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78-424: A train accident or train wreck is a type of disaster involving two or more trains . Train wrecks often occur as a result of miscommunication , as when a moving train meets another train on the same track, when the wheels of train come off the track or when a boiler explosion occurs. Train accidents have often been widely covered in popular media and in folklore . A head-on collision between two trains
156-428: A London particular or London fog . This kind of visible air pollution is composed of nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxide , ozone , smoke and other particulates . Man-made smog is derived from coal combustion emissions, vehicular emissions, industrial emissions, forest and agricultural fires and photochemical reactions of these emissions. Smog is often categorized as being either summer smog or winter smog. Summer smog
234-544: A vulnerable community . It results from the combination of the hazard and the exposure of a vulnerable society. Nowadays it is hard to distinguish between natural and human-made disasters. The term natural disaster was already challenged in 1976. Human choices in architecture, fire risk, and resource management can cause or worsen natural disasters. Climate change also affects how often disasters due to extreme weather hazards happen. These " climate hazards " are floods, heat waves, wildfires, tropical cyclones, and
312-491: A combination of both natural and human factors. All disasters can be regarded as human-made, because of failure to introduce the right emergency management measures. Famines may be caused locally by drought, flood, fire or pestilence. In modern times there is plenty of food globally. Long-lasting local shortages are generally due to government mismanagement, violent conflict, or an economic system that does not distribute food where needed. Complex disasters , where there
390-480: A community is considered a disaster. The international disaster database EM-DAT defines a disaster as “a situation or event that overwhelms local capacity, necessitating a request for external assistance at the national or international level; it is an unforeseen and often sudden event that causes great damage, destruction and human suffering.” The effects of a disaster include all human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts. UNDRO (1984) defined
468-418: A component of Los Angeles smog. Haagen-Smit went on to discover that nitrogen oxides from automotive exhausts and gaseous hydrocarbons from cars and oil refineries, exposed to sunlight, were key ingredients in the formation of ozone and photochemical smog. Haagen-Smit worked with Arnold Beckman , who developed various equipment for detecting smog, ranging from an "Apparatus for recording gas concentrations in
546-463: A daily rating of fire danger since September 2003. Indonesia has been ineffective at enforcing legal policies on errant farmers. Since the start of the winter season , heavy smog loaded with pollutants covered major parts of Punjab , especially the city of Lahore , causing breathing problems and disrupting normal traffic. A recent study from 2022 shows that the primary cause of pollution in Lahore
624-452: A disaster in a more qualitative fashion as: "an event, concentrated in time and space, in which a community undergoes severe danger and incurs such losses to its members and physical appurtenances that the social structure is disrupted and the fulfilment of all or some of the essential functions of the society is prevented." Like other definitions this looks beyond the social aspects of the disaster impacts. It also focuses on losses. This raises
702-582: A disaster occurs, rather than on response and recovery after the event. DRR and climate change adaptation measures are similar in that they aim to reduce vulnerability of people and places to natural hazards. When a disaster happens, the response includes actions like warning and evacuating people, rescuing those in danger, and quickly providing food, shelter, and medical care. The goal is to save lives and help people recover as quickly as possible. In some cases, national or international help may be needed to support recovery. This can happen, for example, through
780-460: A large quantity of particulate matter; two key components to the creation of smog. However, the smog created as a result of a volcanic eruption is often known as vog to distinguish it as a natural occurrence. The chemical reactions that form smog following a volcanic eruption are different than the reactions that form photochemical smog. The term smog encompasses the effect when a large number of gas-phase molecules and particulate matter are emitted to
858-540: A meeting of the Public Health Congress . The 26 July 1905 edition of the London newspaper Daily Graphic quoted Des Voeux, "He said it required no science to see that there was something produced in great cities which was not found in the country, and that was smoky fog, or what was known as 'smog'." The following day the newspaper stated that "Dr. Des Voeux did a public service in coining a new word for
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#1732787633387936-661: A possible cause of Alzheimer's disease. Researchers at Lancaster University found abundant magnetite nanoparticles in the brain tissue from 37 individuals aged three to 92-years-old who lived in Mexico City and Manchester. This strongly magnetic mineral is toxic and has been implicated in the production of reactive oxygen species (free radicals) in the human brain, which is associated with neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease. A study examining 806 women who had babies with birth defects between 1997 and 2006, and 849 women who had healthy babies, found that smog in
1014-585: A reduction in irradiance that hurts both solar photovoltaic production as well as agricultural yield . Smog can form in almost any climate where industries or cities release large amounts of air pollution , such as smoke or gases. However, it is worse during periods of warmer, sunnier weather when the upper air is warm enough to inhibit vertical circulation. It is especially prevalent in geologic basins encircled by hills or mountains. It often stays for an extended period of time over densely populated cities or urban areas and can build up to dangerous levels. For
1092-755: A series of chemical reactions: (4) NO 2 + hv ⟶ O ( 3 P ) + NO {\displaystyle {\ce {NO2 + hv -> O(^3P) + NO}}} , λ < 400 n m {\displaystyle \lambda <400nm} (5) O ( 3 P ) + O 2 + M ⟶ O 3 + M ( heat ) {\displaystyle {\ce {O(^3P) + O2 + M-> O3 + M(heat)}}} (6) O 3 + NO ⟶ NO 2 + O 2 {\displaystyle {\ce {O3 + NO -> NO2 + O2}}} This series of equations
1170-534: A study published in The Lancet , even a very small (5 μg) change in PM2.5 exposure was associated with an increase (18%) in risk of a low birth weight at delivery, and this relationship held even below the current accepted safe levels. Although severe health effects caused by smog are the chief issue, intense air pollution caused by haze from air pollution , dust storm particles, and bush fire smoke, cause
1248-457: A type of intense air pollution . The word "smog" was coined in the early 20th century, and is a portmanteau of the words smoke and fog to refer to smoky fog due to its opacity, and odor. The word was then intended to refer to what was sometimes known as pea soup fog , a familiar and serious problem in London from the 19th century to the mid-20th century, where it was commonly known as
1326-735: Is colloquially called a " cornfield meet " in the United States. Train accidents can occur due to a range of factors, including one or more of the following: This rail-transport related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Disaster A disaster is an event that causes serious harm to people, buildings, economies, or the environment, and the affected community cannot handle it alone. Natural disasters like avalanches , floods , earthquakes , and wildfires are caused by natural hazards . Human-made disasters like oil spills , terrorist attacks and power outages are caused by people. Nowadays, it
1404-518: Is a lack of knowledge on the long-term effects of air pollution exposure and the origin of asthma. An experiment was carried out using intense air pollution similar to that of the 1952 Great Smog of London. The results from this experiment concluded that there is a link between early-life pollution exposure that leads to the development of asthma, proposing the ongoing effect of the Great Smog. Modern studies continue to find links between mortality and
1482-411: Is a type of air pollution derived from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes. These pollutants react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog . In certain other cities, such as Delhi, smog severity is often aggravated by stubble burning in neighboring agricultural areas since
1560-461: Is considering imposing a ban on crop burning to reduce pollution in Delhi NCR and an environmental panel has appealed to India's Supreme Court to impose a 30% cess on diesel cars. Joint research between American and Chinese researchers in 2006 concluded that much of Beijing 's pollution comes from surrounding cities and provinces. On average 35–60% of the ozone can be traced to sources outside
1638-514: Is derived from Middle French désastre which comes from Old Italian disastro . This in turn comes from the Ancient Greek pejorative prefix δυσ - ( dus - ) "bad" and ἀστήρ ( aster ), "star". So the word disaster ("bad star" in Greek) comes from an astrological sense of a calamity blamed on the position of planets. Smog Smog , or smoke fog , is
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#17327876333871716-510: Is from traffic-related PM (both exhausts and non exhaust sources). Air quality in the Punjab, Pakistan deteriorates markedly during the post- monsoon to winter transition, driven by shifts in weather patterns like alterations in wind, temperature, and boundary layer mixing. In post-moonsoon, anthropogenic emissions from sources like vehicle exhaust , industrial activities, and crop burning impact air quality across Punjab, Pakistan, affecting
1794-451: Is hard to separate natural and human-made disasters because human actions can make natural disasters worse. Climate change also affects how often disasters due to extreme weather hazards happen. Disasters usually hit people in developing countries harder than people in wealthy countries. Over 95% of deaths from disasters happen in low-income countries, and those countries lose a lot more money compared to richer countries. For example,
1872-443: Is no single root cause, are more common in developing countries . A specific hazard may also spawn a secondary disaster that increases the impact. A classic example is an earthquake that causes a tsunami . This results in coastal flooding , damaging a nuclear power plant on the coast. The Fukushima nuclear disaster is a case in point. Experts examine these cascading events to see how risks and impacts can amplify and spread. This
1950-520: Is ozone, which is formed when hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NO x ) combine in the presence of sunlight; nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), which is formed as nitric oxide (NO) combines with oxygen (O 2 ) in the air. In addition, when SO 2 and NO x are emitted they eventually are oxidized in the troposphere to nitric acid and sulfuric acid , which, when mixed with water, form the main components of acid rain. All of these harsh chemicals are usually highly reactive and oxidizing. Photochemical smog
2028-546: Is particularly important given the increase in climate risks . Some researchers distinguish between recurring events like seasonal flooding and unpredictable one-off events . Recurring events often carry an estimate of how often they occur. Experts call this the return period . The effects of a disaster include all human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts. The Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT) records statistics about disasters related to natural hazards. For 2023, EM-DAT recorded 399 disasters, which
2106-447: Is primarily associated with the photochemical formation of ozone. During the summer season when the temperatures are warmer and there is more sunlight present, photochemical smog is the dominant type of smog formation. During the winter months when the temperatures are colder, and atmospheric inversions are common, there is an increase in coal and other fossil fuel usage to heat homes and buildings. These combustion emissions, together with
2184-420: Is referred to as the photostationary state (PSS). However, because of the presence of Reaction 2 and 3, NO x and ozone are not in a perfectly steady state. By replacing Reaction 6 with Reaction 2 and Reaction 3, the O 3 molecule is no longer destroyed. Therefore, the concentration of ozone keeps increasing throughout the day. This mechanism can escalate the formation of ozone in smog. Other reactions such as
2262-434: Is responsible for an estimated 9,500 premature deaths in the province each year. A 20-year American Cancer Society study found that cumulative exposure also increases the likelihood of premature death from respiratory disease, implying the 8-hour standard may be insufficient. Tiny magnetic particles from air pollution have for the first time been discovered to be lodged in human brains– and researchers think they could be
2340-574: Is still a problem in areas that generate significant smoke from burning coal. The emissions from coal combustion are one of the main causes of air pollution in China . Especially during autumn and winter when coal-fired heating ramps up, the amount of produced smoke at times forces some Chinese cities to close down roads, schools or airports. One prominent example for this was China's Northeastern city of Harbin in 2013 . Traffic emissions – such as from trucks , buses , and automobiles – also contribute to
2418-424: Is successful, it makes communities less the vulnerable because it mitigates the effects of disasters. This means DRR can make risky events fewer and less severe. Climate change can increase climate hazards . So development efforts often consider DRR and climate change adaptation together. Disaster response refers to the actions taken directly before, during, or immediately after a disaster. The objective
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2496-543: Is the very harmful impact on a society or community after a natural hazard event. Some examples of natural hazard events include avalanches , droughts , earthquakes , floods , heat waves , landslides , tropical cyclones , volcanic activity and wildfires . Additional natural hazards include blizzards , dust storms , firestorms , hails , ice storms , sinkholes , thunderstorms , tornadoes and tsunamis . A natural disaster can cause loss of life or damage property . It typically causes economic damage. How bad
2574-534: Is therefore considered to be a problem of modern industrialization. It is present in all modern cities, but it is more common in cities with sunny, warm, dry climates and a large number of motor vehicles. Because it travels with the wind, it can affect sparsely populated areas as well. The composition and chemical reactions involved in photochemical smog were not understood until the 1950s. In 1948, flavor chemist Arie Haagen-Smit adapted some of his equipment to collect chemicals from polluted air, and identified ozone as
2652-805: Is to save lives, ensure health and safety, and meet the subsistence needs of the people affected. It includes warning and evacuation, search and rescue , providing immediate assistance, assessing damage, continuing assistance, and the immediate restoration or construction of infrastructure . An example of this would be building provisional storm drains or diversion dams . Emergency response aims to provide immediate help to keep people alive, improve their health and support their morale. It can involve specific but limited aid, such as helping refugees with transport, temporary shelter, and food. Or it can involve establishing semi-permanent settlements in camps and other locations. It may also involve initial repairs to damage to infrastructure, or diverting it. The word disaster
2730-429: Is usual to divide disasters into natural or human-made. Recently the divide between natural, man-made and man-accelerated disasters has become harder to draw. Some manufactured disasters such as smog and acid rain have been wrongly attributed to nature. Disasters with links to natural hazards are commonly called natural disasters . However experts have questioned this term for a long time. A natural disaster
2808-461: The Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution was signed between all ASEAN nations. ASEAN formed a Regional Haze Action Plan (RHAP) and established a co-ordination and support unit (CSU). RHAP, with the help of Canada , established a monitoring and warning system for forest/vegetation fires and implemented a Fire Danger Rating System (FDRS). The Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD) has issued
2886-490: The Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) worsens significantly due to shifts in weather patterns, such as changes in wind, temperature, and boundary layer mixing. The impact of emissions from both biomass burning and urban activities has intensified, leading to a rise in aerosols mainly particulate matters. The nearby Himalayan region is also affected, where mountainous topography trap air pollutants and increase
2964-787: The Malacca Straits is in October 2006, and was caused by smoke from fires in Indonesia being blown across the Straits of Malacca by south-westerly winds. A similar haze has occurred in June 2013, with the PSI setting a new record in Singapore on 21 June at 12pm with a reading of 401, which is in the "Hazardous" range. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) reacted. In 2002,
3042-585: The San Joaquin Valley area of California was linked to two types of neural tube defects : spina bifida (a condition involving, among other manifestations, certain malformations of the spinal column ), and anencephaly (the underdevelopment or absence of part or all of the brain, which if not fatal usually results in profound impairment). An emerging cohort study in China linked early-life smog exposure to an increased risk for adverse pregnancy outcomes, in particular oxidative stress. According to
3120-450: The 1980s. The atmospheric pollution levels of Los Angeles , Beijing , Delhi , Lahore , Mexico City , Tehran and other cities are often increased by an inversion that traps pollution close to the ground. The developing smog is usually toxic to humans and can cause severe sickness, a shortened life span, or premature death. Coinage of the term "smog" has been attributed to Henry Antoine Des Voeux in his 1905 paper, "Fog and Smoke" for
3198-587: The London atmosphere..." Coal fire can emit significant clouds of smoke that contribute to the formation of winter smog. Coal fires can be used to heat individual buildings or to provide energy in a power-producing plant. Air pollution from this source has been reported in England since the Middle Ages . London, in particular, was notorious up through the mid-20th century for its coal-caused smogs, which were nicknamed " pea-soupers ". Air pollution of this type
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3276-529: The London fog." However, the term appeared twenty-five years earlier than Voeux's paper, in the Santa Cruz & Monterey Illustrated Handbook published in 1880 and also appears in print in a column quoting from the book in the 3 July 1880, Santa Cruz Weekly Sentinel. On 17 December 1881, in the publication Sporting Times, the author claims to have invented the word: "The 'Smog' – a word I have invented, combined of smoke and fog, to designate
3354-487: The air quality issues specifically in northern India. Delhi is the most polluted city in the world and according to one estimate, air pollution causes the death of about 10,500 people in Delhi every year. During 2013–14, peak levels of fine particulate matter (PM) in Delhi increased by about 44%, primarily due to high vehicular and industrial emissions, construction work and crop burning in adjoining states. Delhi has
3432-406: The amount of O 3 that can be produced from its photolysis (reaction 4). HNO 3 , nitric acid, is a sticky compound that can easily be removed onto surfaces (dry deposition) or dissolved in water and be rained out (wet deposition). Both ways are common in the atmosphere and can efficiently remove radicals and nitrogen dioxide. An erupting volcano can emit high levels of sulfur dioxide along with
3510-1137: The atmosphere" patented on 7 October 1952, to "air quality monitoring vans" for use by government and industry. During the morning rush hour, a high concentration of nitric oxide and hydrocarbons are emitted to the atmosphere, mostly via on-road traffic but also from industrial sources. Some hydrocarbons are rapidly oxidized by OH· and form peroxy radicals, which convert nitric oxide (NO) to nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ). (1) R ⋅ + O 2 + M ⟶ RO 2 ⋅ + M {\displaystyle {\ce {R{.}+ O2 + M -> RO2{.}+ M}}} (2) RO 2 ⋅ + NO ⟶ NO 2 + RO ⋅ {\displaystyle {\ce {RO2{.}+ NO -> NO2 + RO{.}}}} (3) HO 2 ⋅ + NO ⟶ NO 2 + OH ⋅ {\displaystyle {\ce {HO2{.}+ NO -> NO2 + OH{.}}}} Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) and nitric oxide (NO) further react with ozone (O 3 ) in
3588-531: The atmosphere, creating a visible haze . The event causing a large number of emissions can vary but still result in the formation of smog. Plants are another natural source of hydrocarbons that could undergo reactions in the atmosphere and produce smog. Globally both plants and soil contribute a substantial amount to the production of hydrocarbons, mainly by producing isoprene and terpenes . Hydrocarbons released by plants can often be more reactive than man-made hydrocarbons. For example when plants release isoprene,
3666-495: The atmosphere, which leaves airborne particles and ground-level ozone . Photochemical smog depends on primary pollutants as well as the formation of secondary pollutants. These primary pollutants include nitrogen oxides , particularly nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), and volatile organic compounds . The relevant secondary pollutants include peroxylacyl nitrates (PAN), tropospheric ozone , and aldehydes . An important secondary pollutant for photochemical smog
3744-399: The average maximum temperature in Delhi during winters has declined notably since 1998 due to rising air pollution. Environmentalists have criticized the Delhi government for not doing enough to curb air pollution and to inform people about air quality issues. Most of Delhi's residents are unaware of alarming levels of air pollution in the city and the health risks associated with it. Since
3822-480: The city. However, according to several authors, most of these gains have been lost, especially due to stubble burning , rise in market share of diesel cars and a considerable decline in bus ridership. According to CUE and System of Air Quality Weather Forecasting and Research (SAFER), burning of agricultural waste in nearby Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh regions results in severe intensification of smog over Delhi. The state government of adjoining Uttar Pradesh
3900-530: The city. Shandong Province and Tianjin Municipality have a "significant influence on Beijing's air quality", partly due to the prevailing south/southeasterly flow during the summer and the mountains to the north and northwest. In December 2005, schools and public offices were forced to close in Tehran and 1,600 people were taken to hospital, in a severe smog blamed largely on unfiltered car exhaust. In
3978-531: The conversion of Delhi's fleet of buses and taxis to run on CNG and banned the use of leaded petrol in 1998. In 2003, Delhi won the United States Department of Energy 's first 'Clean Cities International Partner of the Year' award for its "bold efforts to curb air pollution and support alternative fuel initiatives". The Delhi Metro has also been credited for significantly reducing air pollutants in
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#17327876333874056-490: The damage from natural disasters is 20 times greater in developing countries than in industrialized countries . This is because low-income countries often do not have well-built buildings or good plans to handle emergencies. To reduce the damage from disasters, it is important to be prepared and have fit for purpose infrastructure. Disaster risk reduction (DRR) aims to make communities stronger and better prepared to handle disasters. It focuses on actions to reduce risk before
4134-410: The damage is depends on how well people are prepared for disasters and how strong the buildings, roads, and other structures are. Scholars have been saying that the term natural disaster is unsuitable and should be abandoned. Instead, the simpler term disaster could be used. At the same time the type of hazard would be specified. A disaster happens when a natural or human-made hazard impacts
4212-672: The fires, which they use to clear tracts of land for further plantings. Those fires mainly affect Brunei , Indonesia , Philippines , Malaysia , Singapore and Thailand , and occasionally Guam and Saipan . The economic losses of the fires in 1997 have been estimated at more than US$ 9 billion. This includes damages in agriculture production, destruction of forest lands, health, transportation, tourism, and other economic endeavours. Not included are social, environmental, and psychological problems and long-term health effects. The second-latest bout of haze to occur in Malaysia , Singapore and
4290-583: The formation of smog. Airborne by-products from vehicle exhaust systems and air conditioning cause air pollution and are a major ingredient in the creation of smog in some large cities. The major culprits from transportation sources are carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides ( NO and NO 2 ), volatile organic compounds, and hydrocarbons (hydrocarbons are the main component of petroleum fuels such as gasoline and diesel fuel ). Transportation emissions also include sulfur dioxides and particulate matter but in much smaller quantities than
4368-508: The general public. 8 hour average ozone concentrations of 85 to 104 ppbv are described as "Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups", 105 ppbv to 124 ppbv as "unhealthy" and 125 ppb to 404 ppb as "very unhealthy". The "very unhealthy" range for some other pollutants are: 355 μg m – 424 μg m for PM10 ; 15.5 ppm – 30.4ppm for CO and 0.65 ppm – 1.24 ppm for NO 2 . In 2016, the Ontario Medical Association announced that smog
4446-411: The highest level of the airborne particulate matter, PM2.5 considered most harmful to health, with 153 micrograms. Rising air pollution level has significantly increased lung-related ailments (especially asthma and lung cancer) among Delhi's children and women. The dense smog in Delhi during winter season results in major air and rail traffic disruptions every year. According to Indian meteorologists,
4524-480: The initial onset of the disaster. These could be the effects of diseases such as cholera or dysentery arising from the disaster. This definition is still commonly used. However it is limited to the number of deaths, injuries, and damage in money terms. The scale of a disaster matters. Small-scale disasters only affect local communities but need help beyond the affected community. Large-scale disasters affect wider society and need national or international help. It
4602-498: The isoprene reacts very quickly in the atmosphere with hydroxyl radicals. These reactions produce hydroperoxides which increase ozone formation. Smog is a serious problem in many cities and continues to harm human health. Ground-level ozone , sulfur dioxide , nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide are especially harmful for senior citizens, children, and people with heart and lung conditions such as emphysema , bronchitis , and asthma . It can inflame breathing passages, decrease
4680-515: The lack of pollutant dispersion under inversions, characterize winter smog formation. Smog formation in general relies on both primary and secondary pollutants. Primary pollutants are emitted directly from a source, such as emissions of sulfur dioxide from coal combustion. Secondary pollutants, such as ozone, are formed when primary pollutants undergo chemical reactions in the atmosphere. Photochemical smog, as found for example in Los Angeles,
4758-457: The late 1990s, massive immigration to Ulaanbaatar from the countryside began. An estimated 150,000 households, mainly living in traditional Mongolian gers on the outskirts of Ulaanbaatar, burn wood and coal (some poor families burn even car tires and trash) to heat themselves during the harsh winter, which lasts from October to April, since these outskirts are not connected to the city's central heating system. A temporary solution to decrease smog
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#17327876333874836-716: The like. Human-made disasters are serious harmful events caused by human actions and social processes. Technological hazards also fall into this category. That is because they result in human-instigated disasters. Human-made hazards are sometimes called anthropogenic hazards. Examples include criminality , social unrest , crowd crushes , fires , transport accidents , industrial accidents , power outages, oil spills , terrorist attacks , and nuclear explosions / nuclear radiation . Catastrophic climate change , nuclear war , and bioterrorism also fall into this category. Climate change and environmental degradation are sometimes called socio-natural hazards. These are hazards involving
4914-601: The lowest risk of feeling the consequences. As of 2019, countries with the highest vulnerability per capita release the lowest amount of emissions per capita, and yet still experience the most heightened droughts and extreme precipitation. Disaster risk reduction aims to make disasters less likely to happen. The approach, also called DRR or disaster risk management, also aims to make disasters less damaging when they do occur. DRR aims to make communities stronger and better prepared to handle disasters. In technical terms, it aims to make them more resilient or less vulnerable. When DRR
4992-417: The lungs' working capacity, cause shortness of breath, pain when inhaling deeply, wheezing, and coughing. It can cause eye and nose irritation and it dries out the protective membranes of the nose and throat and interferes with the body's ability to fight infection, increasing susceptibility to illness. Hospital admissions and respiratory deaths often increase during periods when ozone levels are high. There
5070-612: The mid-1990s, Delhi has undertaken some measures to curb air pollution – Delhi has the third highest quantity of trees among Indian cities and the Delhi Transport Corporation operates the world's largest fleet of environmentally friendly compressed natural gas (CNG) buses. In 1996, the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) started a public interest litigation in the Supreme Court of India that ordered
5148-423: The need for emergency response as an aspect of the disaster. It does not set out quantitative thresholds or scales for damage, death, or injury. A study in 1969 defined major disasters as conforming to the following criteria, based on the amount of deaths or damage: At least 100 people dead, at least 100 people injured, or at least $ 1 million damage. This definition includes indirect losses of life caused after
5226-683: The number of deaths was much higher than the 20-year average of 64,148, the number affected was much lower than the 20-year average of 175.5 million. According to a UN report, 91% of deaths from hazards from 1970 to 2019 occurred in developing countries. These countries already have higher vulnerability and lower resilience to these events, which exacerbates the effects of the hazards. Hazards such as droughts , floods , and cyclones are naturally occurring phenomena. However, climate change has caused these hazards to become more unreliable, frequent and severe. They thus contribute to disaster risks. Countries contributing most to climate change are often at
5304-408: The past few years, cities in northern India have been covered in a thick layer of winter smog. The situation has turned quite drastic in the national capital, Delhi . This smog is caused by the collection of particulate matter (a very fine type of dust and toxic gases) in the air due to stagnant movement of air during winters. Moreover, during the post-monsoon to winter transition, air quality in
5382-409: The photooxidation of formaldehyde (HCHO), a common secondary pollutant, can also contribute to the increased concentration of ozone and NO 2 . Photochemical smog is more prevalent during summer days since incident solar radiation fluxes are high, which favors the formation of ozone (reactions 4 and 5). The presence of a temperature inversion layer is another important factor. That is because it prevents
5460-428: The pollutants mentioned previously. The nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds can undergo a series of chemical reactions with sunlight, heat, ammonia , moisture, and other compounds to form the noxious vapors, ground level ozone , and particles that comprise smog. Photochemical smog, often referred to as "summer smog", is the chemical reaction of sunlight, nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds in
5538-682: The presence of smog. One study, published in Nature magazine , found that smog episodes in the city of Jinan, a large city in eastern China, during 2011–15, were associated with a 5.87% (95% CI 0.16–11.58%) increase in the rate of overall mortality. This study highlights the effect of exposure to air pollution on the rate of mortality in China. A similar study in Xi'an found an association between ambient air pollution and increased mortality associated with respiratory diseases. The U.S. EPA has developed an air quality index to help explain air pollution levels to
5616-407: The region by 90–100%. Doctors advised residents to stay indoors and wear facemasks outside. In 1306, concerns over air pollution were sufficient for Edward I to (briefly) ban coal fires in London. In 1661, John Evelyn 's Fumifugium suggested burning fragrant wood instead of mineral coal, which he believed would reduce coughing. The " Ballad of Gresham College " the same year describes how
5694-415: The smoke "does our lungs and spirits choke, Our hanging spoil, and rust our iron." Severe episodes of smog continued in the 19th and 20th centuries, mainly in the winter, and were nicknamed "pea-soupers," from the phrase "as thick as pea soup". The Great Smog of 1952 darkened the streets of London and killed approximately 4,000 people in the short time of four days (a further 8,000 died from its effects in
5772-554: The vertical convective mixing of the air and thus allows the pollutants, including ozone, to accumulate near the ground level, which again favors the formation of photochemical smog. There are certain reactions that can limit the formation of O 3 in smog. The main limiting reaction in polluted areas is: (7) NO 2 + OH ⋅ + M ⟶ HNO 3 + M {\displaystyle {\ce {NO2 + OH{.}+ M -> HNO3 + M}}} This reaction removes NO 2 which limits
5850-476: The work of humanitarian organizations . The UN defines a disaster as "a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society at any scale". It results from hazards in places where people live in exposed or vulnerable conditions. Some human failures make communities vulnerable to climate hazards . These are poor planning or development, or a lack of preparation. Disasters are events that have an effect on people. A hazard that overwhelms or injures
5928-525: The world, according to a December 2009 World Bank report. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) estimates that health costs related to this air pollution account for as much as 4 percent of Mongolia's GDP. Smog is a regular problem in Southeast Asia caused by land and forest fires in Indonesia , especially Sumatra and Kalimantan , although the term haze is preferred in describing the problem. Farmers and plantation owners are usually responsible for
6006-517: Was higher than the 20-year average of 369. Between 2016 and 2020 the total reported economic losses amounted to $ 293 billion. This figure is likely to be an underestimation. It is very challenging to measure the costs of disasters accurately, and many countries lack the resources and technical capacity to do so. Over the 40-year period from 1980 to 2020 losses were estimated at $ 5.2 trillion. In 2023, natural hazard-related disasters resulted in 86,473 fatalities and affected 93.1 million people. Whilst
6084-405: Was proposed in the form of stoves with improved efficiency, although with no visible results. Coal-fired ger stoves release high levels of ash and other particulate matter (PM). When inhaled, these particles can settle in the lungs and respiratory tract and cause health problems. At two to 10 times above Mongolian and international air quality standards, Ulaanbaatar's PM rates are among the worst in
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