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95-915: Tulchyn was first mentioned in written sources in 1607, under the name Nestervar . It was a royal city in the Bracław Voivodeship in the Lesser Poland Province of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland . In 1609 King Sigismund III Vasa granted the town to Walenty Aleksander Kalinowski . Until 1728 Tulchyn was part of the estates of the Polish magnates of the Kalinowski family (other distinguished members of Tulchyn family were Adam Kalinowski and Marcin Kalinowski ), and then passed into

190-549: A Polish Church structure, pursued territorial conquests and was officially crowned the first king of Poland in 1025, near the end of his life. Bolesław also sought to spread Christianity to parts of eastern Europe that remained pagan, but suffered a setback when his greatest missionary, Adalbert of Prague , was killed in Prussia in 997. During the Congress of Gniezno in the year 1000, Holy Roman Emperor Otto III recognized

285-466: A national uprising under his supreme command. Kościuszko emancipated many peasants in order to enroll them as kosynierzy in his army, but the hard-fought insurrection, despite widespread national support, proved incapable of generating the foreign assistance necessary for its success. In the end, it was suppressed by the combined forces of Russia and Prussia, with Warsaw captured in November 1794 in

380-570: A union of Hungary and Poland that lasted until 1382. In 1374, Louis granted the Polish nobility the Privilege of Koszyce to assure the succession of one of his daughters in Poland. His youngest daughter Jadwiga (d. 1399) assumed the Polish throne in 1384. In 1386, Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania converted to Catholicism and married Queen Jadwiga of Poland. This act enabled him to become

475-563: A current session immediately) was exercised by a deputy in 1652. This practice would eventually weaken Poland's central government critically. In the Treaty of Pereyaslav (1654), the Ukrainian rebels declared themselves subjects of the Tsar of Russia . The Second Northern War raged through the core Polish lands in 1655–1660; it included a brutal and devastating invasion of Poland referred to as

570-697: A ghetto, Jews from Tulchyn were deported to the nearby Pechora concentration camp where they were killed. The area was liberated by the Red Army in March 1944. As of 2005, the city had a population of 16,136 people. In December 2022, as part of the derussification in Ukraine intensified by the full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine that began that year, monuments to Alexander Pushkin and Alexander Suvorov were taken down in Tulchyn. An important landmark of

665-606: A halt or regressed. The royal election of 1697 brought a ruler of the Saxon House of Wettin to the Polish throne: Augustus II the Strong (r. 1697–1733), who was able to assume the throne only by agreeing to convert to Roman Catholicism. He was succeeded by his son Augustus III (r. 1734–1763). The reigns of the Saxon kings (who were both simultaneously prince-electors of Saxony ) were disrupted by competing candidates for

760-532: A king of Poland himself, and he ruled as Władysław II Jagiełło until his death in 1434. The marriage established a personal Polish–Lithuanian union ruled by the Jagiellonian dynasty . The first in a series of formal "unions" was the Union of Krewo of 1385, whereby arrangements were made for the marriage of Jogaila and Jadwiga. The Polish–Lithuanian partnership brought vast areas of Ruthenia controlled by

855-703: A period of approximately 500,000 years, the area of present-day Poland was intermittently inhabited by members of the genus Homo . The earliest evidence of Homo erectus activity in the form of microlith artifacts was discovered at Trzebnica , in Lower Silesia . It remains the oldest archeological site in the country, dating back to the Lower Paleolithic period of the Stone Age . The southern regions of Poland were subsequently penetrated by sporadic groups of Neanderthals . Their presence

950-456: A seminal chronicle, the Gesta principum Polonorum , intended as a glorification of his patron Bolesław III Wrymouth (r. 1107–38), a ruler who revived the tradition of military prowess of Bolesław I's time. Gallus' work remains a paramount written source for the early history of Poland. After Bolesław III divided Poland among his sons in his Testament of 1138 , internal fragmentation eroded

1045-518: A thousand years, from medieval tribes , Christianization and monarchy ; through Poland's Golden Age , expansionism and becoming one of the largest European powers ; to its collapse and partitions , two world wars , communism , and the restoration of democracy . The roots of Polish history can be traced to ancient times , when the territory of present-day Poland was inhabited by diverse ethnic groups, including Celts , Scythians , Sarmatians , Slavs , Balts and Germanic peoples . However, it

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1140-515: A unification of the Lechitic tribal lands that was fundamental to the new country's existence. Following its emergence, Poland was led by a series of rulers who converted the population to Christianity, created a strong kingdom and fostered a distinctive Polish culture that was integrated into the broader European culture . Mieszko's son, Duke Bolesław I the Brave (r. 992–1025), established

1235-501: A unique noble democracy with an elective monarchy . From the mid-17th century, however, the huge state entered a period of decline caused by devastating wars and the deterioration of its political system. Significant internal reforms were introduced in the late 18th century, such as Europe's first Constitution of 3 May 1791 . The existence of the Commonwealth ended in 1795 after a series of invasions and partitions carried out by

1330-599: Is at a flint shaft in Krzemionki and features a linear charcoal pictogram of a female figure or deity that has been since associated with fertility. Poland's Early Bronze Age began around 2400–2300 BC, whereas its Iron Age commenced c. 750–700 BC. One of the many cultures that have been uncovered, the Lusatian culture , spanned the Bronze and Iron Ages and left notable settlement sites. Around 400 BC, Poland

1425-596: Is known as the Great Sejm or Four-Year Sejm; it first met in 1788. Its landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of 3 May 1791 , the first singular pronouncement of a supreme law of the state in modern Europe. A moderately reformist document condemned by detractors as sympathetic to the ideals of the French Revolution , it soon generated strong opposition from the conservative circles of

1520-560: The Archbishopric of Gniezno , an institution crucial for the continuing existence of the sovereign Polish state. During the reign of Otto's successor, Holy Roman Emperor Henry II , Bolesław fought prolonged wars with the Kingdom of Germany between 1002 and 1018. Bolesław I's expansive rule overstretched the resources of the early Polish state, and it was followed by a collapse of the monarchy. Recovery took place under Casimir I

1615-817: The Baltic during the Polish–Swedish wars of 1617–1629, and the Ottoman Empire pressed from the south in the Battles at Cecora in 1620 and Khotyn in 1621. The agricultural expansion and serfdom policies in Polish Ukraine resulted in a series of Cossack uprisings . Allied with the Habsburg monarchy , the Commonwealth did not directly participate in the Thirty Years' War . Władysław's IV reign

1710-636: The Battle of Grunwald (1410), a great victory that the Poles and Lithuanians were unable to follow up with a decisive strike against the main seat of the Teutonic Order at Malbork Castle . The Union of Horodło of 1413 further defined the evolving relationship between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The privileges of the szlachta (nobility) kept expanding and in 1425

1805-667: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania into Poland's sphere of influence and proved beneficial for the nationals of both countries, who coexisted and cooperated in one of the largest political entities in Europe for the next four centuries. When Queen Jadwiga died in 1399, the Kingdom of Poland fell to her husband's sole possession. In the Baltic Sea region, Poland's struggle with the Teutonic Knights continued and culminated in

1900-604: The Great Sejm adopted the Free Royal Cities Act (full title: "Miasta nasze królewskie wolne w państwach Rzeczypospolitej" - "Our Free Royal Cities in the States of the Commonwealth "), included as Article III into the Constitution of May 3, 1791 . The law granted a number of privileges for the residents of royal cities. Many of these privileges and rights have already been enjoyed by major royal cities, and

1995-539: The Jagiellonian dynasty in the 14th–16th centuries brought close ties with the Lithuania , a cultural Renaissance in Poland and continued territorial expansion as well as Polonization that culminated in the establishment of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569, one of Europe's great powers . The Commonwealth was able to sustain centuries-long prosperity, while its political system matured as

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2090-484: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , a federal state more closely unified than the earlier political arrangement between Poland and Lithuania. The union was run largely by the nobility through the system of central parliament and local assemblies , but was headed by elected kings . The formal rule of the nobility, who were proportionally more numerous than in other European countries, constituted an early democratic system ("a sophisticated noble democracy"), in contrast to

2185-612: The Russian Civil War between 1917 and 1920 the town frequently changed hands, between the Poles, the Bolsheviks , White Russians and Ukrainians. During World War II , Nazi Germany invaded and occupied all of Vinnytsia Oblast by the end of July 1941. A large section of the region, including Tulchyn, was handed over by the Nazis to Romania , who administrated it as Transnistria Governorate . After first being confined to

2280-770: The Russian Empire annexed Tulchyn as part of the Second Partition of Poland . In the 1820s, Tulchyn was a centre of the movement plotting the Decembrist revolt against the Tsarist regime of Russia. A local branch of the Union of Prosperity was located in the city. Prior to the October Revolution , Tulchyn was home to a large Jewish population. There were two trade fairs, July 24 and October 1 each year, and separate 26 market days annually. In

2375-485: The Russian Empire , the Kingdom of Prussia and the Habsburg monarchy . From 1795 until 1918, no truly independent Polish state existed, although strong resistance movements operated. The opportunity to regain sovereignty only materialized after World War I , when the three partitioning powers were fatally weakened in the wake of war and revolution. The Second Polish Republic was established in 1918 and existed as an independent state until 1939, when Nazi Germany and

2470-571: The Soviet Union invaded Poland , marking the beginning of World War II . Millions of Polish citizens of different faiths or identities perished under Nazi occupation between 1939 and 1945 through planned genocide and extermination . A Polish government-in-exile functioned throughout the war, and the Poles contributed to the Allied victory through participation in military campaigns on both

2565-810: The Sudeten Mountains through the Moravian Gate and the Kłodzko Valley into Lower Silesia. The Neolithic period ushered in the Linear Pottery culture , whose founders belonged to the Danubian culture and migrated from the Danube River area beginning about 5500 BC. This culture was distinguished by the establishment of the first settled agricultural communities in modern Polish territory. Later, between about 4400 and 2000 BC,

2660-579: The Swedish Deluge . The war ended in 1660 with the Treaty of Oliva , which resulted in the loss of some of Poland's northern possessions. In 1657 the Treaty of Bromberg established the independence of the Duchy of Prussia . The Commonwealth forces did well in the Russo-Polish War (1654–1667) , but the result was the permanent division of Ukraine between Poland and Russia, as agreed to in

2755-609: The Truce of Andrusovo (1667). Towards the end of the war, the Lubomirski's rebellion , a major magnate revolt against the king, destabilized and weakened the country. The large-scale slave raids of the Crimean Tatars also had highly deleterious effects on the Polish economy. Merkuriusz Polski , the first Polish newspaper, was published in 1661. In 1668, grief-stricken at the recent death of his wife and frustrated by

2850-607: The Warsaw Confederation in 1573. After the rule of the Jagiellonian dynasty ended in 1572, Henry of Valois (later King Henry III of France ) was the winner of the first " free election " by the Polish nobility, held in 1573. He had to agree to the restrictive pacta conventa obligations and fled Poland in 1574 when news arrived of the vacancy of the French throne, to which he was the heir presumptive . From

2945-491: The absolute monarchies prevalent at that time in the rest of Europe. The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with a period in Polish history when great political power was attained and advancements in civilization and prosperity took place. The Polish–Lithuanian Union became an influential participant in European affairs and a vital cultural entity that spread Western culture (with Polish characteristics ) eastward. In

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3040-523: The crown lands ( Polish : królewszczyzna ). The most influential royal cities enjoyed voting rights during the free election period in Poland (1572–1791). These cities were Gdańsk , Warsaw , Kraków , Poznań , Lwów , Wilno , Toruń , Lublin , Kamieniec and Elbląg . Other important royal cities included Gniezno (ecclesiastical capital of Poland and former capital of early medieval Poland), Płock (former capital of medieval Poland), Piotrków (second most important political center of Poland in

3135-596: The eastern and western fronts. The westward advances of the Soviet Red Army in 1944 and 1945 compelled Nazi Germany's forces to retreat from Poland, which led to the establishment of a satellite communist country, known from 1952 as the Polish People's Republic . The territorial adjustments mandated by the Allies at the end of World War II in 1945 shifted Poland's geographic centre of gravity towards

3230-666: The Commonwealth fought wars with Russia between 1605 and 1618 in the wake of Russia's Time of Troubles ; the series of conflicts is referred to as the Polish–Russian War or the Dymitriads . The efforts resulted in expansion of the eastern territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but the goal of taking over the Russian throne for the Polish ruling dynasty was not achieved. Sweden sought supremacy in

3325-616: The Commonwealth's existence as a Russian protectorate: the Tsardom would guarantee the reform-impeding Golden Liberty of the nobility from that time on in order to cement the Commonwealth's weak central authority and a state of perpetual political impotence. In a resounding break with traditions of religious tolerance, Protestants were executed during the Tumult of Thorn in 1724. In 1732, Russia , Austria and Prussia , Poland's three increasingly powerful and scheming neighbors, entered into

3420-458: The Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Empress Catherine of Russia, who was determined to prevent the rebirth of a strong Commonwealth. The nobility's Targowica Confederation , formed in Russian imperial capital of Saint Petersburg , appealed to Catherine for help, and in May 1792, the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The Polish–Russian War of 1792 , a defensive war fought by

3515-672: The Duchy of Warsaw , led by Józef Poniatowski , participated in numerous campaigns in alliance with France, including the successful Austro-Polish War of 1809, which, combined with the outcomes of other theaters of the War of the Fifth Coalition , resulted in an enlargement of the duchy's territory. The French invasion of Russia in 1812 and the German Campaign of 1813 saw the duchy's last military engagements. The Constitution of

3610-418: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania to Poland and transformed the Polish–Lithuanian polity into a real union , preserving it beyond the death of the childless Sigismund II, whose active involvement made the completion of this process possible. Livonia in the far northeast was incorporated by Poland in 1561 and Poland entered the Livonian War against Russia. The executionist movement , which attempted to check

3705-400: The Old (1506–1548) and King Sigismund II Augustus (1548–1572) witnessed an intense cultivation of culture and science (a Golden Age of the Renaissance in Poland ), of which the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) is the best known representative. Jan Kochanowski (1530–1584) was a poet and the premier artistic personality of the period. In 1525, during the reign of Sigismund I,

3800-420: The Piast monarchical structures in the 12th and 13th centuries. In 1180, Casimir II the Just , who sought papal confirmation of his status as a senior duke , granted immunities and additional privileges to the Polish Church at the Congress of Łęczyca . Around 1220, Wincenty Kadłubek wrote his Chronica seu originale regum et principum Poloniae , another major source for early Polish history. In 1226, one of

3895-427: The Pious granted Jewish liberties in the Statute of Kalisz . Attempts to reunite the Polish lands gained momentum in the 13th century, and in 1295, Duke Przemysł II of Greater Poland managed to become the first ruler since Bolesław II to be crowned king of Poland. He ruled over a limited territory and was soon killed. In 1300–05 King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia also reigned as king of Poland. The Piast Kingdom

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3990-409: The Polish state begin with the rule of Duke Mieszko I , whose reign commenced sometime before 963 and continued until his death in 992. Mieszko converted to Christianity in 966, following his marriage to Princess Doubravka of Bohemia , a fervent Christian . The event is known as the " baptism of Poland ", and its date is often used to mark a symbolic beginning of Polish statehood. Mieszko completed

4085-403: The Polish state for centuries to come. Progress was made in the recovery of the separately governed central province of Mazovia , however, and in 1340, the conquest of Red Ruthenia began, marking Poland's expansion to the east. The Congress of Kraków , a vast convocation of central, eastern, and northern European rulers probably assembled to plan an anti- Turkish crusade , took place in 1364,

4180-449: The Restorer (r. 1039–58). Casimir's son Bolesław II the Generous (r. 1058–79) became involved in a conflict with Bishop Stanislaus of Szczepanów that ultimately caused his downfall. Bolesław had the bishop murdered in 1079 after being excommunicated by the Polish church on charges of adultery. This act sparked a revolt of Polish nobles that led to Bolesław's deposition and expulsion from the country. Around 1116, Gallus Anonymus wrote

4275-444: The Sejm, transferred most of the legislative power from the monarch to the Sejm. This event marked the beginning of the period known as " Golden Liberty ", when the state was ruled in principle by the "free and equal" Polish nobility. In the 16th century, the massive development of folwark agribusinesses operated by the nobility led to increasingly abusive conditions for the peasant serfs who worked them. The political monopoly of

4370-438: The Teutonic Order was secularized and Duke Albert performed an act of homage before the Polish king (the Prussian Homage ) for his fief, the Duchy of Prussia. Mazovia was finally fully incorporated into the Polish Crown in 1529. The reign of Sigismund II ended the Jagiellonian period, but gave rise to the Union of Lublin (1569), an ultimate fulfillment of the union with Lithuania. This agreement transferred Ukraine from

4465-432: The accession of Władysław's brother Casimir IV Jagiellon in 1447. Critical developments of the Jagiellonian period were concentrated during Casimir IV's long reign, which lasted until 1492. In 1454, Royal Prussia was incorporated by Poland and the Thirteen Years' War of 1454–66 with the Teutonic state ensued. In 1466, the milestone Peace of Thorn was concluded. This treaty divided Prussia to create East Prussia ,

4560-505: The affairs of the Commonwealth. At that time, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and the Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Polish and Lithuanian Protestant circles . In 1596, the Union of Brest split the Eastern Christians of the Commonwealth to create the Uniate Church of the Eastern Rite, but subject to the authority of the pope. The Zebrzydowski rebellion against Sigismund III unfolded in 1606–1608. Seeking supremacy in Eastern Europe,

4655-401: The aftermath of the Battle of Praga . In 1795, a Third Partition of Poland was undertaken by Russia, Prussia and Austria as a final division of territory that resulted in the effective dissolution of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. King Stanisław August Poniatowski was escorted to Grodno , forced to abdicate, and retired to Saint Petersburg . Tadeusz Kościuszko, initially imprisoned,

4750-438: The anonymous Bavarian Geographer in the 9th century. Largely divided, it was the Western Polans in the Greater Poland region who began a process of unification and created a lasting political structure in the 10th century that subsequently became the state of Poland. Poland was established as a state under the Piast dynasty , which ruled the country between the 10th and 14th centuries. Historical records referring to

4845-446: The capital city of Warsaw , replaced Danzig (Gdańsk) as the leading trade center, and the importance of the more prosperous urban social classes increased. The last decades of the independent Commonwealth's existence were characterized by aggressive reform movements and far-reaching progress in the areas of education, intellectual life, art and the evolution of the social and political system. The royal election of 1764 resulted in

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4940-461: The city is the palace of the Potocki family , built according to the principles of Palladian architecture according to the plans drafted by Joseph Lacroix during the 1780s. Although many of the Slavic-language equivalents to this template equate this template to the borders of the old Tulchyn Raion prior to the 2020 administrative reform, this is linked with the modern borders, as the English wikipedia has integrated all 2020 Raion reformation into

5035-405: The country's three powerful neighbors and only a rump state remained. In 1773, the " Partition Sejm " ratified the partition under duress as a fait accompli . However, it also established the Commission of National Education , a pioneering in Europe education authority often called the world's first ministry of education. The long-lasting session of parliament convened by King Stanisław August

5130-434: The creator of Polish statehood, adopted Western Christianity in 966 CE. Mieszko's dominion was formally reconstituted as a medieval kingdom in 1025 by his son Bolesław I the Brave , known for his military expansions. The most successful and the last Piast monarch, Casimir III the Great , presided over a period of economic prosperity and territorial aggrandizement before his death in 1370 without male heirs. The period of

5225-424: The defeat of Polish and allied Christian forces and the death of the Silesian Piast Duke Henry II the Pious at the Battle of Legnica in 1241. In 1242, Wrocław became the first Polish municipality to be incorporated , as the period of fragmentation brought economic development and growth of towns. New cities were founded and existing settlements were granted town status per Magdeburg Law . In 1264, Bolesław

5320-447: The disastrous political setbacks of his reign, John II Casimir abdicated the throne and fled to France . King Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki , a native Pole, was elected to replace John II Casimir in 1669. The Polish–Ottoman War (1672–76) broke out during his reign, which lasted until 1673, and continued under his successor, John III Sobieski (r. 1674–1696). Sobieski intended to pursue Baltic area expansion (and to this end he signed

5415-452: The early and mid-16th century as the main location of the Sejm , and then the main Crown Tribunal location alongside Lublin, thus one of the two judiciary capitals of Poland), Grodno ( de facto capital of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 1580s and then the general sejm location alongside Warsaw), Bydgoszcz and Kalisz (temporary locations of the Crown Tribunal), and Sandomierz , Przemyśl , Kazimierz . On April 18, 1791,

5510-407: The elevation of Stanisław August Poniatowski , a refined and worldly aristocrat connected to the Czartoryski family, but hand-picked and imposed by Empress Catherine the Great of Russia, who expected him to be her obedient follower. Stanisław August ruled the Polish–Lithuanian state until its dissolution in 1795. The king spent his reign torn between his desire to implement reforms necessary to save

5605-413: The end of the Polish Golden Age . Their effect was to render the once powerful Commonwealth increasingly vulnerable to foreign intervention. The Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648–1657 engulfed the south-eastern regions of the Polish crown; its long-term effects were disastrous for the Commonwealth. The first liberum veto (a parliamentary device that allowed any member of the Sejm to dissolve

5700-413: The failing state and the perceived necessity of remaining in a subordinate relationship to his Russian sponsors. The Bar Confederation (1768–1772) was a rebellion of nobles directed against Russia's influence in general and Stanisław August, who was seen as its representative, in particular. It was fought to preserve Poland's independence and the nobility's traditional interests. After several years, it

5795-498: The forces of the Commonwealth against Russian invaders, ended when the Polish king, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. The Russian-allied confederation took over the government, but Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for the Second Partition of Poland anyway. The partition left the country with a critically reduced territory that rendered it essentially incapable of an independent existence. The Commonwealth's Grodno Sejm of 1793,

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5890-434: The future Duchy of Prussia , a separate entity that functioned as a fief of Poland under the administration of the Teutonic Knights. Poland also confronted the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Tatars in the south, and in the east helped Lithuania fight the Grand Duchy of Moscow . The country was developing as a feudal state, with a predominantly agricultural economy and an increasingly dominant landed nobility . Kraków ,

5985-567: The hands of Stanisław Potocki bypassing other Kalinowskis' branch, then in 1734 to Franciszek Salezy Potocki and his son Stanisław Szczęsny Potocki , who was the most memorable and infamous member of the Tulchyn branch of the Potocki family. During the Targowica confederation Tulchyn was the headquarters of the confederates. The 14th Polish Infantry Regiment was formed in Tulchyn in 1785 and garrisoned there. In 1787, Tulchyn received Magdeburg rights . The 6th National Cavalry Brigade and 12th Infantry Regiment were stationed there in 1789. In 1793,

6080-452: The historically Polish province of Silesia from the Habsburg monarchy in the Silesian Wars ; it thus constituted an ever-greater threat to Poland's security . The personal union between the Commonwealth and the Electorate of Saxony did give rise to the emergence of a reform movement in the Commonwealth and the beginnings of the Polish Enlightenment culture, the major positive developments of this era. The first Polish public library

6175-492: The history of the Commonwealth: in the first half of the 18th century, Poland ceased to be an active player in international politics. The Treaty of Perpetual Peace (1686) with Russia was the final border settlement between the two countries before the First Partition of Poland in 1772. The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered enormous population losses and massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective in

6270-545: The inhabitants of Poland are also the descendants of people from before the Migration Period. According to other archaeological and linguistic research, early Slavic peoples were likely present in parts of Poland much earlier, and may have been associated with the ancient Przeworsk culture of the 3rd century BC, though some Slavic groups may have arrived from the east in later periods. The West Slavic and Lechitic peoples as well as any remaining minority clans were organized into tribal units ( Polish tribes ), as outlined by

6365-502: The last Sejm of the state's existence, was compelled to confirm the new partition. Radicalized by recent events, Polish reformers (whether in exile or still resident in the reduced area remaining to the Commonwealth) were soon working on preparations for a national insurrection. Tadeusz Kościuszko , a popular general and a veteran of the American Revolution , was chosen as its leader. He returned from abroad and issued Kościuszko's proclamation in Kraków on March 24, 1794. It called for

6460-669: The law effectively equalized all royal cities in this respect. It also includes some rights earlier enjoyed only by szlachta . Examples of Polish royal castles and residences found in former royal cities of Poland: The historic old towns of Kraków , Warsaw , Toruń , Vilnius and Lviv are designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites , and additionally the old towns of Gdańsk , Kazimierz Dolny , Lublin , Przemyśl , Sandomierz and Tykocin are designated Historic Monuments of Poland . Examples of Polish royal cities historic centers include: History of Poland Timeline of Polish history The history of Poland spans over

6555-435: The legal Crown Tribunal in 1578 meant a transfer of many appellate cases from the royal to noble jurisdiction. A period of rule under the Swedish House of Vasa began in the Commonwealth in the year 1587. The first two kings from this dynasty, Sigismund III (r. 1587–1632) and Władysław IV (r. 1632–1648), repeatedly attempted to intrigue for accession to the throne of Sweden, which was a constant source of distraction for

6650-423: The liberation of their Polish homeland. The Polish national anthem, " Poland Is Not Yet Lost ", or "Dąbrowski's Mazurka ", was written in praise of his actions by Józef Wybicki in 1797. The Duchy of Warsaw , a small, semi-independent Polish state, was created in 1807 by Napoleon in the wake of his defeat of Prussia and the signing of the Treaties of Tilsit with Emperor Alexander I of Russia . The Army of

6745-414: The modern-day raion articles given that the raion article depicts a Raion that was expanded and not integrated into another. Given that, this template contains far more villages than many of the other languages have, as it includes the acquired territory post-2020. Royal city In the history of Poland , a royal city or royal town ( Polish : miasto królewskie ) was an urban settlement within

6840-526: The native post- Mesolithic populations would also adopt and further develop the agricultural way of life. Excavations indicated broad-ranging development in the New Stone Age . Most notably, the oldest samples of European cheese (5500 BC) were found in the region of Kuyavia , and a pot from Bronocice is incised with what is now believed to be the earliest-known portrayal of a wheeled vehicle (3400 BC). Toolmaking became more advanced and material

6935-645: The nobility took oaths of loyalty to their new rulers and served as officers in their armies. Although no sovereign Polish state existed between 1795 and 1918, the idea of Polish independence was kept alive throughout the 19th century. There were a number of uprisings and other armed undertakings waged against the partitioning powers. Military efforts after the partitions were first based on the alliances of Polish émigrés with post- revolutionary France . Jan Henryk Dąbrowski 's Polish Legions fought in French campaigns outside of Poland between 1797 and 1802 in hopes that their involvement and contribution would be rewarded with

7030-617: The nobles also stifled the development of cities, some of which were thriving during the late Jagiellonian era, and limited the rights of townspeople, effectively holding back the emergence of the middle class . In the 16th century, Protestant Reformation movements made deep inroads into Polish Christianity and the resulting Reformation in Poland involved a number of different denominations . The policies of religious tolerance that developed in Poland were nearly unique in Europe at that time and many who fled regions torn by religious strife found refuge in Poland. The reigns of King Sigismund I

7125-710: The progressing domination of the state by the magnate families of Poland and Lithuania , peaked at the Sejm in Piotrków in 1562–63. On the religious front, the Polish Brethren split from the Calvinists , and the Protestant Brest Bible was published in 1563. The Jesuits , who arrived in 1564, were destined to make a major impact on Poland's history. The Union of Lublin of 1569 established

7220-654: The regional Piast dukes, Konrad I of Masovia , invited the Teutonic Knights to help him fight the Baltic Prussian pagans. The Teutonic Order destroyed the Prussians but kept their lands, which resulted in centuries of warfare between Poland and the Teutonic Knights, and later between Poland and the German Prussian state . The first Mongol invasion of Poland began in 1240; it culminated in

7315-412: The royal capital, was turning into a major academic and cultural center, and in 1473 the first printing press began operating there. With the growing importance of szlachta (middle and lower nobility), the king's council evolved to become by 1493 a bicameral General Sejm (parliament) that no longer represented exclusively top dignitaries of the realm. The Nihil novi act, adopted in 1505 by

7410-429: The rule of Neminem captivabimus , which protected the noblemen from arbitrary royal arrests, was formulated. The reign of the young Władysław III (1434–44), who succeeded his father Władysław II Jagiełło and ruled as king of Poland and Hungary , was cut short by his death at the Battle of Varna , during a crusade against the Ottoman Empire . This disaster led to an interregnum of three years that ended with

7505-560: The same year that the future Jagiellonian University , one of the oldest European universities, was founded. On 9 October 1334, Casimir III confirmed the privileges granted to Jews in 1264 by Bolesław the Pious and allowed them to settle in Poland in great numbers. After the Polish royal line and Piast junior branch died out in 1370, Poland came under the rule of Louis I of Hungary of the Capetian House of Anjou , who presided over

7600-405: The second half of the 16th century and the first half of the 17th century, the Commonwealth was one of the largest and most populous states in contemporary Europe, with an area approaching one million square kilometres (0.39 million square miles ) and a population of about ten million. Its economy was dominated by export-focused agriculture. Nationwide religious toleration was guaranteed at

7695-480: The secret Treaty of Jaworów with France in 1675), but was forced instead to fight protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire. By doing so, Sobieski briefly revived the Commonwealth's military might. He defeated the expanding Muslims at the Battle of Khotyn in 1673 and decisively helped deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught at the Battle of Vienna in 1683. Sobieski's reign marked the last high point in

7790-553: The secret Treaty of the Three Black Eagles with the intention of controlling the future royal succession in the Commonwealth. The War of the Polish Succession was fought in 1733–1735 to assist Leszczyński in assuming the throne of Poland for a second time. Amidst considerable foreign involvement, his efforts were unsuccessful. The Kingdom of Prussia became a strong regional power and succeeded in wresting

7885-413: The start, the royal elections increased foreign influence in the Commonwealth as foreign powers sought to manipulate the Polish nobility to place candidates amicable to their interests. The reign of Stephen Báthory of Hungary followed (r. 1576–1586). He was militarily and domestically assertive and is revered in Polish historical tradition as a rare case of a successful elective king. The establishment of

7980-408: The throne and witnessed further disintegration of the Commonwealth. The Great Northern War of 1700–1721, a period seen by the contemporaries as a temporary eclipse, may have been the fatal blow that brought down the Polish political system. Stanisław Leszczyński was installed as king in 1704 under Swedish protection, but lasted only a few years. The Silent Sejm of 1717 marked the beginning of

8075-453: The wake of large-scale internal conflicts, corrupted legislative processes and manipulation by foreign interests. The nobility fell under the control of a handful of feuding magnate families with established territorial domains. The urban population and infrastructure fell into ruin, together with most peasant farms, whose inhabitants were subjected to increasingly extreme forms of serfdom. The development of science, culture and education came to

8170-522: The west , and the re-defined Polish lands largely lost their historic multi-ethnic character . By the late 1980s, the Polish reform movement Solidarity contributed to a peaceful transition from a planned communist economy to capitalism and a liberal parliamentary democracy . This process resulted in the creation of the modern Polish state , the Third Polish Republic, founded in 1989. In prehistoric and protohistoric times, over

8265-477: Was allowed to emigrate to the United States in 1796. The response of the Polish leadership to the last partition is a matter of historical debate. Literary scholars found that the dominant emotion of the first decade was despair that produced a moral desert ruled by violence and treason. On the other hand, historians have looked for signs of resistance to foreign rule. Apart from those who went into exile,

8360-603: Was brought under control by forces loyal to the king and those of the Russian Empire . Following the suppression of the Bar Confederation, parts of the Commonwealth were divided up among Prussia, Austria and Russia in 1772 at the instigation of Frederick the Great of Prussia, an action that became known as the First Partition of Poland : the outer provinces of the Commonwealth were seized by agreement among

8455-673: Was confirmed by the stone tools unearthed in caves of the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland , a limestone formation with hills, cliffs and valleys that came to be known as the Polish Jura. The arrival of Homo sapiens and anatomically modern humans coincided with the climatic discontinuity at the end of the Last Glacial Period ( Weichselian glaciation ) around 10,000 BC, when Poland became warmer and habitable. It allowed various groups of early humans to pass

8550-573: Was effectively restored under Władysław I the Elbow-high (r. 1306–33), who became king in 1320. In 1308, the Teutonic Knights seized Gdańsk and the surrounding region of Pomerelia . King Casimir III the Great (r. 1333–70), Władysław's son and the last of the Piast rulers, strengthened and expanded the restored Kingdom of Poland, but the western provinces of Silesia (formally ceded by Casimir in 1339) and most of Polish Pomerania were lost to

8645-587: Was mostly peaceful, with a Russian invasion in the form of the Smolensk War of 1632–1634 successfully repelled. The Orthodox Church hierarchy, banned in Poland after the Union of Brest, was re-established in 1635. During the reign of John II Casimir Vasa (r. 1648–1668), the third and last king of his dynasty, the nobles' democracy fell into decline as a result of foreign invasions and domestic disorder. These calamities multiplied rather suddenly and marked

8740-586: Was primarily sourced from quarries and mines in the Świętokrzyskie (Holy Cross) Mountains . Artifacts that originated in this mountain region were excavated as far as Moravia and near the Baltic Sea . It is estimated that the UNESCO -protected neolithic flint mines at Krzemionki , one of Europe's largest, were utilised by the Funnelbeaker and Globular Amphora cultures from 3900 BC to 1600 BC. The only surviving example of ancient parietal art in Poland

8835-783: Was settled by Celts of the La Tène culture . They were soon followed by emerging cultures with a strong Germanic component, influenced first by the Celts and then by the Roman Empire . The Germanic peoples migrated out of the area by about 500 AD during the great Migration Period of the European Dark Ages . Wooded regions to the north and east were settled by Balts . According to some archaeological research, Slavs have resided in modern Polish territories for only 1,500 years. However, recent genetic studies determined that

8930-710: Was the West Slavic Lechites , the closest ancestors of ethnic Poles , who established permanent settlements during the Early Middle Ages . The Lechitic Western Polans , a tribe whose name denotes "people living in open fields", dominated the region and gave Poland - which lies in the North-Central European Plain - its name . The first ruling dynasty, the Piasts , emerged in the 10th century AD. Duke Mieszko I , regarded as

9025-668: Was the Załuski Library in Warsaw, opened to the public in 1747. During the later part of the 18th century, fundamental internal reforms were attempted in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as it slid into extinction. The reform activity, initially promoted by the magnate Czartoryski family faction known as the Familia , provoked a hostile reaction and military response from neighboring powers, but it did create conditions that fostered economic improvement. The most populous urban center,

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