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98-582: Named after 1908, the year it was adopted by the Imperial German Army, the MG 08 was a development of the license-made Maschinengewehr 01. The MG 08's rate of fire depends on the lock assembly used and averages 500 rounds per minute for the Schloss 08 and 600 rounds per minute for the Schloss 16. Additional telescopic sights were also developed and used in large quantities during World War I to enable

196-455: A T-Line . More recently a growing number of companies are manufacturing water-cooling components compact enough to fit inside a computer case. This, and the trend to CPUs of higher power dissipation, has greatly increased the popularity of water cooling. Dedicated overclockers have occasionally used vapor-compression refrigeration or thermoelectric coolers in place of more common standard heat exchangers. Water cooling systems in which water

294-482: A boiling point temperature of around 100 degrees C at atmospheric pressure. Engines operating at higher temperatures may require a pressurized recycle loop to prevent overheating. Modern automotive cooling systems often operate at 15 psi (103 kPa) to raise the boiling-point of the recycling water coolant and reduce evaporative losses. The use of water cooling carries the risk of damage from freezing. Automotive and many other engine cooling applications require

392-498: A fluid being cooled, or contact cooling water may directly impinge on items like saw blades where phase difference allows easy separation . Environmental regulations emphasize the reduced concentrations of waste products in non-contact cooling water. Water accelerates the corrosion of metal parts and is a favorable medium for biological growth. Dissolved minerals in natural water supplies are concentrated by evaporation to leave deposits called scale. Cooling water often requires

490-493: A recirculating system or used in a single-pass once-through cooling (OTC) system. Water's high enthalpy of vaporization allows the option of efficient evaporative cooling to remove waste heat in cooling towers or cooling ponds . Recirculating systems are open if they rely upon evaporative cooling or closed if heat removal is accomplished in heat exchangers , thus with negligible evaporative loss. A heat exchanger or condenser may separate non-contact cooling water from

588-406: A 13 cm wide area of solid sheet metal at the breech end, and a 5 cm wide solid area at the muzzle end, giving the resultant gun much more rigidity. The lMG 08 also retained unchanged the rectangular rear receiver and breech assembly of the water-cooled MG 08 infantry weapon. Later, the MG 08's receiver would be lightened by being "stepped down" at its upper-rear and lower-forward corners as

686-456: A closed system. Biofouling occurs because water is a favorable environment for many life forms. Flow characteristics of recirculating cooling water systems encourage colonization by sessile organisms using the circulating supply of food, oxygen and nutrients. Temperatures may become high enough to support thermophilic populations of organisms such as types of fungi . Biofouling of heat exchange surfaces can reduce heat transfer rates of

784-725: A comfortable ambient temperature. Some nuclear reactors use heavy water as coolant. Heavy water is employed in nuclear reactors because it is a weaker neutron absorber . This allows for the use of less-enriched fuel. For the main cooling system, normal water is preferably employed through the use of a heat exchanger, as heavy water is much more expensive. Reactors that use other materials for moderation (graphite) may also use normal water for cooling . High-grade industrial water (produced by reverse osmosis or distillation ) and potable water are sometimes used in industrial plants requiring high-purity cooling water. Production of these high-purity waters creates waste byproduct brines containing

882-442: A cooling water system is reported as the pH level. Low pH values increase the rate of corrosion; high pH values encourage scale formation. Amphoterism is uncommon among metals used in water cooling systems, but aluminum corrosion rates increase with pH values above 9. Galvanic corrosion may be severe in water systems with copper and aluminum components. Acid can be added to cooling water systems to prevent scale formation if

980-476: A film of gamma iron oxide and zinc phosphate can inhibit corrosion by passivating anodic and cathodic reaction points. These increase salinity and total dissolved solids, and phosphorus compounds may provide the limiting essential nutrient for algal growth contributing to biofouling of the cooling system or to eutrophication of natural aquatic environments receiving blowdown or OTC water. Chromates reduce biofouling in addition to effective corrosion inhibition in

1078-426: A fraction of recirculating water as blowdown to remove dissolved solids at concentrations low enough to prevent scale formation. Some open systems use inexpensive tap water , but this requires higher blowdown rates than deionized or distilled water . Purified water systems still require blowdown to remove the accumulation of byproducts of chemical treatment to prevent corrosion and biofouling. Water for cooling has

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1176-429: A high rate of flow. These structures tend to also pull in large numbers of fish and other aquatic organisms, which are killed or injured on the intake screens . Large flow rates may trap slow-swimming organisms including fish and shrimp on screens protecting the small bore tubes of the heat exchangers from blockage. High temperatures or pump turbulence and shear may kill or disable smaller organisms that pass through

1274-615: A low temperature throughout the year. Systems operating with seawater need to be manufactured from cupronickel , bronze , titanium or similarly corrosion-resistant materials. Water containing sediment may require velocity restrictions through piping to avoid erosion at high velocity or blockage by settling at low velocity. Plant transpiration and animal perspiration use evaporative cooling to prevent high temperatures from causing unsustainable metabolic rates . Machine guns used in fixed defensive positions sometimes use water cooling to extend barrel life through periods of rapid fire, but

1372-478: A measured volume of filtered water is evaporated . Salinity indicates water density or conductivity changes caused by dissolved materials. Probability of scale formation increases with increasing total dissolved solids. Solids commonly associated with scale formation are calcium and magnesium both as carbonate and sulfate . Corrosion rates initially increase with salinity in response to increasing electrical conductivity, but then decrease after reaching

1470-403: A muzzle disk. When used as an anti-aircraft gun, it uses a metal pole to make the tripod higher and usually does not come with a muzzle disk. The gun's receiver is similar to the MG 08's gun body. Like the original MG 08, it needs a crew of four. The Type 24 heavy machine gun is chambered with the 7.92×57mm Mauser round, the standard Chinese military rifle cartridge of Nationalist China. After

1568-594: A new subsidiary, the Deutsche Waffen- und Munitionsfabriken (DWM), to handle production. The agreement with Maxim concluded in 1898 and DWM received orders from Austria-Hungary, Argentina, Switzerland and Russia. The Imperial German Army first considered using the Maxim gun as an artillery weapon The German light infantry Jäger troops began trials of the gun in 1898. The Guards Corps , II Corps and XVI Corps made more experiments in 1899. The tests produced

1666-563: A peak as higher levels of salinity decrease dissolved oxygen levels. Some groundwater contains very little oxygen when pumped from wells, but most natural water supplies include dissolved oxygen. Increasing oxygen concentrations accelerate corrosion. Dissolved oxygen approaches saturation levels in cooling towers. It is beneficial in blowdown or OTC water being returned to natural aquatic environments. Water ionizes into hydronium (H 3 O ) cations and hydroxide (OH ) anions . The concentration of ionized hydrogen (as protonated water) in

1764-511: A problem though and a "futile attempt" to solve this problem was a late-war air-cooled version of the MG 08/15, designated as the MG 08/18 ; but it was only 1 kg lighter than the MG 08/15. The MG 08/18's barrel was heavier and it could not be quickly changed; inevitably overheating was a problem. It was battlefield tested in small numbers during the last months of the war. As noted, "the Maxim Gun

1862-402: A recommendation of independent six-gun detachments to march with the cavalry, with the guns mounted on carriages pulled by horses. The Army purchased the modified MG 99 and MG 01 versions of the Maxim gun from DWM in limited quantities. The MG 99 introduced the sled mount that would remain standard in the MG 08. The MG 01 added lightweight spoked wheels, making possible the pushing and pulling of

1960-501: A spinning propeller's arc. The 105 mm diameter cylindrical sheet metal water jacket used for the infantry's MG 08, an important support member for the barrel, was initially over-lightened with cooling slots, with fourteen rows of such slots completely surrounding and running the whole length of the jacket's circumferential sheetmetal. These alternated between seven rows of nine "oblong" slots, alternating with seven more intervening rows of eight slots and twin round holes fore and aft of

2058-408: Is a consideration when siting such plants. Water returned to aquatic environments at temperatures higher than the ambient receiving water modifies aquatic habitat by increasing biochemical reaction rates and decreasing the oxygen saturation capacity of the habitat. Temperature increases initially favor a population shift from species requiring the high-oxygen concentration of cold water to those enjoying

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2156-457: Is a method of heat removal from components and industrial equipment. Evaporative cooling using water is often more efficient than air cooling . Water is inexpensive and non-toxic; however, it can contain impurities and cause corrosion. Water cooling is commonly used for cooling automobile internal combustion engines and power stations . Water coolers utilising convective heat transfer are used inside high-end personal computers to lower

2254-403: Is a solution to ensure the optimisation of energy efficiency while simultaneously minimising noise and space requirements. Especially useful in supercomputers or Data Centers because maintenance of the racks is quick and easy. After disassembly of the rack, advanced-technology quick-release couplings eliminate spillage for the safety of operators and protect the integrity of fluids (no impurities in

2352-417: Is cooled directly by the evaporator coil of a phase change system are able to chill the circulating coolant below the ambient air temperature (impossible with a standard heat exchanger) and, as a result, generally provide superior cooling of the computer's heat-generating components. The downside of phase-change or thermoelectric cooling is that it uses much more electricity, and antifreeze must be added due to

2450-417: Is generally believed to be 15 kilogram-meters (147 J / 108 ft⋅lbf). Its practical range was estimated at some 2,000 metres (2,187 yd) up to an extreme range of 3,500 metres (3,828 yd) when firing the long-range s.S. Patrone . The MG 08 was mounted on a sled mount ( German : Schlittenlafette ) that was ferried between locations either on carts or else carried above men's shoulders in

2548-727: Is in urban warfare , where locating the enemy can be difficult, the physical structures give the defenders better protection, and the risk of collateral damage is high. In these cases direct-fire artillery can unleash tremendous firepower to precisely destroy enemy fortified positions. For example, during the Siege of Marawi , the Armed Forces of the Philippines used 105mm M101 howitzers in close-range to combat Abu Sayyaf and Maute Group terrorists who fortified themselves in several buildings. Water-cooled Water cooling

2646-515: Is most often used in the context of artillery , such as howitzers and mortars . Direct fire remained the dominant method of operating artillery throughout most of human history, with indirect fire used for sieges and involving specific siege guns . Technological developments born of the Industrial Revolution and the development of technical practices in the late 19th century led to an appreciation of indirect fire, although it

2744-419: Is required and it has to be carefully controlled. Modern solid-state transmitters can be built so that even high-power transmitters do not require water cooling. Water cooling is however also sometimes used for thyristors of HVDC valves, for which the use of deionized water is required. Liquid cooling techniques are increasingly being used for the thermal management of electronic components. This type of cooling

2842-661: Is required only in that localized area. The disadvantage of such a system is higher power dissipation. To avoid damage from condensation around the Peltier junction, a proper installation requires it to be "potted" with silicone epoxy. The epoxy is applied around the edges of the device, preventing air from entering or leaving the interior. Apple's Power Mac G5 was the first mainstream desktop computer to have water cooling as standard (although only on its fastest models). Dell followed suit by shipping their XPS computers with liquid cooling , using thermoelectric cooling to help cool

2940-846: Is required. Chlorine may be added in the form of hypochlorite to decrease biofouling in cooling water systems, but is later reduced to chloride to minimize the toxicity of blowdown or OTC water returned to natural aquatic environments. Hypochlorite is increasingly destructive to wooden cooling towers as pH increases. Chlorinated phenols have been used as biocides or leached from preserved wood in cooling towers. Both hypochlorite and pentachlorophenol have reduced effectiveness at pH values greater than 8. Non-oxidizing biocides may be more difficult to detoxify prior to release of blowdown or OTC water to natural aquatic environments. Concentrations of polyphosphates or phosphonates with zinc and chromates or similar compounds have been maintained in cooling systems to keep heat exchange surfaces clean enough that

3038-844: Is used for the CPU and GPUs . Water cooling typically uses a water block , a water pump , and a water-to-air heat exchanger. By transferring device heat to a separate larger heat exchanger using larger, lower-speed fans, water cooling can allow quieter operation, improved processor speeds ( overclocking ), or a balance of both. Less commonly, Northbridges , Southbridges , hard disk drives , memory , voltage regulator modules (VRMs), and even power supplies can be water-cooled. Internal radiator size may vary: from 40 mm dual fan (80 mm) to 140 quad fan (560 mm) and thickness from 30 mm to 80 mm. Radiator fans may be mounted on one or both sides. External radiators can be much larger than their internal counterparts as they do not need to fit in

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3136-613: The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to issue regulations on industrial cooling water intake structures. EPA issued final regulations for new facilities in 2001 (amended 2003), and for existing facilities in 2014. As an alternative to OTC, industrial cooling towers may use recirculated river water, coastal water ( seawater ), or well water. Large mechanical induced-draft or forced-draft cooling towers in industrial plants continuously circulate cooling water through heat exchangers and other equipment where

3234-813: The National Revolutionary Army in 1935, designed to replace the original MG 08. It was the standard heavy machine gun for all Nationalists, Communists, and Warlords from 1935. They were usually made in the Hanyang Arsenal . Like the original MG 08, because of transportation difficulties, the M1917 Browning machine gun and other machine guns slowly replaced the Type 24 for the NRA after the Chinese Civil War . The PM M1910 , and

3332-692: The SG-43 Goryunov (or Type 53/57 Machine gun) slowly replaced the Type 24 Heavy machine gun after the Chinese Civil War, but it was kept in service with the PLA, KPA and the NVA until the 1960s during the Vietnam War . The Type 24 heavy machine gun's tripod resembles the tripod of the MG 08. This gun is not able to be mounted on sledge mounts. When aiming at enemy infantry, it usually comes with

3430-455: The flight path . Indirect fire does not need a direct line-of-sight to the target because the shots are normally directed by a forward observer . As such, indirect-fire weapons can shoot over obstacles or friendly units and the weapons can be concealed from counter-battery fire . Examples of direct-fire weapons include most ancient and modern weapons such as slings , blowguns , bows , crossbows , firearms , and recoilless rifles . The term

3528-456: The heater core . Also, the water jacket around an engine is very effective at deadening mechanical noises, making the engine quieter. An open water cooling system makes use of evaporative cooling , lowering the temperature of the remaining (unevaporated) water. This method was common in early internal combustion engines until scale buildup was observed from dissolved salts and minerals in the water. Modern open cooling systems continuously waste

3626-581: The "tee" connector, and ultimately removed from the system by bleeding. The capped line may be capped with a fill-port fitting to allow the release of trapped gas and the addition of liquid. Water coolers for desktop computers were, until the end of the 1990s, homemade. They were made from car radiators (or more commonly, a car's heater core ), aquarium pumps and home-made water blocks, laboratory-grade PVC and silicone tubing and various reservoirs (homemade using plastic bottles, or constructed using cylindrical acrylic or sheets of acrylic, usually clear) and or

3724-461: The 30mm "two hole" ammunition belts of the flexible Parabellum MG14 machine gun rather than the wider "three hole" belts of the MG 08/15 water-cooled infantry weapon. It is possible that these belts were used as they were a bit lighter and less bulky than the wider "three hole" ground gun belts and certainly made for standardization which would have been easier for the armorers and in addition allowed for smaller and lighter "tubes" or "chutes" that guided

3822-594: The Army's demand for six guns per regiment was reduced to six guns per brigade in 1907. The Army Bill of 1912 finally gave the Army its demanded six guns per regiment. On 3 August 1914, soon after the outbreak of World War I , the Army had 4,411 MG 08s, along with 398 MG 01s, 18 MG 99s and two MG 09s. At the onset of World War I, Germany developed an aerodynamically refined bullet intended for machine gun use. This 12.8 grams (198 gr) full metal jacket s.S. ( schweres Spitzgeschoß , "heavy spitzer bullet ") boat tail projectile

3920-409: The Chinese Civil War, People's Republic of China militia and reserve units converted a number of Type 24 HMG into the 7.62×54mmR Russian cartridge. They were used for training or as filming prop, and never entered service. Direct fire Direct fire or line-of-sight fire refers to firing of a ranged weapon whose projectile is launched directly at a target within the line-of-sight of

4018-536: The E.I through the E.III production versions of the Fokker Eindecker . A lower case letter "L" beginning the prefix meant luftgekühlt (air-cooled) rather than Luft (air). The lMG 08s were later used in pairs by the time of the introduction of the Fokker D.III and Albatros D.I biplane fighters in 1916, as fixed and synchronized cowling guns firing through the propeller. The Parabellum MG14 built by DWM

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4116-524: The Fokker fighters designed by Kreutzer's successor Reinhold Platz ) through tubes from under the barrel to the bottom of the fuselage. With Fokker designed aircraft following the Eindecker, the cartridge cases were ejected without tubes from the receiver hole directly into open trays that guided the tumbling cartridge cases backward and sideways onto the sloped fuselage decking, which then streamed down past

4214-567: The MG 08 to be used in long-range direct fire and indirect fire support roles. The German Rifle Commission began firing tests of the Maxim gun at Zorndorf in 1889. In 1892, Ludwig Loewe 's company signed a seven-year contract with Hiram Maxim for production of the gun in Berlin . The Imperial German Navy ordered Maxim guns from Loewe in 1894. The Navy deployed them on the decks of ships and for use in amphibious warfare. In 1896, Loewe founded

4312-639: The MG 08/15 had minimal weight savings over the MG 08, being "a cumbersome beast to use in the assault." Intended to provide increased mobility of infantry automatic fire, it nevertheless remained a bulky water-cooled weapon that was quite demanding on the crews and never on par with its rivals, the Chauchat and the Lewis Gun . Accurate fire was difficult to achieve and usually in short bursts only. The fabric ammunition belts were prone to stretching and there were cartridge extraction problems when they were wet. It

4410-580: The MG 08/15 remained by far the most common German machine gun deployed in World War I, reaching a full allocation of six guns per company (72 guns per regiment) in 1918. By that time, there were four times as many MG 08/15 light machine guns than heavy MG 08 machine guns in each infantry regiment. To attain this goal, about 130,000 MG 08/15 were manufactured during World War I, most of them by the Spandau and Erfurt government arsenals. The heavy weight remained

4508-408: The MG 08/15 was to be manned by two trained infantrymen, a shooter and an ammo bearer. In the attack the weapon would be fired on the move ( marching fire ) while on the defense the team would make use of the bipod from the prone position. To accomplish that, the MG 08/15 had a short bipod rather than a heavy four-legged sled mount, plus a wooden gunstock and a pistol grip . At 18 kg (40 lb)

4606-520: The Second World War. Because of the 08/15's tendency to jam, German soldiers used the name of the gun to refer to any thing that went wrong in their Army experiences. A lightened air-cooled version of the original water-cooled rectangular pattern-receiver MG 08 infantry automatic ordnance, the lMG 08 , was developed by the Spandau arsenal as a rigidly mounted aircraft machine gun and went into production in 1915, in single-gun mounts, for use on

4704-449: The addition of clinometers fixed machine gun squads could set ranges of 800 to 3,475 metres (875 to 3,800 yd) and deliver plunging fire or indirect fire at more than 3,000 m (3,280 yd). This indirect firing method exploits the maximal effective range , that is defined by the maximum range of a small-arms projectile while still maintaining the minimum kinetic energy required to put unprotected personnel out of action, which

4802-431: The addition of chemicals to minimize corrosion and insulating deposits of scale and biofouling. Water contains varying amounts of impurities from contact with the atmosphere, soil, and containers. Being both an electrical conductor and a solvent for metal ions and oxygen, water can accelerate corrosion of machinery being cooled. Corrosion reactions proceed more rapidly as temperature increases. Preservation of machinery in

4900-446: The advantages of increased metabolic rates in warm water. Once-through cooling (OTC) systems may be used on very large rivers or at coastal and estuarine sites. These power stations put the waste heat into the river or coastal water. These OTC systems thus rely upon an ample supply of river water or seawater for their cooling needs. Such facilities are built with intake structures designed for bringing in large volumes of water at

4998-472: The air-cooled 7.92 mm Bergmann MG 15nA which weighed "a more manageable 13kg," had a bipod mount and was fed from a 200-round metal-link belt contained in an assault drum instead of fabric belts. Despite its qualities, it was overshadowed by the production volumes of the MG 08/15 and exiled to secondary fronts, being largely relegated to use in limited numbers on the Italian Front . The Bergmann MG 15nA

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5096-497: The aircraft. As the entire MG 08 Spandau family of German machine guns ejected their empty cartridge cases forward through a round hole in the receiver's lower forward surface, immediately under the aft end of the barrel's cylindrical cooling-jacket (as can be clearly seen on many videos), these cartridge cases were guided out of the aircraft (except on Martin Kreutzer-designed Fokker biplane fighter aircraft, and

5194-414: The ambient temperature while obviating the requirement for antifreeze and lagged pipes, is to place a thermoelectric device (commonly referred to as a 'Peltier junction' or 'pelt' after Jean Peltier , who documented the effect) between the heat-generating component and the water block. Because the only sub-ambient temperature zone now is at the interface with the heat-generating component itself, insulation

5292-412: The circuits). These couplings are also capable of being locked (Panel mounted?) to allow blind connection in difficult-to-access areas. It is important in electronics technology to analyse the connection systems to ensure: Water cooling often adds complexity and cost in comparison to air cooling design by requiring a pump, tubing or piping to transport the water, and a radiator, often with fans, to reject

5390-749: The cockpit on either side. These trays are clearly visible in photographs but have rarely been recognized for their purpose. Hermann Göring , who flew both the Fokker Dr.I and Fokker D.VII was so annoyed with the case tumbling out in front of him that he had deflectors made on his aircraft to ensure the empty cartridge cases did not find their way into his cockpit. On photographs of Göring's aircraft these plates, seen only on his aircraft, are very prevalent and have even been recognized in scale models of his aircraft copying his particular planes, but even then most historians have failed to recognize their purpose. Both empty belt guides and trays were attached directly to

5488-463: The concentrated impurities from the source water. In 2018, researchers from the University of Colorado Boulder and University of Wyoming invented a radiative cooling metamaterial known as "RadiCold", which has been developed since 2017. This metamaterial aids in cooling of water and increasing the efficiency of power generation, in which it would cool the underneath objects, by reflecting away

5586-486: The confines of a computer case. High-end cases may have two rubber grommeted ports in the back for the inlet and outlet hoses, which allow external radiators to be placed far away from the PC. A T-Line is used to remove trapped air bubbles from the circulating water. It is made with a t-connector and a capped-off length of tubing. The tube n acts as a mini-reservoir and allows air bubbles to travel into it as they are caught into

5684-549: The cooling jacket's diameter to 92.5 mm (3.64 in). It was tested as a prototype in 1915 by a team of weapon designers under the direction of an Oberst , Friedrich von Merkatz; this became the MG 08/15. The MG 08/15 had been designed around the concept of portability, such as the French Chauchat , which meant that the firepower of a machine gun could be taken forward conveniently by assaulting troops, and moved between positions for tactical fire support; as such,

5782-654: The cooling system, and biofouling of cooling towers can alter flow distribution to reduce evaporative cooling rates. Biofouling may also create differential oxygen concentrations increasing corrosion rates. OTC and open recirculating systems are more susceptible to biofouling. Biofouling may be inhibited by temporary habitat modifications. Temperature differences may discourage the establishment of thermophilic populations in intermittently operated facilities, and intentional short-term temperature spikes may periodically kill less tolerant populations. Biocides have been commonly used to control biofouling where sustained facility operation

5880-421: The cooling water system, but residual toxicity in blowdown or OTC water has encouraged lower chromate concentrations and the use of less-flexible corrosion inhibitors. Blowdown may also contain chromium leached from cooling towers constructed of wood preserved with chromated copper arsenate . Total dissolved solids or TDS (sometimes called filterable residue) is reported as the mass of residue remaining when

5978-408: The efficiency of automotive cooling systems. Such products are used to enhance the cooling of underperforming or undersized cooling systems or in racing where the weight of a larger cooling system could be a disadvantage. Since approximately 1930 it is common to use water cooling for tubes of powerful transmitters. As these devices use high operation voltages (around 10 kV), the use of deionized water

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6076-409: The empty belts into storage containers in the aircraft after firing. It is a common misconception that the tubes or chutes coming out of the fixed mounted aviation LMG 08/15 fixed guns were for expended cartridge cases. In actuality these attachments were for guiding the empty cartridge belts into a container inside the fuselage of the aircraft so that the belts would not interfere with the operation of

6174-401: The evaporated pure water is replaced by make-up water containing carbonates and other dissolved salts, a portion of the circulating water is continuously discarded as "blowdown" water to minimize the excessive build-up of salts in the circulating water; these blowdown wastes may change the receiving water quality. The heated coolant mixture can be used to warm the air inside the car by means of

6272-684: The heat source. Cooling hot computer components with various fluids has been in use since at least the Cray-2 in 1982, which used Fluorinert . Through the 1990s, water cooling for home PCs slowly gained recognition among enthusiasts, but it became noticeably more prevalent after the introduction of the first Gigahertz-clocked processors in the early 2000s. As of 2018, there are dozens of manufacturers of water cooling components and kits, and many computer manufacturers include preinstalled water cooling solutions for their high-performance systems. Water cooling can be used for many computer components, but usually it

6370-508: The heat to the atmosphere. Depending on the application, water cooling may create an additional element of risk where leakage from the water coolant recycle loop can corrode or short-circuit sensitive electronic components. The primary advantage of water cooling for cooling CPU cores in computing equipment is transporting heat away from the source to a secondary cooling surface to allow for large, more optimally designed radiators rather than small, relatively inefficient fins mounted directly on

6468-485: The liquid. Currently, Dell's only computers to offer liquid cooling are their Alienware desktops. Asus are the first and only mainstream brand to have put water-cooled laptops into mass production. Those laptops have a built-in air/water hybrid cooling system and can be docked to an external liquid cooling radiator for additional cooling and electrical power. Water is an ideal cooling medium for vessels as they are constantly surrounded by water that generally remains at

6566-476: The low temperature. Additionally, insulation, usually in the form of lagging around water pipes and neoprene pads around the components to be cooled, must be used in order to prevent damage caused by condensation of water vapour from the air on chilled surfaces. Common places from which to obtain the required phase transition systems are a household dehumidifier or air conditioner . An alternative cooling scheme, which also enables components to be cooled below

6664-459: The machine guns rather than to the aircraft. In the famous film showing Australian officers handling the LMG 08/15s from Baron von Richthofen's crashed triplane, the Fokker type belt tubes/chutes and empty cartridge trays can be clearly seen still attached to the guns. More than 23,000 examples of the LMG 08/15 and an unknown number of the lMG 08 were produced during World War I. A variant chambered in

6762-545: The manner of a stretcher. Pre-war production was by Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken (DWM) in Berlin and by the government Spandau arsenal (so the gun was often referred to as the Spandau MG 08 ). When the war began in August 1914, 4,411 MG 08s were available to battlefield units. Production at numerous factories was markedly ramped up during wartime. In 1914, some 200 MG 08s were produced each month, by 1916—once

6860-426: The mass-produced examples of Robert Thelen's Albatros D.I and D.II fighters in late 1916, and singly on German " C-class " armed two-seat observation aircraft for synchronized forward-firing armament. The usual ammunition load for fighters was for longer, 500 round, belts, one for each gun. A device, occasionally fitted to the rear surface of the later LMG 08/15's receiver backplate, told the pilot how much ammunition

6958-632: The more refined and lighter weight LMG 08/15 version was developed, using the same airframe mounting geometry as the earlier ordnance to allow interchangeability between the earlier lMG 08 and later LMG 08/15 models, with the still well-perforated cooling jacket reduced to a 92.5 mm diameter. The LMG 08/15 was introduced in 1917. The lMG 08 and LMG 08/15 guns were always used on fixed-wing aircraft, as fixed forward-aimed synchronized firing ordnance initially in single mounts for Germany's 1915-16 era Fokker Eindecker and Halberstadt D.II "scout" single-seat fighters, and by 1916 in dual mounts, first appearing on

7056-462: The pH decrease will offset increased salinity and dissolved solids. Few other cooling applications approach the large volumes of water required to condense low-pressure steam at power stations . Many facilities, particularly electric power plants, use millions of gallons of water per day for cooling. Water cooling on this scale may alter natural water environments and create new environments. Thermal pollution of rivers, estuaries and coastal waters

7154-654: The presence of hot water has been improved by addition of corrosion inhibitors including zinc , chromates and phosphates . The first two have toxicity concerns; and the last has been associated with eutrophication . Residual concentrations of biocides and corrosion inhibitors are of potential concern for OTC and blowdown from open recirculating cooling water systems. With the exception of machines with short design life, closed recirculating systems require periodic cooling-water treatment or replacement raising similar concern about ultimate disposal of cooling water containing chemicals used with environmental safety assumptions of

7252-447: The result of rapid maneuvering by ground forces, an attack by airborne troops , or from the lack of defined front lines as found in counterinsurgency operations . Direct-fire artillery can also be massed to counter a penetration by enemy tanks . In particular self-propelled artillery are ideally suited for this role on account of their mobility, armor protection, and faster rate of fire compared to other weapons. A final situation

7350-429: The role of direct fire; however, in several situations it remains a necessary function on the modern battlefield. One of these is the defense of fixed fortified areas – for example fire support bases – for which specific firing techniques and munitions such as Killer Junior and Beehive anti-personnel rounds were developed. Another is when artillery is forced to defend itself, such as in a surprise attack. This could be

7448-550: The same 13.2 x 92 mm SR round as the 13.2 mm (0.520 in) Mauser Anti-Tank Rifle was introduced in 1918. Designated MG 18 TuF ( German : Tank und Flieger ), it was issued in limited numbers in late World War I. Based on the commercial MG09, in 1935, the Chinese began to produce the derivative Type 24 Heavy machine gun, which was not based solely on German drawings and introduced several improvements and new features. The Type 24 Heavy machine gun, first introduced to

7546-435: The screens entrained with the cooling water. More than 1,200 power plants and manufacturing facilities in the U.S. use OTC systems; the intake structures kill billions of fish and other organisms each year. More-agile aquatic predators consume organisms impinged on the screens; and warm water predators and scavengers colonize the cooling water discharge to feed on entrained organisms. The U.S. Clean Water Act required

7644-422: The slots apiece. Because of the important physical reinforcement provided by the cooling jacket on the MG 08 series of guns, the excessive slotting of the initial model of the air-cooled lMG 08 — amounting to slightly over 50% of the total area of the cylindrical cooling jacket's original circumferential sheetmetal — rendered the gun as too fragile, to the point of making it impossible to fit the muzzle booster that

7742-493: The synchronized forward-firing armament on the five examples of the Fokker M.5K/MG Eindecker production prototype aircraft, and soon afterwards served as a flexible aircraft observer's gun for rear defense. The initial model of the air-cooled "Spandau" lMG 08 front-firing cowling machine guns had lost the stocks, grips, and bipods of the infantry MG 08s to adapt it to a fixed, forward-firing mount forward of an aircraft's cockpit, with gun synchronization allowing safe firing through

7840-654: The temperature of CPUs and other components. Other uses include the cooling of lubricant oil in pumps ; for cooling purposes in heat exchangers ; for cooling buildings in HVAC and in chillers . Water is inexpensive, non-toxic , and available over most of the earth's surface. Liquid cooling offers higher thermal conductivity than air cooling. Water has unusually high specific heat capacity among commonly available liquids at room temperature and atmospheric pressure allowing efficient heat transfer over distance with low rates of mass transfer. Cooling water may be recycled through

7938-525: The trigger was released or until all available ammunition was expended. The standard iron sightline consisted of a blade front sight and a tangent rear sight with a V-notch, adjustable from 400 to 2,000 metres (437 to 2,187 yd) in 100 metres (109 yd) increments. The Zielfernrohr 12 (ZF12) was an optional 2.5× power optical sight that featured a range setting wheel graduated 400 to 2,000 metres (437 to 2,187 yd) or 400 to 2,600 metres (437 to 2,843 yd) in 100 metres (109 yd) increments. With

8036-518: The use of a water and antifreeze mixture to lower the freezing point to a temperature unlikely to be experienced. Antifreeze also inhibits corrosion from dissimilar metals and can increase the boiling point, allowing a wider range of water cooling temperatures. Its distinctive odor also alerts operators to cooling system leaks and problems that would go unnoticed in a water-only cooling system. Other less common chemical additives are products to reduce surface tension. These additives are meant to increase

8134-502: The user. The firing weapon must have a sighting device and an unobstructed view to the target, which means no obstacles or friendly units can be between it and the target. A weapon engaged in direct fire conversely exposes itself to direct return fire from the target. This is in contrast to indirect fire , which refers to firing a projectile on a curved ballistic trajectory or delivering self-accelerated munitions capable of long range and various degrees of homing abilities to alter

8232-433: The water absorbs heat. That heat is then rejected to the atmosphere by the evaporation of some of the water in cooling towers where upflowing air contacts the downflowing water. The loss of evaporated water into the air exhausted to the atmosphere is replaced by "make-up" fresh river water or fresh cooling water, but the amount of water lost during evaporative cooling may affect the natural habitat for aquatic organisms. Because

8330-421: The water-cooled infantry MG 08 guns could be fitted with. The later models of lMG 08 air-cooled machine gun variously "tweaked" the amount of slotting of the barrel by reducing the amount of sheet metal removed from it in minor ways through at least two or three trial formats, and eventually in the final versions produced, had the slotting omitted at the extreme ends of the cooling jacket's cylindrical member, with

8428-436: The weapon had established itself as the pre-eminent defensive battlefield weapon—the number had increased to 3,000; and in 1917 to 14,400 per month. The MG 08/15 was the "rather misguided attempt" at a lightened and thus more portable light machine gun from the standard MG 08, produced by "stepping-down" the upper rear and lower forward corners of the original MG 08's rectangular-outline receiver and breech assembly, and reducing

8526-480: The weapon. The MG 01 was also exported to Chile and Bulgaria. By 1903, the German Army had 11 machine-gun detachments serving with cavalry divisions. Criticisms of the MG 01 stressed its limited mobility and inability to keep up with the cavalry. The DWM and Spandau Arsenal developed the design further, decreasing weight by 7.7 kg, adding a detachable gun shield, an option for an optical sight, and removing

8624-613: The weight of the water and pumping system significantly reduces the portability of water-cooled firearms. Water-cooled machine guns were extensively used by both sides during World War I ; however, by the end of the war lighter weapons that rivaled the firepower, effectiveness and reliability of water-cooled models began to appear on the battlefield. Thus water-cooled weapons have played a far lesser role in subsequent conflicts. A hospital in Sweden relies on snow-cooling from melt-water to cool its data centers, medical equipment, and maintain

8722-547: The wheels. The result was the MG 08, which went into production at Spandau in 1908. The German Army observed the effectiveness of the Maxim gun in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, many of them German exports. With the importance of the machine gun apparent, the Army asked for additional funding from the Reichstag to increase the supply of machine guns. After criticism of the request from Socialist deputies,

8820-400: Was water-cooled , using a jacket around the barrel that held approximately 3.7 litres (0.98 US gal) of water. Using a separate attachment sight with range calculator for indirect fire, the MG 08 could be operated from cover. The MG 08, like the Maxim gun, operated on the basis of short barrel recoil and a toggle lock. Once cocked and fired the MG 08 would continue firing rounds until

8918-552: Was a lighter (22 lbs) and quite different, air-cooled Maxim system gun with a very high rate of fire (600-700 rounds/min). It was introduced in 1915, and was, but not without serious problems on occasion (as noted by Otto Parschau ), prototyped on Parschau's own A.16/15 Fokker A.III "green machine" monoplane with the Fokker Stangensteuerung gun synchronizer, received back with the synchronized Parabellum by Parschau on May 30, 1915 and first used in quantity as

9016-696: Was also used by the Asien-Korps in Sinai, Mesopotamia and Palestine . Being air-cooled, the Bergmann MG 15nA's barrel would overheat after 250 rounds of sustained fire. Other light machine guns would maintain the water-cooling system, such as the Dreyse MG 10 and MG 15; with an air-cooled version produced just before the war, known as the Dreyse-Muskete or the MG 15. Despite such developments,

9114-541: Was designated Rückstossverstärker 08 S . Thanks to that MG 08 came up to its British and Russian analogs with their Vickers-licensed recoil boosters in its rate of fire (up from about 300-350 to 450-600 rds/min) and reliability. Training was regulated by the Field Service Regulations of 1908, providing the German Army six years to train with the guns before the outbreak of World War I. The gun used 250-round fabric belts of 7.92×57mm ammunition. It

9212-701: Was first introduced in battle during the French Second Battle of the Aisne ( Chemin des Dames offensive) in April 1917. Deployment in increasingly large numbers with all front line infantry regiments continued in 1917 and during the German offensives of the spring and summer of 1918. There were other, less prominent, German machine guns in WWI that showed more promising understanding of tactical firepower; such as

9310-468: Was left to fire. Later on a significant upgrade to the gun's aerial usability was the fitting of the Klingstrom device on the right side of the receiver, which allowed the gun to be cocked and loaded with one hand from the cockpit. Various cocking/charging handle styles evolved with a simplified distinctive long handled cocking/charging device finally becoming preferred late in the war. LMG 08/15's used

9408-402: Was loaded in the s.S. Patrone . The s.S. Patrone had an extreme range of approximately 4,700 m (5,140 yd). From its 1914 introduction the s.S. Patrone was mainly issued for aerial combat and as of 1918 in the later stages of World War I to infantry machine gunners. Another early-WWI improvement introduced in 1915 was a muzzle booster , a patent-protected Vickers invention, which

9506-405: Was not a sound basis for an LMG." The designation 08/15 lives on as an idiom in colloquial German, nullachtfünfzehn ( zero-eight-fifteen  [ de ] , pronounced Null-acht-fünfzehn ), being used as a term to denote something totally ordinary and lacking in originality or specialness. The name of the weapon ( null-acht-fünfzehn ) originally became a slang term in the German Army in

9604-457: Was not until World War I that indirect fire supplanted direct fire as the primary method by which artillery supported the other combat arms . During World War II direct fire remained secondary to indirect fire, although it was used profusely in situations where indirect fire was less effective, and new direct-fire artillery such as anti-tank guns and anti-aircraft guns were developed. After World War II new technology continued to diminish

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