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116-528: The "Tunka Alps" lie about 200 km southwest of the city of Irkutsk . The park features some dramatic scenery of rift and glacial valleys and mountains, hot springs, mountain meadows, waterfalls, and many associated habitats. The park is found at a meeting point of taiga , steppe , alpine forest and lake ecosystems. Tunkinsky, and the Tunka Valley it encompasses, lies between the two great lakes of Siberia - Lake Baikal and Lake Khövsgöl . Heights of

232-553: A bio-diverse and isolated park, Tunkinsky is home to a wide variety of animals: over 305 vertebrates have been identified, of which 62 have been characterized as rare or endangered. The endangered species include the snow leopard (with confirmed presence at the northern edge of its range), and the Asiatic wild dog ( dhole , or Cuon alpinus ) also at the northern edge of its range. Park researchers have identified 54 species of mammals (including Siberian roe deer , wolverine , elk, and

348-821: A branch in Irkutsk. Additionally, there are R&D institutes including GAZPROM R&D Institute (a Branch of a Moscow-based institute), the Irkutsk Institute of Rare and Precious Metals and Diamonds (Irgiredmet) , part of the Petropavlovsk Group of Companies., and the Vostoksibacademcenter of the Russian Academy of Architecture and Construction Sciences that publishes the Project Baikal journal. Irkutsk plays

464-751: A crucial role in Jules Verne’s 1876 novel Michael Strogoff . In the novel Strogoff is the heroic courier of the Czar Alexander II entrusted with delivering a critical dispatch to the Czar’s brother in Irkutsk with vital information about a rebellion brewing in Siberia. Irkutsk was home to Russian writer Valentin Rasputin ; many of his novels and stories take place in the Angara Valley. An essay on

580-683: A fire burned out of control, destroying the palace of the Governor General, and the principal administrative and municipal offices. Many of the other public buildings, including the government archives, the library, and the museum of the Siberian section of the Russian Geographical Society , were completely ruined. Three-quarters of the city was destroyed, including approximately 4,000 houses. The city quickly rebounded, installing electricity in 1896. The first theater

696-491: A lieutenant. Not only were political and social activities carefully monitored and prevented, there was interference regarding religious convictions. Local clergy accused Prince Shakhovskoi of "heresy", due to his interest in natural sciences. Authorities investigated and restrained other Decembrists for not attending church. The regime thoroughly censored all correspondences, especially communication with relatives. Messages were scrupulously reviewed by both officials in Siberia and

812-672: A military hospital and the crown factories are among the public institutions and buildings. The Aleksandr Kolchak monument, designed by Vyacheslav Klykov , was unveiled in 2004. On July 27, 2004, the Irkutsk Synagogue (1881) was gutted by a fire. In December 2016, 74 people in Irkutsk died in a mass methanol poisoning , after drinking this toxic alcohol substitute. In 2018, the BBC reported that men in Irkutsk had an average life span of only 63. The society had declined and their health had suffered markedly. In October 2021, it

928-487: A new house, the owners usually adhered only to the orientation of the windows to the south side. This is how the layout of the oldest part of the city took shape — from Angara to modern Karl Marx Street: the main directions of the streets repeat the outlines of the coastline, which, in turn, are crossed by transverse passages connecting the outskirts of the city with the center and overlooking the Angara bank. The curvature of

1044-746: A number of imperial sentence reductions, exiles started to complete their labor terms years ahead of schedule. The labor was of minimal travail; Stanislav Leparsky, commandant of Petrovsky Zavod, failed to enforce Decembrists' original labor sentences, and criminal convicts carried out much of the work in place of the revolutionaries. Most Decembrists left Petrovsky Zavod between 1835 and 1837, settling in or near Irkutsk, Minusinsk, Kurgan, Tobol'sk, Turinsk, and Yalutorovsk. Those Decembrists who had already lived in or visited Siberia, such as Dimitri Zavalishin, prospered upon leaving Petrovsky Zavod's confines, but most found it physically arduous and more psychologically unnerving than prison life. The Siberian population met

1160-702: A number of private colleges: Siberian Institute of Law, Economics and Management (since 1993), Institute of Economics of ISTU (since 1996), and others. As Irkutsk is within the influence of the Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences , there are nine research institutes located in the Irkutsk Academgorodok suburb: the Institute of Geography , the Energy System Institute , the Institute of Geochemistry ,

1276-486: A public address, then stabbed by Yevgeny Obolensky . At the same time, a rebelling squad of grenadiers , led by Lieutenant Nikolay Panov, entered the Winter Palace but failed to seize it and retreated. After spending most of the day in fruitless attempts to parley with the rebel force, Nicholas ordered a cavalry charge by Her Sovereign Majesty Empress Maria Theodorovna's Chevalier Guard Regiment that slipped on

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1392-639: A unitary Poland (i.e., more or less the territory of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ), without any Russian involvement in the affairs of these territories. In 1816, several officers of the Imperial Russian Guard founded a society known as the Union of Salvation , or of the Faithful and True Sons of the Fatherland. The society acquired a revolutionary cast after it was joined by

1508-727: Is Irkut , the Irkutsk Aviation Industrial Association, which was set up in 1932 in the Transbaykal region of the Soviet Union . It is best known as being the manufacturer of the Su-30 family of interceptor / ground-attack aircraft . The Russian government has merged Irkut with Ilyushin , Mikoyan , Sukhoi , Tupolev , and Yakovlev into a new company named United Aircraft Building Corporation . The Irkutsk Aluminium Smelter which belongs to

1624-462: Is a Russian symbol of the devotion of a wife to her husband. Maria Volkonskaya, the wife of the Decembrist leader Sergei Volkonsky, notably followed her husband to his exile in Irkutsk. Despite the spartan conditions of this banishment, Sergei Volkonsky and his wife Maria took opportunities to celebrate the liberalising mode of their exile. Sergei took to wearing an untrimmed beard (rejecting Peter

1740-478: Is characterized by an extreme variation of temperatures between seasons. It can be very warm in the summer, and very cold in the winter. However, Lake Baikal has a tempering effect, giving Irkutsk temperatures that are slightly less extreme than at similar latitudes elsewhere in Siberia. The warmest month of the year is July, when the average temperature is +19 °C (66 °F); the highest temperature recorded being +37.2 °C (99.0 °F). The coldest month of

1856-564: Is included in UNESCO's tentative list of World Heritage Sites . Irkutsk was named after the Irkut River . Its name was derived from the Buryat word for "spinning," and was used as an ethnonym among local tribes, who were known as Yrkhu , Irkit , Irgit , and Irgyt . The city was formerly known as Yandashsky , named after the local Tuvan chief Yandasha Gorogi. The old spelling of

1972-421: Is known for its carbonate mineral springs. There is developed infrastructure in the town including hotels, baths, and cafes. The area is well known for backpacking, kayaking, mountaineering and rock climbing. Irkutsk Irkutsk ( / ɪər ˈ k u t s k / eer- KOOTSK ; Russian: Иркутск , IPA: [ɪrˈkutsk] ; Buryat and Mongolian : Эрхүү , Erhüü , [ɛrˈxuː] )

2088-532: Is reflected in the first of the known plans of Irkutsk in 1729. Its main advantage is the fixation of the city's borders, which ran along the line of the modern Karl Marx Street. Between 1729 and 1768 in the space between Angara and Ushakovka, the first "zapalisadny" row of blocks is formed. A spontaneous settlement appears near the soldiers' barracks, first along the roads that approached the Mill and Overseas gates, and then between them. The development proceeded unevenly,

2204-644: Is the largest city and administrative center of Irkutsk Oblast , Russia . With a population of 587,891 as of the 2010 Census, Irkutsk is the 25th-largest city in Russia by population , the fifth-largest in the Siberian Federal District , and one of the largest cities in Siberia . Located in the south of the eponymous oblast, the city proper lies on the Angara River , a tributary of

2320-482: Is typical in Eastern Siberia. The population has been shrinking since the late 1980s: 587,891 ( 2010 Census ) ; 593,604 ( 2002 Census ) ; 622,301 ( 1989 Soviet census ) . . According to the regional plan, Irkutsk city will be combined with its neighboring industrial towns of Shelekhov and Angarsk to form a metropolitan area with a total population of over a million. The center of

2436-540: The Angara River , a tributary of the Yenisei , 72 kilometers (45 mi) below its outflow from Lake Baikal and on the bank opposite the suburb of Glaskovsk. The river, 580 meters (1,900 ft) wide, is crossed by the Irkutsk Hydroelectric Dam and three other bridges downstream. The Irkut River , from which the town takes its name, is a smaller river that joins the Angara directly opposite

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2552-624: The Armorial of the Russian Empire . Furthermore, the tigers became extinct in this part of Siberia. In the 1870s, a high-placed French heraldist with a limited command of Russian assumed that "babr" was a misspelling of "bobr", the Russian word for " beaver ", and changed the wording accordingly. This modification engendered a long dispute between the local authorities, who were so confused by the revised description that they started to depict

2668-830: The Carpatho-Ukraine aka Zakarpattia ), Croatia, Serbia, Dalmatia , the Czech lands of Bohemia and Moravia , i.e. all Slavic & Vlach countries with the exception of Bulgaria and Macedonia , in the future. This society joined the Southern Society and adopted its program in exchange for the recognition of the Slavic federation zeal by the Southern society in September 1825. When Emperor Alexander I died on 1 December [ O.S. 19 November] 1825,

2784-516: The Decembrists (Russian: декабристы , romanized:  dekabristy ). At first, many officers were encouraged by Tsar Alexander I 's early liberal reformation of Russian society and politics. Liberalism was encouraged on an official level, creating high expectations during the period of rapprochement between Napoleon and Alexander. The major advocate for reform in Alexander's regime

2900-835: The Institute of System Dynamics and Control Theory , the Earth's Crust Institute , the Solar-Terrestrial Physics Institute , the Institute of Chemistry , the Limnological Institute (formerly located on Lake Baikal's shore), the Institute of Plant Physics , Laser Physics Institute (a Branch of the Institute of Laser Physics in Novosibirsk). A number of institutes conduct research within Irkutsk State University :

3016-628: The Rusal Company. Important roads and railways like the Trans-Siberian Highway (Federal M53 and M55 Highways) and Trans-Siberian Railway connect Irkutsk to other regions in Russia and Mongolia . The city is also served by the Irkutsk International Airport and the smaller Irkutsk Northwest Airport . The Federal road and railway to Moscow and Vladivostok pass through the other side of

3132-698: The Siberian Route , was built in 1760, and benefited the town economy. Many new products, often imported from China via Kyakhta , became widely available in Irkutsk for the first time, including gold , diamonds , fur , wood , silk , and tea . In 1821, as part of the Mikhail Speransky 's reforms, Siberia was administratively divided at the Yenisei River . Irkutsk became the seat of the Governor-General of East Siberia. In

3248-777: The United States Declaration of Independence and the American Revolution may also have influenced Decembrists, as they did other nations. The constitution written by Nikita Muravyov was highly similar to the United States Constitution . But the Decembrists were against slavery in the United States . They worked to free any slaves and serfs from all countries in Russia immediately. Pestel and his followers opposed

3364-650: The Yakutsk customs office from about 1642. It has its origin in a seal of the Siberia Khanate representing a sable and showcasing the fact that Siberia (or rather Yugra ) was the main source of sable fur throughout the Middle Ages . (Actually, the English word "sable" is derived from the Russian "sobol"). By the mid-19th century, the word "babr" had fallen out of common usage, but it was still recorded in

3480-470: The Yenisei , about 850 kilometres (530 mi) to the south-east of Krasnoyarsk and about 520 kilometres (320 mi) north of Ulaanbaatar . The Trans-Siberian Highway (Federal M53 and M55 Highways) and Trans-Siberian Railway connect Irkutsk to other regions in Russia and Mongolia . Many distinguished Russians were sent into exile in Irkutsk for their part in the Decembrist revolt of 1825, and

3596-455: The districts . As a municipal division , the City of Irkutsk is incorporated as Irkutsk Urban Okrug . The coat of arms of Irkutsk features an old symbol of Dauria : a Siberian tiger with a sable in his mouth. When the coat of arms was devised in 1690, the animal was described as a tiger ("babr", a bookish word of Persian derivation) with a sable in his mouth. This image had been used by

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3712-558: The serfs was considered from the very beginning; for that purpose, a majority of the nobility was to be invited in order to petition the Emperor about it. This was later thought of on many occasions, but we soon came to realize that the nobility could not be persuaded. And as time went on we became even more convinced, when the Ukrainian nobility absolutely rejected a similar project of their military governor. Historians have noted that

3828-503: The steppe polecat ), 18 species of fish (mostly grayling, carp, dace and roach), 207 nesting species of birds and another 30 transitory, 4 species of amphibians and 5 of reptiles. The ecoregion of the mid-elevations of the mountains above the valley are Sayan montane conifer forests (often called taiga forests), of the Temperate Conifer Forest biome. These are transitional zone forests, containing species from both

3944-407: The "Reds". In 1920, Aleksandr Kolchak , the once-feared commander of the largest contingent of anti-Bolshevik forces, was executed in Irkutsk. This effectively destroyed the anti-Bolshevik resistance. Irkutsk was the administrative center of the short-lived East Siberian Oblast , from 1936 to 1937. The city subsequently became the administrative center of Irkutsk Oblast , after East Siberian Oblast

4060-463: The "babr" as a fabulous animal, half-tiger and half-beaver. The Soviets abolished the image altogether, but it was restored following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The 662.4 MW Irkutsk Hydroelectric Power Station was the first cascade hydroelectric power station in the Irkutsk region. The construction of the dam started in 1950 and finished in 1958. The largest industry in Irkutsk

4176-406: The 1999–2000 period. Although the epidemic, which started in 1999, is reported to have slowed down, Irkutsk will lose tens of thousands of its working age population from 2010 onwards. This is one of the reasons Irkutsk's male life expectancy, at 53 years, is one of the lowest in all of Russia. Preventive measures are in place to prevent the spread of the epidemic to the generation which was born after

4292-481: The 9,000 loyal troops stationed outside the Senate building, with some desultory shooting from the rebel side. A vast crowd of civilian on-lookers began fraternizing with the rebels but did not join the action. Eventually, Nicholas (the new tsar) appeared in person at the square and sent Count Mikhail Miloradovich to parley with the rebels. Miloradovich was fatally shot in the back by Pyotr Kakhovsky while delivering

4408-515: The Angara River from central Irkutsk. Trams are one major mode of public transit in Irkutsk. Other modes are trolleybus, bus, fixed-route taxi ( marshrutka ) and cycling. Despite its remoteness, Irkutsk was reported in 2004 to have the highest HIV infection rate in Russia. Tens of thousands of drug addicts, mostly ethnic Russians in their mid to late teens are infected. The number of reported AIDS cases increased by more than 10,000% during

4524-685: The Decembrist Revolt. The leaders of the society elected Prince Sergei Trubetskoy as interim ruler. On the morning of 26 December [ O.S. 14 December], a group of officers commanding about 3,000 men (elements of Life-Guards Moscow Regiment , Grenadier Life Guards Regiment, and Naval Equipage of the Guard) assembled in Senate Square , where they refused to swear allegiance to the new tsar, Nicholas I, proclaiming instead their loyalty to Konstantin. They expected to be joined by

4640-432: The Decembrist leaders and could have been aware of their clandestine organizations, notably Alexander Pushkin , Aleksander Griboyedov , and Aleksey Yermolov . On 25 July [ O.S. 13 July] 1826, the first party of Decembrist convicts began its exodus to Siberia. Among this group were Prince Trubetskoi, Prince Obolensky, Peter and Andrei Borisov, Prince Volkonsky, and Artamon Muraviev, all of them bound for

4756-588: The Decembrists fundamentally influenced Siberian life. Their presence was most definitely felt culturally and economically, political activity being so far removed from the "pulse of national life" so as to be negligible. While in Petrovsky Zavod, Decembrists taught each other foreign languages, arts and crafts, and musical instruments. They established "academies" made up of libraries, schools, and symposia. In their settlements, Decembrists were fierce advocates of education, and founded many schools for natives,

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4872-653: The Decembrists lived in isolation, their scholarly activities encompassed Siberia at large, including its culture, economy, administration, population, geography, botany, and ecology. Despite restricted circumstances, the Decembrists accomplished an extraordinary amount, and their work was deeply appreciated by Siberians. On 26 August 1856, with the ascent of Alexander II to the throne, the Decembrists received amnesty, and their rights, privileges were restored. Their children obtained rights, privileges and even titles of their fathers (such as princes) even if their fathers' titles were not restored. However, not all chose to return to

4988-429: The Decembrists sparked an intellectual awakening: literary writings, propaganda, newspapers, and books from European Russia began to circulate the eastern provinces, the local population developing a capacity for critical political observation. The Decembrists even held a certain influence within Siberian administration; Dimitry Zavalishin played a critical role in developing and advocating Russian Far East policy. Although

5104-409: The Decembrists with great hospitality. Natives played central roles in keeping lines of communication open among Decembrists, friends, and relatives. Most merchants and state employees were also sympathetic. To the masses, the Decembrist exiles were "generals who had refused to take the oath to Nicholas I." They were great figures that had suffered political persecution for their loyalty to the people. On

5220-832: The Decembrists';) was a failed coup d'état led by liberal military and political dissidents against the Russian Empire . It took place in Saint Petersburg on 26 December [ O.S. 14 December] 1825, following the sudden death of Emperor Alexander I . Alexander's brother and heir-presumptive Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich privately renounced his claim to the throne two years prior to Alexander's sudden death on 1 December [ O.S. 19 November] 1825. The line of succession therefore fell to their younger brother Nicholas, who would ascend to

5336-598: The Great 's reforms and salon fashion), wearing peasant dress and socialising with many of his peasant associates with whom he worked the land at his farm in Urik. Maria, equally, established schools, a foundling hospital and a theater for the local population. Sergei returned after 30 years of his exile had elapsed, though his titles and land remained under royal possession. Other exiles preferred to remain in Siberia after their sentences were served, preferring its relative freedom to

5452-768: The Institute of Biology, the Institute of Oil and Coal Chemistry and Synthesis, the Laboratory of Quantum Chemistry, the Institute of Applied Physics, the Interregional Institute of Social Studies, the Astronomical Observatory, and the Botanical Gardens. The East-Siberian Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences is also located in Irkutsk and is represented by the following research organizations:

5568-417: The Scientific Center for Medical Ecology, the Institute for Paediatrics and Human Reproduction, the Institute for Microbiology and Epidemiology, the Institute for Medicine of the Workplace and Human Ecology, the Institute of Reconstructive and Restorative Surgery, the Institute of Surgery, and the Institute of Traumatology and Orthopaedics. Also, the Fyodorov Eye Microsurgery Scientific and Technical Center has

5684-420: The Siberian Taiga and the Mongolian Steppe, primarily pine, cedar and larch. The lower regions are characterized by forest-steppe vegetation. The higher elevations include tundra and alpine glades. Over 900 vascular plants have been recorded, and there are 43 endemic species of plants listed in the Russian Red Book as endangered. The small spa resort town of Arshan lies at the base of the Sayan Mountains, and

5800-412: The Siberian winter falls as fluffy, dry snow. Irkutsk is the administrative center of the oblast and, within the framework of administrative divisions , it also serves as the administrative center of Irkutsky District , even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the City of Irkutsk —an administrative unit with the status equal to that of

5916-413: The Third Division of the political intelligence service at Saint Petersburg. This screening process necessitated dry, careful wording on the part of Decembrists. In the words of Bestuzhev, correspondence bore a "lifeless ... imprint of officiality." Under the settlement regime, allowances were extremely meager. Certain Decembrists, including the Volkonskys, the Murav'yovs, and the Trubetskoys, were rich, but

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6032-530: The Union of Prosperity, together with the members of the Union of Salvation. ) After a mutiny in the Semenovsky Regiment in 1820, the society decided to suspend activity in 1821. Two groups, however, continued to function secretly: a Southern Society , based at Tulchin , a small garrison town in Ukraine , in which Pestel was the outstanding figure, and a Northern Society , based at Saint Petersburg, led by guard officers Nikita Muraviev , Prince S. P. Trubetskoy and Prince Eugene Obolensky. The political aims of

6148-472: The United States' federal model in peaceful times as threatening to the would-be Russian/United Slavic federation; they only approved the US revolutionary model. While agreeing with Pestel that the American revolutionary model could be the best form for Russia, the Polish patriotic society would not agree to participate in establishing a federation. They wanted a United States-style republic or other state, with Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine to be included in

6264-485: The West. Some were financially inhibited, others had no family, and many were weak with old age. To many, Siberia had become home. Those that did return to European Russia did so with enthusiasm for the enforcement of the Emancipation Reforms of 1861. The exile of the Decembrists led to the permanent implantation of an intelligentsia in Siberia. For the first time, a cultural, intellectual, and political elite came to Siberian society as permanent residents; they integrated with

6380-475: The Winter Palace to be interrogated, tried, and convicted. Kakhovsky was executed by hanging, together with four other leading Decembrists: Pavel Pestel; the poet Kondraty Ryleyev ; Sergey Muravyov-Apostol; and Mikhail Bestuzhev-Ryumin . A further 31 Decembrists facing the death penalty were instead imprisoned. Other Decembrists were exiled to Siberia , Kazakhstan , and the Far East . Suspicion also fell on several eminent persons who were on friendly terms with

6496-408: The advancement of Russian explorers in the Angara region, soon ceased to be only a defensive structure due to the advantage of its geographical position. According to historical documents, 10 years later, in 1671, here, in addition to servicemen and yasak people, lived "plowed peasants with their wives and children." A posad appeared, which gave rise to residential quarters of the future city. As for

6612-421: The barracks of the local garrison were taken out. The construction of the palisade changed the process of the spontaneous evolution of buildings and influenced the formation of the city's layout in the most significant way. After the fortification was dismantled in 1790, a complete mismatch of street directions in the old and new parts of the city was revealed. The state of development of the "pre-palisade" period

6728-755: The breakup of the USSR. There are state-owned and privately owned television stations in Irkutsk, including state company IGTRK and private ones, such as AS Baikal TV, TV company AIST, TV company Gorod, and also other media outlets, like the VSP Newspaper Agency. There is also a live webcam broadcasting from the city center. Irkutsk is home to the East Siberian Education Academy (since 1909), Irkutsk State University (1918), Irkutsk State Medical University (1918), Baykalsky State University of Economics and Law (since 1932), Irkutsk State Technical University (since 1939), Irkutsk State Academy of Agriculture , Irkutsk State Linguistic University (1948), Irkutsk State Railway Transport University (since 1975), and

6844-483: The cannon fire, many sank. The revolt in the north came to an end. There was a rumor that during the nighttime, police and loyal army units were detached to clean the city and the Neva river, as many of the dead, dying, and wounded had been cast into it. While the Northern Society scrambled in the days leading up to the revolt, the Southern Society (based in Tulchin) took a serious blow. The day before (25 December [ O.S. 13 December]), acting on reports of treason,

6960-449: The center of the largest region in Russia—Eastern Siberia, which included Transbaikalia, Yakutia, the entire northeast to the Pacific Ocean. Irkutsk needed to expand, and by that time there were no enemies ready to lay claim to the city. The palisade was dismantled, and in its place appeared Bolshaya Preshpektnaya Street, now Karla Marxa Street, the only straight street in modern Irkutsk. The devastating fire of 1879 made its own adjustments to

7076-544: The central streets and the disparity of the quarters formed by them, shows the spontaneous process of their formation. This is especially noticeable in the example of Basninskaya Street (now Sverdlova Street), which they tried to straighten with each new attempt to streamline the development. And it simply repeated the outlines of the log that once was here, formed, possibly, by the old lady of the Gryaznushka river, which connected Ushakovka and Angara. In 1726, defensive fortifications (palisade) were built in Irkutsk, behind which

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7192-457: The city became an exile-post for the rest of the century. Some historic wooden houses still survive. When the railway reached Irkutsk, it had earned the nickname of "The Paris of Siberia." The city was the center of bitter fighting in the Russian Civil War of 1918–20. Afterward, in the Soviet period, its architecture was dominated by the mandatory squared-up style. The city became a major centre of aircraft manufacture. The historic centre of Irkutsk

7308-477: The city's name was «Иркуцкъ». Before the revolution, the city was called "East Paris", "Siberian Petersburg", "Siberian Athens". In 1652, Ivan Pokhabov built a zimovye (winter quarters) near the site of Irkutsk for gold trading and for collecting fur taxes from the Buryats . In 1661, Yakov Pokhabov built an ostrog (a small fort) nearby. The ostrog gained official town rights from the government in 1686. The Irkutsk prison, founded in 1661 as an outpost for

7424-418: The city. The main portion of the city is separated from several landmarks—the monastery, the fort and the port, as well as its suburbs—by another tributary, the Ida (or Ushakovka) River. The two main parts of Irkutsk are customarily referred to as the "left bank" and the "right bank", with respect to the flow of the Angara River. Irkutsk is situated in a landscape of rolling hills within the thick taiga that

7540-431: The closest to the current state at that time were the fragments of buildings located in the area of Zamorskaya (Lenin st.) And Institutskaya (Oktyabrskaya Revolyutsii st.) Streets. Now it is, roughly, quarters No. 90, 91, 92. The last third of the 18th century was significant both for the history of the city as a whole and for the formation of its buildings. With the formation of the Irkutsk province in 1764, Irkutsk became

7656-428: The construction laws as it was from here that the border began, beyond which it was forbidden to build from wood. This has divided the old Irkutsk into two parts: closer to the Angara river, mainly stone buildings remained, and on the other side, where there were once outskirts, the wooden Irkutsk grew. Irkutsk has a borderline humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dwb , bordering Dwc ). Irkutsk

7772-413: The country and participated alongside natives in its development. With the failure of the Decembrists, Russia's autocracy would continue for almost a century, although serfdom would be officially abolished in 1861 and the parliaments in Russia and Finland would be established in 1905. Finland had a parliament since Alexander I, but the number of electors was limited. The Russian Constitution of 1905

7888-451: The court lifestyle, wearing their cavalry swords at balls (to indicate their unwillingness to dance), and committing themselves to academic study. These new practices captured the spirit of the times as a willingness by the Decembrists to embrace both the peasant (i.e., the fundamental Russian people) and ongoing reform movements from intellectuals abroad. Pavel Pestel identified reasons for reform: The desirability of granting freedom to

8004-454: The cover of his radical periodical Polar Star . Alexander Pushkin addressed poems to his Decembrist friends; Nikolai Nekrasov , whose father served together with Decembrists in Ukraine, wrote a long poem about the Decembrist wives; and Leo Tolstoy started writing a novel on that liberal movement, which would later evolve into War and Peace . In the Soviet era Yuri Shaporin produced an opera entitled Dekabristi (The Decembrists), about

8120-620: The cultural history of Irkutsk (and another one about the nearby Lake Baikal) is included in Rasputin's non-fiction collection Siberia, Siberia , which is also available in an English translation. Irkutsk also figures prominently in descriptions by foreign travelers, including the so-called British "Blind Traveler" James Holman , who was suspected of spying and conducted back forcibly to the frontiers of Poland . Decembrist revolt Government victory The Decembrist Revolt ( Russian : Восстание декабристов , romanized :  Vosstaniye dekabristov , lit.   'Uprising of

8236-449: The early 19th century, many Russian artists, officers, and nobles were sent into exile in Siberia for their part in the Decembrist revolt against Tsar Nicholas I . Irkutsk became the major center of intellectual and social life for these exiles, and they developed much of the city's cultural heritage. They had wooden houses built that were adorned with ornate, hand-carved decorations. Many still survive today, in stark contrast with

8352-661: The eastern wall of the fortress and also preserved to this day, this is one of the oldest stone buildings in Siberia. The protective palisade and the moat, which once defended the Irkutsk fortress from the south, from the Angara bank to the Ushakovka River, existed until the middle of the 18th century. In early Irkutsk there were no streets at all, the buildings approached the driveways with random turns and only with subsequent alterations were turned around with front facades. The first settlers did not orientate their houses in relation to neighboring buildings either. When building

8468-586: The emperor even before the revolution. When the society consisting of Russian landlords had refused to kill the emperor based on such rumors, Yakushkin left the society. The more liberal Mikhail Muravyov-Vilensky created a new charter similar to that of Tugendbund . It did not have revolutionary plans and the society was called the Union of Prosperity. It was still considered illegal and similar to masonic lodges . (The small Order of Russian knights, excepting its prominent member Alexander von Benckendorff , also joined

8584-753: The emperor's vengeance in full. Sentenced by court-martial, many of these "commoners" received thousands of lashes. Those that survived went to Siberia on foot, chained alongside common criminals. Fifteen out of 124 Decembrists were convicted of "state-crimes" by the Supreme Criminal Court, and sentenced to "exile-to-settlement". These men were sent directly to isolated locales, such as Berezov, Narym , Surgut , Pelym , Irkutsk , Yakutsk , and Vilyuysk , among others. Few Russians inhabited these places: The populations consisted mainly of Siberian aborigines, such as Tunguses , Yakuts , Tatars , Ostyaks , Mongols , and Buryats . Of all those exiled,

8700-554: The first of which opened at Nerchinsk. Schools were also founded for women, and soon exceeded capacity. Decembrists contributed greatly to the field of agriculture, introducing previously unknown crops such as vegetables, tobacco, rye, buckwheat, and barley, and advanced agricultural methods such as hothouse cultivation. Trained doctors among the political exiles promoted and organized medical aid. The homes of prominent exiles like Prince Sergei Volkonsky and Prince Sergei Trubetskoi became social centers of their locales. All throughout Siberia,

8816-483: The guarding of prisoners, but it also allowed the Decembrists to continue to exist as a community. This was especially true at Chita. The move to Petrovsky Zavod, however, forced Decembrists to divide into smaller groups; the new location was compartmentalized with an oppressive sense of order. Convicts could no longer congregate casually. Although nothing could destroy the Decembrists' conception of fraternity, Petrovsky Zavod forced them to live more private lives. Owing to

8932-433: The historical part of the city is Kirov Square. In that place on July 6, 1661, Yakov Pokhabov laid a prison for collecting Yasak , a tax collected from the local population with fur. The architectural appearance of present-day Irkutsk has been born since the days of the wooden prison. The historic center of the city is now in its place. By the beginning of the 18th century, it had turned into a wooden fortress, which protected

9048-509: The human rights, Muraviev-Vilensky and others). In 1826, Speransky was appointed by Nicholas I to head the Second Section of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery , a committee formed to codify Russian law. Under his leadership, the committee produced a publication of the complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire, containing 35,993 enactments. This codification called the "Full Collection of Laws" ( Polnoye Sobraniye Zakonov )

9164-411: The icy cobbles and retired in disorder. Eventually, at the end of the day, Nicholas ordered three artillery pieces to open fire with grapeshot ammunition to devastating effect. To avoid the slaughter, the rebels broke and ran. Some attempted to regroup on the frozen surface of the river Neva to the north. However, they were targeted by the artillery and suffered many casualties. As the ice was broken by

9280-468: The idealistic Pavel Pestel . The charter was similar to charters of the organizations of carbonari . Pestel was supported by Yakushkin when there were rumors that the emperor had intended to transfer the capital from Saint Petersburg to Warsaw , and to liberate all peasants without the consent of Russian landlords. They would not be able to influence a government based in Warsaw. Yakushkin intended to kill

9396-612: The inhabitants from the raids of nomads. A major fire of 1716 almost completely destroyed the fortifications, but in just a year new ones were built, already made of stone. Of the buildings on the territory of the Irkutsk Kremlin of that time, the Savior Church has survived, the stone building of which was laid in 1706 in the north-western corner of the fort. Along with the Epiphany Cathedral, erected behind

9512-519: The interests of Russian landlords, i.e. with land to be retained by landlords, in a style similar to the abolition of serfdom in Baltic provinces. They also supported equality before the law. The Southern Society, under Pestel's influence, was more radical and wanted to abolish the monarchy, establish a republic, similar to the Union of Salvation, and contrary to the Union of Salvation plans, to redistribute land, taking half into state ownership and dividing

9628-577: The intervention of family members. This process of petitioning, and the resultant concessions made by the tsar and officials, was and would continue to be a standard practice of political exiles in Siberia. The chain of bureaucratic procedures and orders linking Saint Petersburg to Siberian administration was often circumvented or ignored. These breaks in bureaucracy afforded exiles a small capacity for betterment and activism. Wives of many Decembrists, as well as some nieces and sisters, followed their husbands into exile. The term Dekabristka ("Decembrist wife")

9744-615: The largest group of prisoners was sent to Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai , transferred three years later to Petrovsky Zavod , near Nerchinsk. This group, sentenced to hard labor, included principal leaders of the Decembrist movement as well as the members of the United Slavs. Siberian Governor-General Lavinsky argued that it was easiest to control a large, concentrated group of convicts, and Emperor Nicholas I pursued this policy in order to maximize surveillance and to limit revolutionaries' contact with local populations. Concentration facilitated

9860-639: The majority of exiles had no money, and were forced to live off a mere 15 desyatins (about 16 hectares) of land, the allotment granted to each settler. Decembrists, with little to no knowledge of the land, attempted to eke out a living on wretched soil with next to no equipment. Financial aid from relatives and wealthier comrades saved many; others perished. Despite extensive restrictions, limitations, and hardships, Decembrists believed that they could improve their situation through personal initiative. A constant stream of petitions came out of Petrovsky Zavod addressed to General Leparskii and Emperor Nicholas I. Most of

9976-476: The midst of this confusing transition into Nicholas' reign , the Northern Society , a secret society of liberal revolutionaries, nobles, and military officials, organized a conspiracy to replace the Russian Empire's autocratic regime with a constitutional monarchy . To seize control of the government and implement a regime change , it sought to convince the military that Nicholas was usurping

10092-577: The mines at Nerchinsk . The journey eastward was fraught with hardship, yet for some it offered refreshing changes in scenery and peoples following imprisonment. Decembrist Nikolay Vasil'yevich Basargin was unwell when he set out from Saint Petersburg, but he recovered his strength on the move; his memoirs depict the journey to Siberia in a cheerful light, full of praise for the "common people" and commanding landscapes. Not all Decembrists could identify with Basargin's positive experience. Because of their lower social standing, "soldier-Decembrists" experienced

10208-482: The more Jacobin , centralizing program of Pavel Pestel or the pan-Slavic confederation-advocating revolutionaries of the "Society of United Slavs". The majority of Decembrists were not members of illegal organizations similar to the participants of palace revolutions . Some were members of the Union of Prosperity only, sympathetic to an official, pro-governmental fairly conservative program. But their revolt, unlike previous Romanov palace revolutions, has been considered

10324-400: The more moderate Northern Society were a British-style constitutional monarchy with a limited franchise . They envisioned that it could be replaced with a republic in the future but only according to the will of the people. They also believed there should be a legislative assembly and did not call for the execution of the imperial family. They supported the abolition of serfdom , according to

10440-542: The mountains range from 668 metres (2,192 ft) to 3,172 metres (10,407 ft). The central valley of the Irkut is flat with fertile soil well suited to agriculture. There are a number of small settlements in the valley, mostly inhabited by the indigenous Siberian Buryat people. The climate is continental (Koeppen Classification Dwc Subarctic climate : Snow climate with dry winter, cool summer and cold winter). 595 mm of precipitation per year (maximum in summer). As

10556-522: The petitions were written by Decembrists' wives who had cast aside social privileges and comfort to follow their husbands into exile. These wives joined under the leadership of Princess Mariia Volkonskaia, and by 1832, through relentless petitions, managed to secure for their men formal cancellation of labor requirements, and several privileges, including the right of husbands to live with their wives in privacy. Decembrists managed to gain transfers and allowances through persuasive petitions as well as through

10672-435: The police arrested Pavel Pestel . It took two weeks for the Southern Society to learn of the events in the capital. Meanwhile, other members of the leadership were arrested. The Southern Society, and a nationalistic group called the United Slavs, discussed revolt. When learning of the location of some of the arrested men, the United Slavs freed them by force. One of the freed men, Sergey Muravyov-Apostol , assumed leadership of

10788-419: The presence of a large civilian crowd. A standoff ensued, during which Nicholas' envoy, Mikhail Miloradovich , was assassinated. The loyalists eventually opened fire with heavy artillery, scattering the rebels. In the aftermath of the coup attempt, many of the rebels were sentenced to hanging, imprisonment, or exile to Siberia . The individuals who participated in the conspiracy and coup attempt became known as

10904-425: The prison itself, as its influence in the region grew, it was completely rebuilt twice (in 1669 and 1693), expanding in size. The fate of the prison was such that its military-defensive significance was less noticeable than other previously erected forts near the Angara, for example, Bratsk (1631) or Verkholensk (1644). However, its location at the crossroads of colonization, trade and industrial routes predetermined

11020-699: The provincial chancellery, the house of the vice-governor (former voivodship) with barns and cellars, the Church of the Savior. "Small town" was the administrative center of the vast Irkutsk province since 1731. In the "big city", as the posad was called, the commercial and economic life of Irkutsk was concentrated. It was inhabited mainly by people from the northern regions of Russia: Veliky Ustyug , Yarensk , Pinega , Solvychegodsk , Pereyaslavl-Zalessky , who brought their traditions, customs, and culture to Siberia. The first road connection between Moscow and Irkutsk,

11136-521: The reorganization of Russia's government. Because of increasing hostility, he was forced to flee into exile. Returning from exile in 1819, Speransky was appointed as the governor of Siberia, with the task of reforming local government. In 1818, the tsar asked Count Nikolay Nikolayevich Novosiltsev to draw up a constitution. The abolition of serfdom in the Baltic provinces was instituted between 1816 and 1819. However, internal and external unrest, which

11252-659: The rest among the peasants. The Society of United Slavs (also known as the Slavic Union – Pan-Slavism ) was established in Novohrad-Volynsky (now Zviahel ) in Ukraine in 1823. Its never-written program was similar to that of the Southern Society but the main emphasis was on the equal federation of Russia (including Ukraine), Poland, Moldavia (including Bessarabia) with the attachment of Wallachia , Transylvania, Hungary (including Slovakia, Slovenia, Vojvodina ,

11368-470: The rest of the troops stationed in Saint Petersburg, but they were disappointed. The revolt was hampered when it was deserted by its supposed leader Prince Trubetskoy. His second-in-command, Colonel Bulatov, also vanished from the scene. After a hurried consultation, the rebels appointed Prince Eugene Obolensky as a replacement leader. For hours, there was a stand-off between the 3,000 rebels and

11484-470: The revolt, with the libretto written by Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy . It premiered at the Bolshoi Theatre on 23 June 1953. To some extent, the Decembrists were in the tradition of a long line of palace revolutionaries of 1725–1825 who wanted to place their candidate on the throne, but many Decembrists also wanted to implement either classical liberalism or a moderate conservatism contrary to

11600-438: The revolt. After converting the soldiers of Vasilkov to the cause, Muraviev-Apostol easily captured the city. The rebelling army was confronted by superior forces that were heavily armed with artillery loaded with grapeshot . On 15 January [ O.S. 3 January] 1826, the rebels met defeat, and the surviving leaders were sent to Saint Petersburg to stand trial with the northern leaders. The Decembrists were taken to

11716-418: The role of Irkutsk in the history of Eastern Siberia. In 1682 it became the center of an independent region, and in 1686 it received the status of a city. Irkutsk at the beginning of the 18th century was divided into two parts: "small town", or the prison itself, and "big city". The first one started from the bank of the Angara and was a wooden fortress with adjacent buildings. These included the stone building of

11832-520: The royal guards swore allegiance to the presumed successor, Alexander's brother Konstantin . When Konstantin made his renunciation public, and Nicholas stepped forward to assume the throne, the Northern Society acted. With the capital in temporary confusion, and one oath to Konstantin having already been sworn, the society scrambled in secret meetings to convince regimental leaders not to swear allegiance to Nicholas. These efforts culminated in

11948-563: The standard Soviet apartment blocks that surround them. By the end of the 19th century, the population consisted of one exiled man for every two locals. People of varying backgrounds, from members of the Decembrist uprising to Bolsheviks , had been in Irkutsk for many years and had greatly influenced the culture and development of the city. As a result, Irkutsk became a prosperous cultural and educational center in Eastern Siberia . From 1848 to 1861, Count Nikolay Muravyov-Amursky

12064-450: The stifling intrigues of Moscow and Saint Petersburg, and after years of exile there was not much for them to return to. Many Decembrists thrived in exile, in time becoming landowners and farmers. In later years, they became idols of the populist movement of the 1860s and the 1870s as the Decembrists' advocacy of reform (including the abolition of serfdom) won them many admirers, including the writer Leo Tolstoy . During their time in exile,

12180-405: The throne as Emperor Nicholas I . Neither the Russian government nor the general public were initially aware of Konstantin's renouncement, and as a result, parts of the military took a premature oath of loyalty to Konstantin. A general swearing of loyalty to the true emperor Nicholas was scheduled for 26 December [ O.S. 14 December] 1825 in Senate Square , Saint Petersburg. In

12296-452: The throne from Konstantin. On December 26th, Northern Society members led a force of approximately 3,000 troops into Senate Square to prevent the loyalty-swearing ceremony and to rally additional soldiers and officers to their cause. This group of rebels, although disorganized due to indecision and dissension among its leaders, confronted troops loyal to Nicholas outside the Senate building in

12412-473: The tsar believed stemmed from political liberalization, led to a series of repressions and a return to a former government of restraint and conservatism. Meanwhile, the experiences of the Napoleonic Wars and realization of the suffering of peasant soldiers resulted in Decembrist officers and sympathizers being attracted to reform changes in society. They displayed their contempt of court by rejecting

12528-430: The whole, indigenous Siberian populations greatly respected the Decembrists and were extremely hospitable in their reception of them. Upon arrival at places of settlement, exiles had to comply with extensive regulations under a strict governmental regime. Local police watched, regulated, and notated every move that Decembrists attempted to make. Dimitri Zavalishin was thrown into prison for failing to remove his hat before

12644-400: The year is January, when the average temperature is −17.6 °C (0.3 °F), and record low of −49.7 °C (−57.5 °F). Precipitation varies widely throughout the year, with July being the wettest month, when precipitation averages 107 millimeters (4.2 in). The driest month is February, when precipitation averages only 9 millimeters (0.35 in). Almost all precipitation during

12760-554: Was Count Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky . During his early years in the regime, Speransky helped inspire the organization of the Ministry of the Interior , the reform of ecclesiastic education, and strengthening the government's role in the country's economic development. Speransky's role increased greatly in 1808. From then until 1812, when they feared him as a liberal similar to Napoleon and his invasion, Speransky developed plans for

12876-534: Was built in 1897 and a major train station opened in 1898. The first train arrived in Irkutsk on August 16 of that year. By 1900, the city had earned the nickname of "The Paris of Siberia." During the Russian Civil War , which broke out after the October Revolution , Irkutsk became the site of many furious, bloody clashes between the " White movement " and the " Bolsheviks ", known as

12992-540: Was called "The basic laws" as the Decembrists had called it. Though defeated, the Decembrists did effect some change on the regime. Their dissatisfaction forced Nicholas I to turn his attention inward to address the issues of the empire. He included many Decembrists who had joined his forces on the Senate Square and did not ultimately support the revolt in spite of their participation in Decembrist meetings into his government (such as Benkendorf, appointed to supervise

13108-405: Was divided into Chita Oblast and Irkutsk Oblast. During the communist years, the industrialization of Irkutsk and Siberia in general was strongly encouraged. The large Irkutsk Reservoir was built on the Angara River between 1950 and 1959 in order to generate hydroelectric power and facilitate industrial development. The Epiphany Cathedral, the governor's palace, a school of medicine, a museum,

13224-491: Was presented to Nicholas I , and formed the basis for the "Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire" ( Svod Zakonov Rossiskoy Imperii ), the positive law valid for the Russian Empire. Speransky's liberal ideas were subsequently scrutinized and elaborated by Konstantin Kavelin and Boris Chicherin . Although the revolt was a proscribed topic during Nicholas' reign, Alexander Herzen placed the profiles of executed Decembrists on

13340-509: Was reported that armed Russian OMON (Special Purpose Mobile Unit of the Russian National Guard) officers physically assaulted and tortured two Jehovah’s Witness couples as part of a round up of Jehovah’s Witnesses in the city. Irkutsk is located about 850 kilometres (530 mi) to the south-east of Krasnoyarsk , and about 520 kilometres (320 mi) north of Ulaanbaatar , the capital of Mongolia . The city proper lies on

13456-580: Was the Governor-General. He annexed the Amur Territory to Russia, however, on the spot he showed unbridled despotism and extreme cruelty. Since the opening of communication along the Amur in 1854, on the way from St. Petersburg to the Pacific Ocean, the old Yakutsk tract began to decline. The population of the city is 28,000, of them there were 3,768 exiles. In 1879, on July 4 and 6,

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