Zhuan is the most important source for the period. This era was highly significant in Chinese history, and saw
3939-574: The Zuo Zhuan demonstrate the traditional Chinese concept of 命 ; mìng ; 'fate', 'destiny'—referring either to an individual's mission in life or their allotted lifespan—and attempt to illustrate how benevolent rulers ought to accept 'fate' selflessly, as in the story of Duke Wen moving the capital of the state of Zhu in 614 BC. 邾文公卜遷于繹，史曰，利於民而不利於君。邾子曰，苟利於民，孤之利也，天生民而樹之君，以利之也，民既利矣，孤必與焉； Duke Wen of Zhu divined by turtle shell to determine if he should move his capital to
4040-408: The Zuo Zhuan had to that point been organized into any coherent form. No pre-Han dynasty texts directly refer to the Zuo Zhuan as a source, although a few mention its parent text Spring and Autumn Annals . The Zuo Zhuan seems to have had no distinct title of its own during this period, but seems to have simply been called " Annals ( Chunqiu )" along with a larger group of similar texts. In
4141-440: The Zuo Zhuan ′s creation and early history. Bamboo and silk manuscripts excavated from late Warring States period ( c. 300 BC ) tombs, combined with analyses of its language, diction, chronological references, and philosophical viewpoints, suggest that the Zuo Zhuan 's composition was largely complete by 300 BC. However, no pre- Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220) source indicates that
Tianxia - Misplaced Pages Continue
4242-483: The cosmos , often translated as " Heaven ") is mentioned in relationship to its complementary aspect of Dì ( 地 , often translated as " Earth "). They are thought to maintain the two poles of the Three Realms of reality, with the middle realm occupied by Humanity ( 人 , rén ), and the lower world occupied by demons ( 魔 , mó ) and "ghosts", the damned, ( 鬼 , guǐ ). Tian was variously thought as
4343-559: The tianxia of traditional Chinese culture was thus carried on. The idea of the absolute authority of the Chinese emperor and the extension of tianxia by the assimilation of vassal states began to fade for good with George Macartney 's embassy to China in 1793. George Macartney hoped to deal with China as Great Britain would with other European nations of the time, and to persuade the Emperor to reduce restrictions on trade. The Qianlong Emperor rejected his request, and stated that China
4444-456: The tianxia world view and replaced it with a Chinese-foreigner distinction. In the 21st century, some academics have criticized contemporary philosopher Zhao Tingyang for "aggrandising" the concept of tianxia and being vague on details of what it may entail in the contemporary world. Based on epitaphs dating to the 4th and 5th centuries, Goguryeo had concepts of Son of Heaven ( 天帝之子 ) and independent tianxia . The rulers of Goryeo used
4545-620: The 31st year, in summer, in the 6th month, the Prince of Qi came here to present spoils from the Rong: this was not in accordance with ritual propriety. In all cases when the princes achieve some merit against the Yi of the four directions, they present these spoils to the king, and the king thereby issues a warning to the Yi. This was not done in the central domains. The princes do not present captives to one another. (Chinese) Zuo Zhuan narratives have
4646-454: The 3rd century AD, the Chinese scholar Du Yu intercalated the Zuo Zhuan with the Annals so that each Annals entry was followed by the corresponding narrative from the Zuo Zhuan . This became the received format of the Zuo Zhuan that exists today. Some modern scholars believe that the Zuo Zhuan was originally an independent work composed during the latter half of the 4th century BC—though probably incorporating some older material —that
4747-402: The 5th century BC described as a blind disciple of Confucius —but there is little actual evidence to support this. Most scholars now generally believe that the Zuo Zhuan was originally an independent work, composed during the 4th century BC, that was later rearranged as a commentary to the Annals . Despite its longstanding status as the paragon of Classical Chinese prose, little is known of
4848-702: The Chinese Communist Party Xi Jinping as having the tianxia perspective to seek "rejuvenation of the Chinese nation and peaceful development of humanity". Under this contemporary view, China's re-emergence as a great power presents an opportunity to reshape the liberal international order into a hub-and-spoke pattern around a single, central state. In this contemporary discourse on tianxia , proponents argue that tianxia ' s moral appeal distinguishes it from realpolitik , which they submit as creating discord. Similarly, this modern treatment toward tianxia purports to be superior to
4949-479: The Chu army suffered a resounding defeat. Only Dechen, who had kept his troops back and had not attempted to pursue the enemy, as a result managed to escape defeat. The narrative of the Battle of Chengpu is typical of Zuo Zhuan battle narratives. The description of the battle itself is relatively brief, with most of the narrative being focused on battle preparations, omens and prognostications regarding its outcome,
5050-470: The Chu side, Dechen, with the 600 men of the Ruo'ao family, was acting as commander of the central army. "Today, mark my word, Jin will be wiped out!" he said. Dou Yishen was acting as commander of the left wing of the Chu army, and Dou Bo as commander of the right wing. 胥臣蒙馬以虎皮，先犯陳蔡，陳蔡奔，楚右師潰； Xu Chen, having cloaked his horses in tiger skins, led
5151-463: The Confucians of his own time for not following the teachings of Confucius. In Mozi's Will of Heaven ( 天志 ), he writes: Moreover, I know Heaven loves men dearly not without reason. Heaven ordered the sun, the moon, and the stars to enlighten and guide them. Heaven ordained the four seasons, Spring, Autumn, Winter, and Summer, to regulate them. Heaven sent down snow, frost, rain, and dew to grow
SECTION 50
#17327918210185252-471: The Zhou (1027–256 BC) and Qing dynasties (1644–1911). According to political scientist Yan Xuetong of Tsinghua University , "Given the then lack of a modern science of understanding geography, the Chinese notion of all under heaven meant all the land, sea, and people under heaven. The term all under heaven was virtually synonymous with the world." As reconstructed by philosopher Zhao Tingyang , tianxia presupposed "inclusion of all" and implied acceptance of
5353-495: The attack by striking directly at the troops of Chen and Cai. The men of Chen and Cai fled, and the right wing of the Chu army was thus routed. 狐毛設二旆而退之，欒枝使輿曳柴而偽遁，楚師馳之，原軫，郤溱，以中軍公族橫擊之，狐毛，狐偃，以上軍夾攻子西，楚左師潰; Hu Mao [the commander of the Jin upper army] hoisted two pennons and began to retreat, while Luan Zhi [the commander of the Jin lower army] had his men drag brushwood over
5454-926: The bronze graphs for Tian, showing a person with a round head, resemble those for dīng 丁 "4th Celestial stem ", and suggests "The anthropomorphic graph may or may not indicate that the original meaning was 'deity', rather than 'sky'." Two variant Chinese characters for 天 are 二人 (written with 二 èr 'two' and 人 rén 'human') and the Daoist coinage 靝 (with 青 qīng 'blue' and 氣 ' qi ', cf. 'blue sky'). Tian 天 reconstructions in Middle Chinese ( c. 6th –10th centuries CE) include t'ien , t'iɛn , tʰɛn > tʰian , and then . Reconstructions in Old Chinese ( c. 6th –3rd centuries BCE) include * t'ien , * t'en , * hlin , * thîn , and * l̥ˤin . For
5555-435: The centuries. Many Zuo Zhuan anecdotes end with brief moral comments or verdicts that are attributed to either Confucius or an unnamed 君子 ; jūnzi ; ' noble man ', ' gentleman ', ' atheling ', 'superior man'. The chapter on the Battle of Chengpu contains the following ending comment: 君子謂是盟也信，謂晉於是役也，能以德攻。 The gentleman remarks: This alliance accorded with good faith. In this campaign,
5656-460: The city of Yi. The historian who conducted the divination replied, "The move will benefit the people but not their ruler." The ruler of Zhu said, "If it benefits the people, it benefits me. Heaven gave birth to the people and set up a ruler in order to benefit them. If the people enjoy the benefit, I am bound to share in it." 左右曰，命可長也，君何弗為。邾子曰，命在養民，死之短長，時也，民苟利矣，遷也，吉莫如之； Those around
5757-610: The collapse of the Ming dynasty and the establishment of the Manchu -led Qing dynasty by the, people previously considered "fringe barbarians", heavily influenced people's views of tianxia . Gu Yanwu , a contemporary of Wang Fuzhi, wrote that the destruction of the State was not equivalent to the destruction of tianxia . He argued that the Manchus simply filled the role of Emperor, and that
5858-521: The concept of tianxia became common. Other political terms emerged during this time. These include 'four quarters' ( 四方 ; sìfāng )—referring to the territory established by the Zhou court and governed from the capital—and 'ten thousand states' ( 万邦 ; 萬邦 ; wànbāng ), referring to both the territory as well as the Hua and barbarian subjects residing on it. The Zhou kings received and empowered these "Ten Thousand States" by virtue of
5959-550: The concept of tianxia was adapted to act as an actual geographic entity. Qin Shi Huang 's goal to 'unify all under Heaven' was in fact representative of his desire to control and expand Chinese territory. At the founding of the Han dynasty , the equivalence of tianxia with the Chinese nation evolved due to the practice of enfeoffment of imperial relatives in return for military assistance. Although many areas enjoyed great autonomy,
6060-428: The disciples to act as ministers to him. During a remission of his illness, he said, "Long has the conduct of You been deceitful! By pretending to have ministers when I have them not, whom should I impose upon? Should I impose upon Heaven? Moreover, than that I should die in the hands of ministers, is it not better that I should die in the hands of you, my disciples? And though I may not get a great burial, shall I die upon
6161-405: The division of the spoils, and the shifts and defections of the various allied states involved in the conflict. This "official [and] restrained" style, which became typical of Chinese historical writing, is largely due to the ancient Chinese belief that ritual propriety and strategic preparation were more important in determining the outcome of battles than individual valor or bravery. Several of
SECTION 60
#17327918210186262-869: The eight directions. The Tian are the heaven worlds and pure lands in Buddhist cosmology . Some devas are also called Tian. The number of vertical heaven layers in Taoism is different. A common belief in Taoism is that there were 36 Tian "arranged on six levels" that have "different deities". The highest heaven is the "Great Web" which was sometimes said to be where Yuanshi Tianzun lived. After death, some Taoists were thought to explore "heavenly realms" and/or become Taoist immortals . These immortals could be good or evil, and there were sometimes rivalries between them. Some heavens in Taoism were thought to be evil, as in Shangqing Daoism , although Tian
6363-453: The end he moved the capital to Yi. In the fifth month Duke Wen of Zhu died. 君子曰，知命。 The noble person remarks: He understood the meaning of destiny. The Zuo Zhuan has been recognized as a masterpiece of early Chinese prose and "grand historical narrative" for many centuries. It has had an immense influence on Chinese literature and historiography for nearly 2000 years, and
6464-640: The etymology of Tian, Schuessler links it with the Turkic and Mongolian word tengri 'sky', 'heaven', 'deity' or the Tibeto-Burman words taleŋ ( Adi ) and tǎ-lyaŋ ( Lepcha ), both meaning 'sky' or 'God'. He also suggests a likely connection between Tian, diān 巔 'summit, mountaintop', and diān 顛 'summit', 'top of the head', 'forehead', which have cognates such as Zemeic Naga tiŋ 'sky'. However, other reconstructions of 天 's OC pronunciation * qʰl'iːn or * l̥ˤi[n] reconstructed
6565-415: The five grains and flax and silk that so the people could use and enjoy them. Heaven established the hills and rivers, ravines and valleys, and arranged many things to minister to man's good or bring him evil. He appointed the dukes and lords to reward the virtuous and punish the wicked, and to gather metal and wood, birds and beasts, and to engage in cultivating the five grains and flax and silk to provide for
6666-675: The general format of all Zuo Zhuan entries. Annals 三十有一年，春，築臺于郎。夏，四月，薛伯卒。築臺于薛。六月，齊侯來獻戎捷。秋，築臺于秦。冬，不雨。 In the 31st year, in spring, a terrace was built in Lang. In summer, in the 4th month, the Liege of Xue died. A terrace was built at Xue. In the 6th month, the Prince of Qi came to present spoils from the Rong. In autumn, a terrace was built in Qin. In winter, it did not rain. (Zuo) 三十一年，夏，六月，齊侯來獻戎捷，非禮也。凡諸侯有四夷之功，則獻于王，王以警于夷，中國則否。諸侯不相遺俘。 In
6767-464: The ground to simulate the dust of a general rout. The Chu forces raced after in pursuit, whereupon Yuan Chen and Xi Chen, leading the duke's own select troops of the central army, fell upon them from either side. Hu Mao and Hu Yan, leading the upper army, turned about and likewise attacked Dou Yishen from either side, thereby routing the left wing of the Chu army. 楚師敗績，子玉收其卒而止，故不敗。 Thus
6868-425: The history and culture of the Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BC). The Zuo Zhuan is the source of more Chinese sayings and idioms than any other classical work, and its concise, flowing style served as a paragon of elegant Classical Chinese . Its tendency toward third-person narration and portraying characters through direct speech and action became hallmarks of Chinese narrative in general, and its style
6969-465: The mandate of the Chinese Emperor were themselves received and included into the Chinese tianxia . In classical Chinese political thought, the " Son of Heaven ", having received the Mandate of Heaven , would nominally be the ruler of the entire world. Although in practice there would be areas of the known world which were not under the control of the Chinese monarch, in Chinese political theory
7070-474: The most notable passages in the Zuo Zhuan describe succession crises , which seem to have been fairly common in China during the Spring and Autumn period. These crises often involved the "tangled affections" of the various rulers, and are described in a dramatic and vivid manner that gives insight into the lives of China's aristocratic elite during the mid-1st millennium BC. The best known of these stories
7171-437: The observance of li is never shown as guaranteeing victory, and the Zuo Zhuan includes many examples of the good and innocent suffering senseless violence. Much of the Zuo Zhuan ′s status as a literary masterpiece stems from its "relentlessly realistic portrayal of a turbulent era marked by violence, political strife, intrigues, and moral laxity". The narratives of the Zuo Zhuan are highly didactic and are presented in
7272-521: The oldest Chinese terms for heaven and a key concept in Chinese mythology , philosophy , and religion . During the Shang dynasty (17th―11th century BCE), the Chinese referred to their highest god as Shangdi or Di ( 帝 , 'Lord'). During the following Zhou dynasty , Tian became synonymous with this figure. Before the 20th century, worship of Tian was an orthodox state religion of China. In Taoism and Confucianism , Tian (the celestial aspect of
7373-516: The original characters in Shāng oracle bone script and Zhōu bronzeware script anthropomorphically portray a large head on a great person. The ancient oracle and bronze ideograms for dà 大 depict a stick figure person with arms stretched out denoting "great; large". The oracle and bronze characters for Tian 天 emphasize the cranium of this 'great (person)', either with a square or round head, or head marked with one or two lines. Schuessler notes
7474-491: The other hand, the speeches and recorded discourses of the Zuo Zhuan are frequently lively, ornate, and verbally complex. The Zuo Zhuan 's overarching theme is that haughty, evil, and stupid people generally bring disaster upon themselves, while those who are good, wise, and humble are usually justly rewarded. The Confucian principle of "ritual propriety ( 禮 ; lǐ ) is seen as governing all actions, including war, and to bring bad consequences if transgressed. However,
7575-559: The outside." Unified China fractured into many different dynasties during the Northern and Southern period , and with it went the practical use of the term tianxia . In the 7th century during the Tang dynasty , some northern tribes of Turkic origin, after being made vassal, referred to Emperor Taizong as the " Khan of Heaven ". By the time of the Song dynasty , northern China was ruled by
7676-454: The people's food and clothing. This has been so from antiquity to the present." There are three major schools on the structure of Tian. Most other hypothesis were developed from them. Tian schools influenced popular conception of the universe and earth until the 17th century , when they were replaced by cosmological concepts imported from Europe . Sometimes the sky is divided into Jiutian ( 九天 ) 'nine sky divisions'—the middle sky and
7777-411: The period from 722 to 468 BC, and focuses mainly on political, diplomatic, and military affairs from that era. For many centuries, the Zuo Zhuan was the primary text through which educated Chinese learned their ancient history. The Zuo Zhuan does not simply explain the wording of the Spring and Autumn Annals , but rather expounds upon its historical background with rich and lively accounts of
7878-400: The practice established and spread Chinese language and culture throughout an even wider territory. Scholars including Dong Zhongshu sought to standardize the meaning of tianxia . Dong described tianxia as a world order in three concentric layers: "The nation is on the inside and the various feudal kingdoms are on the outside; the feudal kingdoms are on the inside while the barbarians are on
7979-404: The present day, the Zuo Zhuan has been viewed as a model of correct, elegant, and sophisticated Classical Chinese prose. The Zuo Zhuan ′s great influence on the Chinese language is evident from the fact that it is the source of more chengyu than any other work, including the Analects of Confucius . The well-known Qing dynasty student anthology Guwen Guanzhi included 34 passages from
8080-413: The road?" Confucius believed that Heaven gives people tasks to perform to teach them of virtues and morality: The Master said, "At fifteen, I had my mind bent on learning. At thirty, I stood firm. At forty, I had no doubts. At fifty, I knew the decrees of Heaven. At sixty, my ear was an obedient organ for the reception of truth. At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired, without transgressing what
8181-550: The ruler of Jin [Chong'er] was able to attack through the power of virtue. These postfaces, which were added later by Confucian scholars, are directed toward those currently in power, reminding them of "the historical precedents and inevitable consequences of their own actions." They speak with the voices of previous ministers, advisers, "old men", and other anonymous figures to remind rulers of historical and moral lessons, and suggest that rulers who heed their advice will succeed, while those who do not will fail. Several sections of
8282-424: The ruler said, "If by taking warning from the divination you can prolong your destiny, why not do so?" The ruler replied, "My destiny lies in nourishing the people. Whether death comes to me early or late is merely a matter of time. If the people will benefit thereby, then nothing could be more auspicious than to move the capital." 遂遷于繹。五月，邾文公卒。 In
8383-478: The rulers of those areas derived their power from the Chinese monarch. The larger concept of tianxia is closely associated with civilization and order in classical Chinese philosophy, and has formed the basis for the world view of the Chinese people and nations influenced by them since at least the first millennium BC. Tianxia has been applied by other realms in the Sinosphere . The historical consensus
8484-504: The south, and those of the north. When the Ming dynasty overthrew the Yuan dynasty and reunited China under ethnic Han rule, the concept of tianxia returned largely as it was during the Han dynasty. At the end of the Ming dynasty, criticisms of Neo-Confucianism and its mantras of 'cultivation of moral character, establishment of family, ordering the state, and harmonizing tianxia ' ,
8585-399: The terse, succinct entries of the Annals contained cryptic references to Confucius' "profound moral judgments on the events of the past as well as those of his own day and on the relation of human events to those in the natural order", and that the Zuo Zhuan was written to clarify or even "decode" these hidden judgments. From the Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220) down to
8686-638: The titles of emperor and Son of Heaven, and positioned Goryeo at the center of the haedong 'east of the sea', which encompassed the historical domain of the Three Kingdoms of Korea . During the 17th century, with the fall of the Ming dynasty in China, a concept of Korea as the cultural center of Confucianism, or " Little China " emerged among the Confucian literati of the Joseon dynasty. Chinese state media frequently portrays general secretary of
8787-485: The tough realities of the domestic harmonious society, and between China's global media outreach and its increasing domestic control, digital surveillance, blacklisting, and media isolation of the Chinese public." The expression 'all under heaven' inspired literary expressions with reference to China in a number of Western languages, such as the Russian Поднебесная Podnebesnaya . The English term " Celestial Empire "
8888-409: The various states. 己巳，晉師陳于莘北，胥臣以下軍之佐，當陳蔡； On the day ji-si the Jin army encamped at [Chengpu]. The Jin commander Xu Chen, who was acting as assistant to the leader of the lower army, prepared to oppose the troops of Chen and Cai. 子玉以若敖之六卒，將中軍，曰，今日必無晉矣，子西將左，子上將右； On
8989-516: The world's diversities, emphasizing harmonious reciprocal dependence and ruled by virtue as a means for lasting peace. According to Zhao, in the tianxia system, rulers relied on humane authority, as opposed to tyranny and military force, to win the hearts and minds of the people. The tianxia world view was not fully developed during the Shang dynasty . During the Zhou dynasty , it is first attested that Heaven took on anthropomorphic deity traits, and
9090-490: The worship of heaven a major part of their political philosophy and viewed it as "many gods" who embodied order and kingship, as well as the mandate of heaven . "Confucianism has a religious side with a deep reverence for Heaven and Earth ( Di ), whose powers regulate the flow of nature and influence human events." Yin and yang are also thought to be integral to this relationship and permeate both, as well as humans and man-made constructs. This "cosmos" and its "principles"
9191-421: Was carrying out the will of Heaven, and that Heaven would not allow its servant, Confucius, to be dead until his work was done and complete. Many attributes of Heaven were delineated in his Analects . Confucius honored Heaven as the supreme source of goodness: The Master said, "Great indeed was Yao as a sovereign! How majestic was he! It is only Heaven that is grand, and only Yao corresponded to it. How vast
9292-413: Was directly apportioned to the Chinese court, forming the center of a world view that centered on the Chinese court and went concentrically outward to major and minor officials and then the common subjects, tributary states , and finally ending with fringe barbarians . The center of this world view was not exclusionary in nature, and outer groups, such as ethnic minorities and foreign people, who accepted
9393-405: Was his virtue! The people could find no name for it. How majestic was he in the works which he accomplished! How glorious in the elegant regulations which he instituted!" Confucius felt himself personally dependent upon Heaven: "Wherein I have done improperly, may Heaven reject me! may Heaven reject me!" Confucius believed that Heaven cannot be deceived: The Master being very ill, Zi Lu wished
9494-429: Was imitated by historians, storytellers, and ancient-style prose masters for over 2000 years of subsequent Chinese history. The Zuo Zhuan has a reputation as "a masterpiece of grand historical narrative", but its early textual history is largely unknown, and the nature of its original composition and authorship have been widely debated. The titular "Zuo" was traditionally identified as Zuo Qiuming —an obscure figure of
9595-509: Was later rearranged as a commentary to the Annals . Sima Qian 's 1st century BC Records of the Grand Historian , the first of China's 24 dynastic histories, refers to the Zuo Zhuan as " Zuǒshì chūnqiū " ( 左氏春秋 ; "Master Zuo's Spring and Autumn Annals") and attributes it to a man named "Zuo Qiuming" (or possibly "Zuoqiu Ming"). According to Sima Qian, Confucius 's disciples began disagreeing over their interpretations of
9696-930: Was mostly thought of as a force for good. Heaven is sometimes seen as synonymous with the Dao or a natural energy that can be accessed by living in accordance with the Dao. A Tao realm inconceivable and incomprehensible by normal humans and even Confucius and Confucianists was sometimes called "the Heavens". Higher, spiritual versions of Daoists such as Laozi were thought to exist in there when they were alive and absorb "the purest Yin and Yang ", as well as xian who were reborn into it after their human selves' spirits were sent there. These spiritual versions were thought to be abstract beings that can manifest in that world as mythical beings such as dragons who eat yin and yang energy and ride clouds and their qi . Some Tian in Chinese folk religion were thought to be many different or
9797-424: Was right." He believed that Heaven knew what he was doing and approved of him, even though none of the rulers on earth might want him as a guide: The Master said, "Alas! there is no one that knows me." Zi Gong said, "What do you mean by thus saying - that no one knows you?" The Master replied, "I do not murmur against Heaven. I do not grumble against men. My studies lie low, and my penetration rises high. But there
9898-498: Was supported by several subsequent Chinese scholars in the late 19th century, but was contradicted by many 20th-century studies that examined it from many different perspectives. In the early 1930s, the French Sinologist Henri Maspero performed a detailed textual study of the issue, concluding the Han dynasty forgery theory to be untenable. The Swedish Sinologist Bernhard Karlgren concluded, based on
9999-615: Was the foremost and most divine nation on Earth and had no interest in foreign goods. In the early 19th century, Britain's victory over Qing China in the First Opium War forced China to sign an unequal treaty . This marked the beginning of the end for the tianxia concept. Following their defeat in the Second Opium War , China was forced to sign the Treaty of Tianjin , in which China was made to refer to Great Britain as
10100-417: Was the primary text by which historical Chinese readers gained an understanding of China's ancient history. It enjoyed high status and esteem throughout Chinese history because of its great literary quality, and was often read and memorized because of its role as the preeminent commentary on the Annals , which nearly all Chinese scholars traditionally ascribed to Confucius. Many Chinese scholars believed that
10201-472: Was viewed as "the dwelling place of gods and other superhuman beings". It was also viewed as "the guardian of both the moral laws of mankind and the physical laws of nature...and is synonymous with the divine will." In Chinese culture, heaven tends to be "synonymous with order", "containing the blueprints for creation", "the mandate by which earthly rulers govern , and the standards by which to measure beauty, goodness, and truth." Zhou dynasty nobles made
#17982