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80-668: Treffen am Ossiacher See ( Slovene : Trebinje ) is a market town in the district of Villach-Land in Carinthia in south-central Austria . The municipality lies about 8 km north of Villach . This Carinthia location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Slovene language Slovene ( / ˈ s l oʊ v iː n / SLOH -veen or / s l oʊ ˈ v iː n , s l ə -/ sloh- VEEN , slə- ) or Slovenian ( / s l oʊ ˈ v iː n i ə n , s l ə -/ sloh- VEE -nee-ən, slə- ; slovenščina )

160-461: A , an , the ) or German ( der, die, das, ein, eine ). A whole verb or a noun is described without articles and the grammatical gender is found from the word's termination. It is enough to say barka ('a' or 'the barge'), Noetova barka ('Noah's ark'). The gender is known in this case to be feminine. In declensions , endings are normally changed; see below. If one should like to somehow distinguish between definiteness or indefiniteness of

240-549: A mere 2.8%. During World War II , Slovenia was divided among the Axis Powers of Fascist Italy , Nazi Germany , and Hungary . Each of the occupying powers tried to either discourage or entirely suppress Slovene. Following World War II, Slovenia became part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . Slovene was one of the official languages of the federation. In the territory of Slovenia, it

320-463: A noun, one would say (prav/natanko/ravno) tista barka ('that/precise/exact barge') for 'the barge' and neka/ena barka ('some/a barge') for 'a barge'. Definiteness of a noun phrase can also be discernible through the ending of the accompanying adjective. One should say rdeči šotor ('[exactly that] red tent') or rdeč šotor ('[a] red tent'). This difference is observable only for masculine nouns in nominative or accusative case. Because of

400-450: A past conditional. The standard orthography, devised in 1994 by Han Steenwijk, which is still in use today, has 34 letters for Gniva ( Njïwa, Njiva ) and Oseacco ( Osoanë, Osojane ), whereas the other two standard forms have an additional letter, ⟨y⟩ . The alphabet contains the letter ⟨ w ⟩ , a letter that few Slavic languages use (only Polish , Kashubian , and Upper and Lower Sorbian ). According to

480-642: A prominent Slovene linguist, commented that, although Slovene is not an endangered language, its scope has been shrinking, especially in science and higher education. The language is spoken by about 2.5 million people, mainly in Slovenia, but also by Slovene national minorities in Friuli-Venezia Giulia , Italy (around 90,000 in Venetian Slovenia , Resia Valley , Canale Valley , Province of Trieste and in those municipalities of

560-621: A record of a proto-Slovene that was spoken in a more scattered territory than modern Slovene, which included most of the present-day Austrian states of Carinthia and Styria , as well as East Tyrol , the Val Pusteria in South Tyrol , and some areas of Upper and Lower Austria . By the 15th century, most of the northern areas were gradually Germanized : the northern border of the Slovene-speaking territory stabilized on

640-751: A relic from the now modern Russian yery character ⟨ы⟩ , which is itself usually transliterated as ⟨y⟩ ; /j/ as ⟨y⟩ ; /l/ as ⟨ll⟩ ; /ʋ/ as ⟨w⟩ ; /ʒ/ as ⟨ʃ⟩ , ⟨ʃʃ⟩ or ⟨ʃz⟩ . The standard Slovene orthography, used in almost all situations, uses only the letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet plus ⟨č⟩ , ⟨š⟩ , and ⟨ž⟩ . The letters ⟨q⟩ , ⟨w⟩ , ⟨x⟩ , and ⟨y⟩ are not included: /uʷ/ The orthography thus underdifferentiates several phonemic distinctions: In

720-526: A similar sound. Its consonant inventory is shared with the Littoral dialects, retaining palatal sounds. Han Steenwijk recorded 25 consonant phonemes in San Giorno ( Bila, Bela ) and then also generalized the pronunciation to the other three standard forms, which are definitely similar, except that Stolvizza ( Solbica ) has somewhat different allophones for /g/ and /x/ . Tine Logar also recorded

800-444: A singular participle combined with a plural auxiliary verb (known as polvikanje ) signals a somewhat more friendly and less formal attitude while maintaining politeness: The use of nonstandard forms ( polvikanje ) might be frowned upon by many people and would not likely be used in a formal setting. The use of the 3rd person plural oni ('they') form (known as onikanje in both direct address and indirect reference; this

880-572: A violent policy of Fascist Italianization ; the same policy was applied to Slovene speakers in Venetian Slovenia , Gorizia and Trieste . Between 1923 and 1943, all public use of Slovene in these territories was strictly prohibited, and Slovene-language activists were persecuted by the state. After the Carinthian Plebiscite of 1920, a less severe policy of Germanization took place in the Slovene-speaking areas of southern Carinthia which remained under Austrian administration. After

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960-984: A vowel system without diphthongs, another feature of Resian not seen in any neighboring dialects. The vowels * ọ́ 1 and * ẹ́ 1 turned into o̤ and e̤ , which might have actually happened before * ọ́ 2 and * ẹ́ 2 . Now only * ọ́ and * ẹ́ turned into * i and * u near a nasal consonant. Other changes did not cover the entire territory. The vowels * í 1 and * ú 1 from previously longer syllables turned into i̤ and ṳ , except in San Giorno ( Bila, Bela ), where previously short * í 1 and * ú 1 turned into centralized vowels, whereas elsewhere they turned into e and o . Syllabic * ł̥́ mostly turned into ol , except in Oseacco ( Osoanë, Osojane ) and Uccea ( Učja ), where it turned into ú . The consonant * ɣ then turned into h , or even disappeared. Other changes are specific to each microdialect. Resian retained neuter gender, as well as some dual forms. It uses

1040-450: A vowel. Before a consonant or word-finally, they are reduced to /l/ , /n/ and /r/ respectively. This is reflected in the spelling in the case of /rj/ , but not for /lj/ and /nj/ . Under certain (somewhat unpredictable) circumstances, /l/ at the end of a syllable may become [w] , merging with the allophone of /ʋ/ in that position. Slovene has an eight-vowel (or, according to Peter Jurgec, nine-vowel) system, in comparison to

1120-459: Is Passio Domini ec. , which has been dated between 1830 and 1848 but was probably written by a nonnative speaker. The first longer piece, spanning over 95 pages, was Christjanske uzhilo , dated to somewhere between 1845 and 1850, but it was still a manuscript. The first book was To kristjanske učilo po rozoanskeh , written by Giuseppe Cramaro sometime between 1923 and 1933. There are also numerous instances of Resian written by scholars that studied

1200-730: Is a South Slavic language of the Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family . Most of its 2.5 million speakers are the inhabitants of Slovenia , majority of them ethnic Slovenes . As Slovenia is part of the European Union , Slovene is also one of its 24 official and working languages . Its syntax is highly fusional , and it has a dual grammatical number , an archaic feature shared with some other Indo-European languages . Two accentual norms (one characterized by pitch accent ) are used. Its flexible word order

1280-409: Is a distinction between animate and inanimate nouns. This is only relevant for masculine nouns and only in the singular, at odds with some other Slavic languages, e.g. Russian, for which it is also relevant in the plural for all genders. Animate nouns have an accusative singular form that is identical to the genitive, while for inanimate nouns the accusative singular is the same as the nominative. Animacy

1360-672: Is based mostly on semantics and is less rigid than gender. Generally speaking a noun is animate if it refers to something that is generally thought to have free will or the ability to move of its own accord. This includes all nouns for people and animals. All other nouns are inanimate, including plants and other non-moving life forms, and also groups of people or animals. However, there are some nouns for inanimate objects that are generally animate, which mostly include inanimate objects that are named after people or animals. This includes: There are no definite or indefinite articles as in English (

1440-490: Is no Slovene-speaking minority in that area today because it is mainly populated by Friulian and German speakers. Standard Resian was developed by Han Steenwijk from the University of Padua and his colleagues Alfonso Barazzutti, Milko Matičetov, Pavle Merkù, Giovanni Rotta, and Willem Vermeer in the 1990s and continuing today. To date, they have standardized the writing, pronunciation, and declension . At first it

1520-584: Is often adjusted for emphasis or stylistic reasons, although basically it is an SVO language. It has a T–V distinction : the use of the V-form demonstrates a respectful attitude towards superiors and the elderly, while it can be sidestepped through the passive form. Standard Slovene is the national standard language that was formed in the 18th and 19th century, based on Upper and Lower Carniolan dialect groups , more specifically on language of Ljubljana and its adjacent areas. The Lower Carniolan dialect group

1600-581: Is open to the west, where Friulian is spoken, and separated by tall mountains in other directions. There is a road connecting it to the Uccea Valley, reaching an elevation of more than 1,100 m above sea level, and it is further connected to the Torre and Soča Valleys, where Slovene is spoken. To the south, it is bordered by the Musi ( Mužci ) Mountains, to the east by Mount Canin ( Ćanen, Kanin ), and to

1680-627: Is proved by the survival of certain ritual formulas in Slovene (such as the ritual installation of the Dukes of Carinthia). The words Buge waz primi, gralva Venus! ('God be With You, Queen Venus!'), with which Bernhard von Spanheim greeted the poet Ulrich von Liechtenstein , who was travelling around Europe in guise of Venus, upon his arrival in Carinthia in 1227 (or 1238), is another example of some level of Slovene knowledge among high nobility in

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1760-509: Is similar to using Sie in German) as an ultra-polite form is now archaic or dialectal. It is associated with servant-master relationships in older literature, the child-parent relationship in certain conservative rural communities, and parishioner-priest relationships. Foreign words used in Slovene are of various types depending on the assimilation they have undergone. The types are: The loanwords are mostly from German and Italian , while

1840-610: Is spoken by fewer than a thousand people and is listed as a definitely endangered language according to UNESCO 's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger . Despite this, Resians value their language and it is being passed down to younger generations. The area where Resian is spoken is practically the same as the area of the Municipality of Resia ( Italian : Comune di Resia ). It is spoken entirely in northeastern Italy , in

1920-589: Is the only one described in sufficient detail thanks to Steenwijk's extensive research. Resian belongs to the western subgroup of the South Slavic branch of the Slavic languages , together with Slovene , which includes the Natisone Valley dialect , and Serbo-Croatian . It represents the far northwestern part of the dialect continuum . The closest written language is the Natisone Valley dialect and

2000-579: The * məglȁ > * mə̀gla shift, which are present today in the Gail Valley dialect, but not in Resian. Final - m in most cases also turned into - n , a feature that also appeared in the Gail Valley dialect. The dialect also devoiced all final obstruents . Resian lost both tonal and length oppositions, which is unlike any neighboring dialect. The diphthongs * iə and * uə monophthongized into * í 2 and * ú 2 , respectively, forming

2080-497: The * sěnȏ > * sě̀no accent shift, but has undergone the * ženȁ → * žèna and optionally * məglȁ → * mə̀gla accent shifts. Due to years of isolated evolution from other Slovene dialects, Resian has developed some iconic features, particularly breathy, centralized vowels that are almost exclusive to Resian, with only some microdialects of the Torre Valley dialect also having

2160-532: The Anschluss of 1938, the use of Slovene was strictly forbidden in Carinthia, as well. This accelerated a process of language shift in Carinthia, which continued throughout the second half of the 20th century: according to the Austro-Hungarian census of 1910, around 21% of inhabitants of Carinthia spoke Slovene in their daily communication; by 1951, this figure dropped to less than 10%, and by 2001 to

2240-899: The Friuli-Venezia Giulia region in the province of Udine , making it the only Slovene dialect that is spoken exclusively in Italy. The speakers are settled in villages in the Resia Valley ( Slovene : Rezija ), along the Resia River ( Rezija ), as well as the upper Uccea Valley ( Učja ) on the Italian side. This includes several villages, including (from west to east): San Giorno ( Bilä, Bela ), Prato di Resia ( Ravanca ), Gniva ( Njïwa, Njiva ), Criacis ( Krïžaca, Križeca ), Oseacco ( Osoanë, Osojane ), Carnizza ( Karnïca, Karnica ), Stolvizza ( Solbica ), Coritis ( Korïto, Korito ), and Uccea ( Učja ). The Resia Valley

2320-550: The Protestant Reformation . The most prominent authors from this period are Primož Trubar , who wrote the first books in Slovene; Adam Bohorič , the author of the first Slovene grammar; and Jurij Dalmatin , who translated the entire Bible into Slovene. From the high Middle Ages up to the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, in the territory of present-day Slovenia, German

2400-634: The Province of Gorizia bordering with Slovenia), in southern Carinthia , some parts of Styria in Austria (25,000) and in the western part of Croatian Istria bordering with Slovenia. It is also spoken in Rijeka and Zagreb (11,800-13,100), in southwestern Hungary (3-5,000), in Serbia (5,000), and by the Slovene diaspora throughout Europe and the rest of the world (around 300,000), particularly in

2480-491: The Rosen Valley dialect and Ebriach dialect in Carinthia , it is one of the three dialects of Slovene spoken entirely outside the borders of Slovenia. It is unequivocally one of the most unique and difficult dialects to understand for speakers of central Slovene dialects, especially because most Resians are not familiar with standard Slovene. Its distinguishing characteristic is centralized , breathy vowels. It borders

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2560-768: The Slavic languages , together with Serbo-Croatian . It is close to the Chakavian and especially Kajkavian dialects of Serbo-Croatian, but genealogically more distant from the Shtokavian dialect , the basis for the Bosnian , Croatian , Montenegrin , and Serbian standard languages. Slovene in general, and Prekmurje Slovene in particular, shares the highest level of mutual intelligibility with transitional Kajkavian dialects of Hrvatsko Zagorje and Međimurje . Furthermore, Slovene shares certain linguistic characteristics with all South Slavic languages , including those of

2640-840: The Slovene Lands where compulsory schooling was in languages other than Standard Slovene, as was the case with the Carinthian Slovenes in Austria, and the Slovene minority in Italy . For example, the Resian and Torre (Ter) dialects in the Italian Province of Udine differ most from other Slovene dialects. Slovene is an Indo-European language belonging to the Western subgroup of the South Slavic branch of

2720-557: The United States (most notably Ohio , home to an estimated 3,400 speakers), Canada , Argentina , Australia and South Africa . Slovene is sometimes characterized as the most diverse Slavic language in terms of dialects , with different degrees of mutual intelligibility. Accounts of the number of dialects range from as few as seven dialects, often considered dialect groups or dialect bases that are further subdivided into as many as 50 dialects. Other sources characterize

2800-413: The 14th century; at that time, Resian was mostly influenced by the Gail Valley dialect. In the second stage, it acquired many features of Venetian Slovene dialects and other Littoral dialects. The third stage represents changes that are unique to Resian and cannot be found elsewhere. Until the 13th century, Resian experienced the same evolution as all other Slovene dialects, forming into Alpine Slovene. It

2880-577: The 16th century, and ultimately led to the formation of more standard language. The Upper dialect was also used by most authors during the language revival in the 18th and early 19th centuries, and was also the language spoken by France Prešeren , who, like most of Slovene writers and poets, lived and worked in Ljubljana, where speech was growing closer to the Upper Carniolan dialect group. Unstandardized dialects are more preserved in regions of

2960-644: The 16th century, well past the point when Resian lost contact with the Carinthian dialects and leading to possible different reflexes for formerly long and short vowels. Long * ə̄ also turned into * ē , which is unique to Resian in comparison to other Littoral dialects because there it turned into * a . The evolution then continued the same as with other Carinthian dialects, leading to the Carinthian dialect base. Short non-final * ě̀ , * ò , and è evolved differently from their long counterparts, into * é , ó , and é , respectively. Long * ē turned into * ẹ̄ , whereas

3040-408: The 18th century. The first known instances are two manuscripts called Rez'janskij katichizis I and II , which are thought to have been written after 1700, but the exact date remains unclear because only copies exist, one of them being dated to 1797. The first manuscript must have been written before the second because it contains archaisms not seen in the second manuscript. The second known manuscript

3120-471: The 1910s is frequently closer to modern Slovene than a text from the 1920s and 1930s. Between 1920 and 1941, the official language of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was defined as "Serbo-Croato-Slovene", which was in practice merely Serbo-Croatian. In Slovenia however, Slovene remained in use in education and administration. Many state institutions used only Serbo-Croatian, and a Slovene–Serbo-Croatian bilingualism

3200-404: The 2nd person singular ti form (known as tikanje ) is officially limited to friends and family, talk among children, and addressing animals, it is increasingly used among the middle generation to signal a relaxed attitude or lifestyle instead of its polite or formal counterpart using the 2nd person plural vi form (known as vikanje ). An additional nonstandard but widespread use of

3280-561: The Eastern subgroup, namely Bulgarian , Macedonian and Torlakian dialects. Mutual intelligibility with varieties of Serbo-Croatian is hindered by differences in vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation, Kajkavian being firmly the most mutually intelligible . Slovene has some commonalities with the West Slavic languages that are not found in other South Slavic languages. Like all Slavic languages , Slovene traces its roots to

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3360-550: The Italian linguist Bartoli, this grapheme is characteristic of the Ladin language of the eastern Alps and indicates the native Neolatin population's strong influence on Resian. The standard orthography uses only the letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet plus eleven other letters, which are letters from the ISO basic Latin alphabet with added acute , caron , or diaeresis : San Giorno ( Bila, Bela ) standard version Previously,

3440-464: The Italian schools taught Slovene, not even as a foreign language. Resians thus not only have a hard time understanding Slovene, but they also do not feel themselves part of the Slovene nation because they were left out, and they consider themselves an ethnic group separate from Slovenes. In 2004, 1,014 out of 1,285 (78.9%) inhabitants of Resia signed a petition declaring that they are not Slovenes. The dialect also has its own orthography, which existed and

3520-593: The Slovene Torre Valley dialect to the south and the Soča dialect to the east, both separated by tall mountain ranges. On the other sides, it mostly borders Friulian , but also Bavarian to the north. It belongs to the Littoral dialect group, although it shows few similarities with other Littoral dialects and evolved from the Carinthian dialect base, northern Slovene, as opposed to other Littoral dialects, which evolved either from western or southern Slovene. It

3600-520: The Torre Valley and Natisone Valley dialects, as well as other dialects in Littoral dialect group, can understand spoken Resian most easily because they have the most shared features and they all have extensive vocabulary from Friulian and Italian. Mutual intelligibility with other South Slavic languages is even more difficult, although Resian has undergone the * sěnȏ > * sě̀no accent shift, and so these words are now accented on

3680-468: The areas around Trieste . During most of the Middle Ages, Slovene was a vernacular language of the peasantry, although it was also spoken in most of the towns on Slovenian territory, together with German or Italian. Although during this time, German emerged as the spoken language of the nobility, Slovene had some role in the courtly life of the Carinthian, Carniolan and Styrian nobility, as well. This

3760-462: The closest standard language is Slovene . The closest (other) Slovene dialect is the Torre Valley dialect , another dialect known for little mutual intelligibility with other dialects. Written Resian can be understood by most Slovenes, partially also due to its similar orthography. Spoken Resian, however, is much more difficult to understand, with the main reason being centralization of vowels, making them more difficult to distinguish. Speakers of

3840-542: The end of words unless immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel or a voiced consonant. In consonant clusters, voicing distinction is neutralized and all consonants assimilate the voicing of the rightmost segment, i.e. the final consonant in the cluster. In this context, [v] , [ɣ] and [d͡z] may occur as voiced allophones of /f/ , /x/ and /t͡s/ , respectively (e.g. vŕh drevésa [ʋrɣ dreˈʋesa] ). /ʋ/ has several allophones depending on context. The sequences /lj/ , /nj/ and /rj/ occur only before

3920-450: The ending - ovi /- evi . Specific to Resian are also special unstressed forms for pronouns in the nominative case—for example, ja 'I'—as well as clitic doubling ; for example, Ja si ti rë́kal tabë́ . 'I told you '. It also has two stressed first-person singular pronouns, jä́ and jä́s , the second being used to be more conceited. Atypical for a Slavic language, Resian also has a definite article (masculine te , feminine ta ;

4000-491: The excessive usage of regionalisms. Regionalisms are mostly limited to culinary and agricultural expressions, although there are many exceptions. Some loanwords have become so deeply rooted in the local language that people have considerable difficulties in finding a standard expression for the dialect term (for instance, kremšnita meaning a type of custard cake is kremna rezina in Standard Slovene, but

4080-513: The first novel in Slovene in 1866. This tendency was reversed in the Fin de siècle period by the first generation of modernist Slovene authors (most notably the writer Ivan Cankar ), who resorted to a more "pure" and simple language without excessive Serbo-Croatian borrowings. During the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in the 1920s and 1930s, the influence of Serbo-Croatian increased again. This was opposed by

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4160-415: The five-vowel system of Serbo-Croatian. Slovene nouns retain six of the seven Slavic noun cases: nominative , accusative , genitive , dative , locative and instrumental . There is no distinct vocative ; the nominative is used in that role. Nouns, adjectives and pronouns have three numbers: singular, dual and plural. Nouns in Slovene are either masculine, feminine or neuter gender. In addition, there

4240-433: The lack of article in Slovene and audibly insignificant difference between the masculine adjective forms, most dialects do not distinguish between definite and indefinite variants of the adjective, leading to hypercorrection when speakers try to use Standard Slovene. Slovene, like most other European languages, has a T–V distinction , or two forms of 'you' for formal and informal situations. Although informal address using

4320-549: The latter term is very rarely used in speech being considered inappropriate for non-literary registers ). Southwestern dialects incorporate many calques and loanwords from Italian, whereas eastern and northwestern dialects are replete with lexemes of German origin. Usage of such words hinders intelligibility between dialects and is greatly discouraged in formal situations. Slovene has a phoneme set consisting of 21 consonants and 8 vowels . Slovene has 21 distinctive consonant phonemes. All voiced obstruents are devoiced at

4400-480: The line going from north of Klagenfurt to south of Villach and east of Hermagor in Carinthia, while in Styria it was more or less identical with the current Austrian-Slovenian border. This linguistic border remained almost unchanged until the late 19th century, when a second process of Germanization took place, mostly in Carinthia. Between the 9th and 12th century, proto-Slovene spread into northern Istria and in

4480-426: The long infinitive without the final - i . Its special feature is the distinction between animate and inanimate masculine o -stem nouns in more than just the accusative case; the distinction is also present in the dative and locative singular. In the locative, the ending - u can be used for both animate and inanimate, whereas the ending - e̤ is generally reserved for inanimate nouns. In the dative, animate nouns have

4560-768: The more recently borrowed and less assimilated words are typically from English . This alphabet ( abeceda ) was derived in the mid-1840s from the system created by the Croatian linguist Ljudevit Gaj . Intended for the Serbo-Croatian language (in all its varieties), it was patterned on the Czech alphabet of the 1830s. Before that /s/ was, for example, written as ⟨ ʃ ⟩ , ⟨ʃʃ⟩ or ⟨ſ⟩ ; /tʃ/ as ⟨tʃch⟩ , ⟨cz⟩ , ⟨tʃcz⟩ or ⟨tcz⟩ ; /i/ sometimes as ⟨y⟩ as

4640-575: The nasal vowels remained intact and only lengthened. Long * ə̄ turned into a very open ȩ̄ and short non-final vowels lengthened. Later, Resian followed the same patterns as the Jaun Valley dialect, such as * ie and * uo simplifying into * iə and * uə , * é and ó turned into * ẹ and * ọ , and the * sěnȏ > * sě̀no accent shift, as well as the merger of * ē and * ě̄ . Long nasal vowels also denasalized and * ę̄ merged with * ə̄ , resulting in * ē and * ō . The second stage

4720-513: The north by Mount Sard ( Žard ), therefore limiting possible connections with neighboring dialects and languages, which in turn has led to so many distinct features of Resian dialect. The area was settled by Slovenes from the north, the area of today's Gail Valley dialect . Both areas remained connected until the 14th century, when sparsely populated Slovenes living in the Raccolana and Dogna Valleys started speaking Romance languages. There

4800-585: The number of dialects as nine or eight. The Slovene proverb "Every village has its own voice" ( Vsaka vas ima svoj glas ) depicts the differences in dialects. The Prekmurje dialect used to have a written norm of its own at one point. The Resian dialects have an independent written norm that is used by their regional state institutions. Speakers of those two dialects have considerable difficulties with being understood by speakers of other varieties of Slovene, needing code-switching to Standard Slovene. Other dialects are mutually intelligible when speakers avoid

4880-445: The only difference in length being tied to stress (stressed vowels are longer than short) and breathiness (breathy vowels are shorter than non-breathy), although standard Resian forms still differentiate between length. From the historical perspective, Resian has undergone only the * sěnȏ > * sě̀no accent shift since Alpine Slovene, making it two accent shifts different from standard Slovene, which has not undergone

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4960-418: The only standard Slavic languages to contain definite articles are Bulgarian and Macedonian ) and an indefinite article. It retained the aorist and imperfect until recently, which is unlike (other) Slovene dialects. The aorist is completely unknown to living generations but it was still present in the 19th century, whereas the imperfect is actively used only with a handful of verbs and is now mostly used as

5040-471: The phoneme /dz/ . Alveolar In contrast to consonants, vowels differ significantly between the four microdialects, especially in accented syllables. They all have thoroughly researched accented vowels; however, Oseacco ( Osoanë, Osojane ) lacks research on unaccented vowels. This is the accent system for San Giorno ( Bila, Bela ): The evolution of Resian into such a distinct dialect happened gradually and in three stages. The first stage lasted until

5120-446: The phoneme /ts/ could optionally also be written with ⟨z⟩ (e.g., Ravanza instead of Ravanca ); however that is found inappropriate today. Despite the standard orthography, many street signs are still not adapted to the new orthography and have misspelled names on them. In addition, the acute accent ( ´ ) can be used to mark stress where it cannot be inferred. The first written texts in Resian were already written in

5200-471: The post-breakup influence of Serbo-Croatian on Slovene continued to a lesser extent, most prominently in slang in colloquial language . Joža Mahnič , a literary historian and president of the publishing house Slovenska matica , said in February 2008 that Slovene is a language rich enough to express everything, including the most sophisticated and specialised texts. In February 2010, Janez Dular ,

5280-519: The region. The first printed Slovene words, stara pravda (meaning 'old justice' or 'old laws'), appeared in 1515 in Vienna in a poem of the German mercenaries who suppressed the Slovene peasant revolt : the term was presented as the peasants' motto and battle cry. Standard Slovene emerged in the second half of the 16th century, thanks to the works of Slovene Lutheran authors, who were active during

5360-533: The rise of Romantic nationalism in the 19th century, the cultural movements of Illyrism and Pan-Slavism brought words from Serbo-Croatian , specifically Croatian dialects, and Czech into standard Slovene, mostly to replace words previously borrowed from German. Most of these innovations have remained, although some were dropped in later development. In the second half of the 19th century, many nationalist authors made an abundant use of Serbo-Croatian words: among them were Fran Levstik and Josip Jurčič , who wrote

5440-519: The same proto-Slavic group of languages that produced Old Church Slavonic . The earliest known examples of a distinct, written dialect connected to Slovene are from the Freising manuscripts , known in Slovene as Brižinski spomeniki . The consensus estimate of their date of origin is between 972 and 1039 (most likely before 1000). These religious writings are among the oldest surviving manuscripts in any Slavic language. The Freising manuscripts are

5520-475: The same syllable as in Serbo-Croatian , as opposed to most Slovene dialects. There is disagreement between native speakers of the dialect and linguists regarding whether Resian should be considered a separate language or only a dialect of Slovene . Resians were isolated from other Slovenes from the 14th century onward, before standard Slovene was developed, and later they never had the chance to learn it because there were no Slovene schools in that area and none of

5600-548: The standard orthography, Slovene also uses standardized diacritics or accent marks to denote stress , vowel length and pitch accent , much like the closely related Serbo-Croatian . However, as in Serbo-Croatian, use of such accent marks is restricted to dictionaries, language textbooks and linguistic publications. In normal writing, the diacritics are almost never used, except in a few minimal pairs where real ambiguity could arise. Resian dialect Together with

5680-414: The tonemic varieties of Slovene, the ambiguity is even greater: ⟨e⟩ in a final syllable can stand for any of /éː/ /èː/ /ɛ́ː/ /ɛ̀ː/ /ɛ/ /ə/ (although /ɛ̀ː/ is rare; and Slovene, except in some dialects, does not distinguished tonemic accentuation). The reader is expected to gather the interpretation of the word from the context, as in these examples: To compensate for the shortcomings of

5760-414: The younger generations of Slovene authors and intellectuals; among the most fierce opponents of an excessive Serbo-Croatian influence on Slovene were the intellectuals associated with the leftist journal Sodobnost , as well as some younger Catholic activists and authors. After 1945, numerous Serbo-Croatian words that had been used in the previous decades were dropped. The result was that a Slovene text from

5840-532: Was actively used even before standardization. Resian is also used instead of standard Slovene on bilingual signs and in public announcements. On the other hand, linguists have always treated Resian as a dialect. It does not show any features sufficiently distinct to qualify it as a separate language. To avoid disputes, it is thus often referred to as a Slavic microlanguage . The Resian dialect, in contrast to neighboring dialects, does not have pitch accent and seems to have lost distinctions in vowel length, with

5920-484: Was applied in many spheres of public life in Slovenia. For example, at the post offices, railways and in administrative offices, Serbo-Croatian was used alongside Slovene. However, state employees were expected to be able to speak Slovene in Slovenia. During the same time, western Slovenia (the Slovenian Littoral and the western districts of Inner Carniola ) was under Italian administration and subjected to

6000-578: Was commonly used in almost all areas of public life. One important exception was the Yugoslav army , where Serbo-Croatian was used exclusively, even in Slovenia. National independence has further fortified the language: since 1991, when Slovenia gained independence, Slovene has been used as an official language in all areas of public life. In 2004 it became one of the official languages of the European Union upon Slovenia's admission. Nonetheless,

6080-464: Was part of the northwestern dialect because long yat diphthongized into * ie and long * ō diphthongized into * uo . It did not experience denasalization of nasal vowels. After further division, it fell into the category of the northern dialect, the same as other Carinthian dialects and unlike other Littoral dialects. It thus did not experience lengthening of non-final vowels at that time, because vowel lengthening in northern dialects happened only after

6160-428: Was primarily influenced by the Torre Valley dialect. Open * ē and *ō became close-mid * ẹ̄ 2 and * ọ̄ 2 (in contrast to previously existing * ẹ̄ 1 and * ọ̄ 1 ). Short * ə turned into *a, * ĺ turned into * i̯ , * w started turning into * v before front vowels, and * ł turned into * l . This connection also hindered some developments, such as * t → č , the * ženȁ > * žèna shift, and

6240-447: Was suggested to base the standard language on a central microdialect, particularly that of Gniva ( Njïva, Njiva ), but later it was decided to allow four forms of standard Resian, based on the four microdialects of four larger villages: San Giorno ( Bila, Bela ), Gniva ( Njïva, Njiva ), Oseacco ( Osoanë, Osojane ), and Stolvizza ( Solbica ). For other areas of grammar, only the microdialect of San Giorno can be used because it

6320-434: Was the dialect used in the 16th century by Primož Trubar for his writings, while he also used Slovene as spoken in Ljubljana, since he lived in the city for more than 20 years. It was the speech of Ljubljana that Trubar took as a foundation of what later became standard Slovene, with small addition of his native speech, that is Lower Carniolan dialect . Trubar's choice was later adopted also by other Protestant writers in

6400-399: Was the language of the elite, and Slovene was the language of the common people. During this period, German had a strong influence on Slovene, and many Germanisms are preserved in contemporary colloquial Slovene. Many Slovene scientists before the 1920s also wrote in foreign languages, mostly German, which was the lingua franca of science throughout Central Europe at the time. During

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