The Tunica-Biloxi Indian Tribe , ( Tunica : Yoroniku-Halayihku ) formerly known as the Tunica-Biloxi Indian Tribe of Louisiana , is a federally recognized tribe of primarily Tunica and Biloxi people , located in east central Louisiana . Descendants of Ofo ( Siouan -speakers), Avoyel , and Choctaw are also enrolled in the tribe.
123-653: In the 21st century, the people speak mostly English and French. Many live on the Tunica-Biloxi Indian Reservation ( 31°06′48″N 92°03′13″W / 31.11333°N 92.05361°W / 31.11333; -92.05361 ) in central Avoyelles Parish , just south of the city of Marksville, Louisiana , and overlapping its boundaries. The Reservation is 1.682 km (0.649 sq mi). The 2010 census lists 951 persons self-identified as at least partly of Tunica-Biloxi, with 669 of those identifying as solely of Tunica-Biloxi ancestry. By
246-656: A salt works in China dates to approximately the same period. Salt was prized by the ancient Hebrews , Greeks , Romans , Byzantines , Hittites , Egyptians , and Indians . Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea , along specially built salt roads , and across the Sahara on camel caravans . The scarcity and universal need for salt have led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt
369-672: A close relationship with the Tunica people. During this time, numerous Anglo-American settlers migrated into the region, as the British had taken over former French territories east of the Mississippi River. The Tunica had become acculturated to European ways, although they still tattooed themselves and practiced some of their native religious customs. With the British in charge of the Western Florida colony at this time, and
492-438: A fertilizer, applying a moderate concentration helps avoid potential toxicity; typically, 1–3 grams (0.035–0.106 oz) per liter is considered safe and effective for most plants. Sodium chloride is one of the largest volume inorganic raw materials. It is a feedstock in the production of caustic soda and chlorine . These are used in the manufacture of PVC , paper pulp and many other inorganic and organic compounds. Salt
615-507: A finance and production company, Acacia Entertainment. Mobiloans works with Think Finance on underwriting, loan servicing, and other technology processes related to running the business. Acacia Entertainment is a joint venture between the Tribe's Economic Development Corporation and film producer Matthew George . According to the Tribe, Acacia aims to produce two to three films per year. The Tunica (or Tonica, or less common form Yuron) language
738-443: A healthy level of sodium intake of between 4 and 5 grams (equivalent to 10-13 g salt) a day. One of the two most prominent dietary risks for disability in the world are diets high in sodium. Only a small percentage of the salt manufactured in the world is used in food. The remainder is used in agriculture, water treatment, chemical production, de-icing, and other industrial use cases. In the practice of watering plants with salt as
861-422: A high sodium content and fill a similar role to table salt in western cultures. They are most often used for cooking rather than as table condiments. Human salt taste is detected by sodium taste receptors present in taste bud cells on the tongue. Human sensory taste testing studies have shown that proteolyzed forms of epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) function as the human salt taste receptor. Table salt
984-477: A language isolate. At that time, these related groups covered a large region extending along both sides of the Mississippi River in present-day Mississippi and Arkansas, as the expedition would soon learn. Off to one side of the town was the dwelling place of the Curaca (chief). It was situated on a high mound which now served as a fortress. Only by means of two stairways could one ascend to this house.... The lord of
1107-595: A larger regional conflict with many repercussions. The Tunica were initially reluctant to fight on either side. In June 1730 the Head Chief of the Tunica, Cahura-Joligo , agreed to let a small party of Natchez refugees settle near his village (present-day Angola), provided they were unarmed. A few days later, the chief of the Natchez arrived at the Tunica village with a hundred men, and an unknown number of women and children. They concealed Chickasaw and Koroa warriors in
1230-550: A library, conservation center, distance-learning center, conference facilities, tribal offices, and museum on the tribal reservation in Marksville. Eighty percent of the artifacts of the Tunica Treasure have been restored. Formal efforts to be recognized by the federal government were begun in the 1940s when Chief Eli Barbry, Horace Pierite, Clarence Jackson, and Sam Barbry traveled to Washington, D.C. to consult with
1353-522: A metaphor. Uses include the tale of how Lot's wife is turned into a pillar of salt when looking back at the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah as they are destroyed. In the New Testament , Jesus refers to his followers as the " salt of the earth ". In Aztec mythology, Huixtocihuatl was a fertility goddess who presided over salt and salt water. Salt is an auspicious substance in Hinduism and
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#17327719352811476-461: A mildly "fishy" or "sea-air" odour, the latter from organobromine compounds . Sediments, the proportion of which varies with the source, give the salt a dull grey appearance. Since taste and aroma compounds are often detectable by humans in minute concentrations, sea salt may have a more complex flavour than pure sodium chloride when sprinkled on top of food. When salt is added during cooking however, these flavours would likely be overwhelmed by those of
1599-535: A salt spring in Lunca , Neamț County , Romania. Evidence indicates that Neolithic people of the Precucuteni Culture were boiling the salt-laden spring water through the process of briquetage to extract salt as far back as 6050 BC. The salt extracted from this operation may have directly correlated with the rapid growth of this society's population soon after production began. The harvest of salt from
1722-514: A salty bread or to add salt to the bread if this bread is unsalted when doing Kiddush for Shabbat . It is customary to spread some salt over the bread or to dip the bread in a little salt when passing the bread around the table after the Kiddush. To preserve the covenant between their people and God, Jews dip the Sabbath bread in salt. Salt plays a role within different Christian traditions. It
1845-426: A scrubbing agent when combined with oil. Salt is present in most foods , but in naturally occurring foodstuffs such as meats, vegetables and fruit, it is present in very small quantities. It is often added to processed foods (such as canned foods and especially salted foods , pickled foods , and snack foods or other convenience foods ), where it functions as both a preservative and a flavouring . Dairy salt
1968-597: A speaker of the language. Most modern Tunica speak English , with a few older members speaking French as a first language. Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana Avoyelles ( French : Paroisse des Avoyelles ) is a parish located in central eastern Louisiana on the Red River where it effectively becomes the Atchafalaya River and meets the Mississippi River . As of the 2020 census ,
2091-553: A treasure hunter named Leonard Charrier began searching for artifacts at the Trudeau Landing site in West Feliciana Parish, Louisiana . The Tunica, who felt he had stolen tribal heirlooms and desecrated the graves of their ancestors, were outraged. In the 1970s the site was excavated by archaeologists, uncovering large amounts of pottery, European trade goods and other artifacts deposited as grave goods by
2214-505: A virtually inexhaustible source of salt, and this abundance of supply means that reserves have not been calculated. The evaporation of seawater is the production method of choice in marine countries with high evaporation and low precipitation rates. Salt evaporation ponds are filled from the ocean and salt crystals can be harvested as the water dries up. Sometimes these ponds have vivid colours, as some species of algae and other micro-organisms thrive in conditions of high salinity. Away from
2337-526: A written constitution and elected government, was recognized by the federal government in 1981. They live in Mississippi and east central Louisiana . The modern tribe is composed of Tunica, Biloxi (a Siouan -speaking people from the Gulf coast), Ofo (also a Siouan people), Avoyel , and Mississippi Choctaw . Many live on the Tunica-Biloxi Indian Reservation in central Avoyelles Parish , just south of
2460-439: A yellow colour. Folic acid helps prevent neural tube defects and anaemia, which affect young mothers, especially in developing countries. A lack of fluoride in the diet is the cause of a greatly increased incidence of dental caries . Fluoride salts can be added to table salt with the goal of reducing tooth decay, especially in countries that have not benefited from fluoridated toothpastes and fluoridated water. The practice
2583-525: Is a language isolate . The Tunica tribe historically lived close to the Ofo and Avoyeles tribes , but communication among the three depended on their use of the Mobilian Jargon or French . The last known native speaker of the Tunica language, Sesostrie Youchigant , died in 1948. Linguist Mary Haas had worked with Youchigant in the 1930s to describe what he remembered of the language. She published
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#17327719352812706-423: Is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl). When used in food, especially in granulated form, it is more formally called table salt . In the form of a natural crystalline mineral, salt is also known as rock salt or halite . Salt is essential for life in general (being the source of the essential dietary minerals sodium and chlorine ), and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes . Salt
2829-695: Is about 10 g per day, and it is higher than that in many countries in Eastern Europe and Asia. The high level of sodium in many processed foods has a major impact on the total amount consumed. In the United States, 75% of the sodium eaten comes from processed and restaurant foods, 11% from cooking and table use and the rest from what is found naturally in foodstuffs. Because consuming too much sodium increases risk of cardiovascular diseases , health organizations generally recommend that people reduce their dietary intake of salt. High sodium intake
2952-469: Is an important micronutrient for humans, and a deficiency of the element can cause lowered production of thyroxine ( hypothyroidism ) and enlargement of the thyroid gland ( endemic goitre ) in adults or cretinism in children. Iodized salt has been used to correct these conditions since 1924 and consists of table salt mixed with a minute amount of potassium iodide , sodium iodide , or sodium iodate . A small amount of dextrose may be added to stabilize
3075-561: Is associated with a greater risk of stroke , total cardiovascular disease and kidney disease . A reduction in sodium intake by 1,000 mg per day may reduce cardiovascular disease by about 30 percent. In adults and children with no acute illness, a decrease in the intake of sodium from the typical high levels reduces blood pressure. A low sodium diet results in a greater improvement in blood pressure in people with hypertension . The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium (which
3198-420: Is contained in 5 g of salt) per day. Guidelines by the United States recommend that people with hypertension, African Americans, and middle-aged and older adults should limit consumption to no more than 1,500 mg of sodium per day and meet the potassium recommendation of 4,700 mg/day with a healthy diet of fruits and vegetables. While reduction of sodium intake to less than 2,300 mg per day
3321-419: Is dug out by the room and pillar method, where about half the material is left in place to support the upper levels. Extraction of Himalayan salt is expected to last 350 years at the present rate of extraction of around 385,000 tons per annum.The mine is also a major tourist attraction, receiving around a quarter of a million visitors a year. Salt has long held an important place in religion and culture. At
3444-693: Is either beneficial or harmful. Evidence shows a more complicated relationship between salt and cardiovascular disease. "The association between sodium consumption and cardiovascular disease or mortality is U-shaped, with increased risk at both high and low sodium intake." The findings showed that increased mortality from excessive salt intake was primarily associated with individuals with hypertension. The levels of increased mortality among those with restricted salt intake appeared to be similar regardless of blood pressure. This evidence shows that while those with hypertension should primarily focus on reducing sodium to recommended levels, all groups should seek to maintain
3567-536: Is known for its French colonial history and tradition of French language use. The contemporary Creole traditions, in both music and food, reflect European, African and Native American influences. While Avoyelles has a distinctive history of European immigrants, dominated by the French in its early history, it is considered the most northern of the 22 " Acadiana " parishes. These have a tradition of settlement by French-speaking refugees from Acadia (now eastern Canada) in
3690-674: Is land and 33 square miles (85 km ) (3.8%) is water. The parish is bounded on the east by what was just the Red River in the first millennium CE, and is now the Red River and Atchafalaya River . The formation of the Atchafalaya River happened when the Mississippi River changed course, breaking up the Red River. In the 20th century the Old River Control Structure was built at this area to control
3813-530: Is located in Marksville , the parish seat, which is partly within reservation land. Native Americans occupied this area beginning around 300 BC. Varying indigenous cultures flourished there in the following centuries. Today on the banks of the old Mississippi River channel in Marksville, three large burial mounds have been preserved from the Mississippian culture , which flourished especially along
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3936-539: Is made up of just under 40% sodium by weight, so a 6 g serving (1 teaspoon) contains about 2,400 mg of sodium. Sodium serves a vital purpose in the human body: via its role as an electrolyte, it helps nerves and muscles to function correctly, and it is one factor involved in the osmotic regulation of water content in body organs ( fluid balance ). Most of the sodium in the Western diet comes from salt. The habitual salt intake in many Western countries
4059-606: Is mandatory in the rite of the Tridentine Mass . Salt is used in the third item (which includes an Exorcism ) of the Celtic Consecration ( cf. Gallican Rite ) that is employed in the consecration of a church, and it is permitted to be added to the water "where it is customary" in the Roman Catholic rite of Holy water. The Bible makes multiple mentions of salt , both of the mineral itself and as
4182-547: Is more common in some European countries where water fluoridation is not carried out. In France , 35% of the table salt sold contains added sodium fluoride . Unrefined sea salt contains small amounts of magnesium and calcium halides and sulfates , traces of algal products , salt-resistant bacteria and sediment particles. The calcium and magnesium salts confer a faintly bitter overtone, and they make unrefined sea salt hygroscopic (i.e., it gradually absorbs moisture from air if stored uncovered). Algal products contribute
4305-409: Is mostly sodium chloride (NaCl). Sea salt and mined salt may contain trace elements . Mined salt is often refined. Salt crystals are translucent and cubic in shape; they normally appear white but impurities may give them a blue or purple tinge. When dissolved in water sodium chloride separates into Na and Cl ions, and the solubility is 359 grams per litre. From cold solutions, salt crystallises as
4428-427: Is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings , and is known to uniformly improve the taste perception of food, including otherwise unpalatable food. Salting , brining , and pickling are ancient and important methods of food preservation . Some of the earliest evidence of salt processing dates to around 6000 BC, when people living in the area of present-day Romania boiled spring water to extract salts;
4551-428: Is prepared by roasting salt in a bamboo container plugged with mud at both ends. This product absorbs minerals from the bamboo and the mud, and has been claimed to increase the anticlastogenic and antimutagenic properties of doenjang (a fermented bean paste). Kosher or kitchen salt has a larger grain size than table salt and is used in cooking. It can be useful for brining , in bread or pretzel making, and as
4674-435: Is recommended by developed countries, one review recommended that sodium intake be reduced to at least 1,200 mg (contained in 3 g of salt) per day, as a further reduction in salt intake led to a greater fall in systolic blood pressure for all age groups and ethnicities. Another review indicated that there is inconsistent/insufficient evidence to conclude that reducing sodium intake to lower than 2,300 mg per day
4797-556: Is refined by treatment with chemicals that precipitate most impurities (largely magnesium and calcium salts). Multiple stages of evaporation are then applied. Some salt is produced using the Alberger process , which involves vacuum pan evaporation combined with the seeding of the solution with cubic crystals, and produces a grainy-type flake. The Ayoreo , an indigenous group from the Paraguayan Chaco , obtain their salt from
4920-409: Is used as a flux in the production of aluminium . For this purpose, a layer of melted salt floats on top of the molten metal and removes iron and other metal contaminants. It is used in the manufacture of soaps and glycerine , where it is used to saponify fats. As an emulsifier, salt is used in the manufacture of synthetic rubber , and another use is in the firing of pottery , when salt added to
5043-461: Is used extensively in cooking as a flavouring, and in cooking techniques such as with salt crusts and brining . The main sources of salt in the Western diet, apart from direct use, are bread and cereals, meat, and dairy products. In many East Asian cultures, salt is not traditionally used as a condiment. In its place, condiments such as soy sauce , fish sauce and oyster sauce tend to have
Tunica-Biloxi - Misplaced Pages Continue
5166-468: Is used in ceremonies like house-warmings and weddings. In Jainism , devotees lay an offering of raw rice with a pinch of salt before a deity to signify their devotion and salt is sprinkled on a person's cremated remains before the ashes are buried. Salt is believed to ward off evil spirits in Mahayana Buddhist tradition, and when returning home from a funeral , a pinch of salt is thrown over
5289-441: Is used in many cuisines, and it is often found in salt shakers on diners' eating tables for their personal use on food. Salt is also an ingredient in many manufactured foodstuffs. Table salt is a refined salt containing about 97 to 99 percent sodium chloride . Usually, anticaking agents such as sodium aluminosilicate or magnesium carbonate are added to make it free-flowing. Iodized salt , containing potassium iodide ,
5412-477: Is used in religious ceremonies and has other cultural and traditional significance. Salt is processed from salt mines , and by the evaporation of seawater ( sea salt ) and mineral-rich spring water in shallow pools. The greatest single use for salt (sodium chloride) is as a feedstock for the production of chemicals. It is used to produce caustic soda and chlorine , and in the manufacture of products such as polyvinyl chloride , plastics , and paper pulp . Of
5535-617: Is used in the preparation of butter and cheese products. As a flavouring, salt enhances the taste of other foods by suppressing the bitterness of those foods making them more palatable and relatively sweeter. Before the advent of electrically powered refrigeration , salting was one of the main methods of food preservation . Thus, herring contains 67 mg sodium per 100 g, while kipper , its preserved form, contains 990 mg. Similarly, pork typically contains 63 mg while bacon contains 1,480 mg, and potatoes contain 7 mg but potato crisps 800 mg per 100 g. Salt
5658-434: Is widely available. Some people put a desiccant , such as a few grains of uncooked rice or a saltine cracker , in their salt shakers to absorb extra moisture and help break up salt clumps that may otherwise form. Some table salt sold for consumption contains additives that address a variety of health concerns, especially in the developing world. The identities and amounts of additives vary from country to country. Iodine
5781-592: The Biloxi Bay in the mid-17th century, but by the mid-18th century, they had migrated into Louisiana to avoid European encroachment. Some were also noted in Texas in the early 19th century. By the early 19th century their numbers had dwindled. In 1934, the last native speaker, Emma Jackson , was in her 80s. Morris Swadesh and Mary Haas met her on a linguistic survey trip in September 1934 and confirmed her status as
5904-561: The Bureau of Indian Affairs . Federal recognition would have entitled the tribe to benefit from social programs under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 . A succession of chiefs, including Chief Horace Pierite Sr, would work at the task. With the Tunica treasure proving their ancient tribal identity, the tribe was able to gain state and federal recognition . They were recognized by the United States government in 1981 as
6027-590: The Committee on Toxicity in 1988. Other anticaking agents sometimes used include tricalcium phosphate , calcium or magnesium carbonates, fatty acid salts ( acid salts ), magnesium oxide , silicon dioxide , calcium silicate , sodium aluminosilicate and calcium aluminosilicate . Both the European Union and the United States Food and Drug Administration permitted the use of aluminium in
6150-622: The German word Salz , salt. Hallstatt was the site of the world's first salt mine . The town gave its name to the Hallstatt culture that began mining for salt in the area in about 800 BC. Around 400 BC, the townsfolk, who had previously used pickaxes and shovels , began open pan salt making . During the first millennium BC, Celtic communities grew rich trading salt and salted meat to Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome in exchange for wine and other luxuries. The word salary comes from
6273-692: The Latin word for salt. The reason for this is unknown; a persistent modern claim that the Roman Legions were sometimes paid in salt is baseless. The word salad literally means "salted", and comes from the ancient Roman practice of salting leaf vegetables . Wars have been fought over salt. Venice won a war with Genoa over the product, and it played a role in the American Revolution . Cities on overland trade routes grew rich by levying duties , and towns like Liverpool flourished on
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#17327719352816396-669: The Lewis and Clark Expedition and others to survey the Louisiana Territory. It hired local French soldiers, surveyors and doctors, many of whom eventually settled in the area. Many of the French people who settled Avoyelles Parish immigrated from France in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Many of the French words commonly used today in the parish date to terms used during the Napoleon period in France, indicating that this
6519-703: The Middle Mississippian period , local Late Woodland peoples in the Central Mississippi Valley had developed or adopted a Mississippian lifestyle, with maize agriculture, hierarchical political structures, mussel shell-tempered pottery , and participation in the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC). The archaeological evidence suggests that the valley was home to several competing paramount chiefdoms , with supporting vassal states . The groups in
6642-461: The Trudeau site. Over the years, they buried as grave goods large amounts of European trade goods, including beads, porcelain, muskets, kettles, and other items, as well as locally produced Tunica pottery and imported pottery. When discovered in the 20th century, these artifacts attested to their extensive trade with Europeans, as well as the wealth of the Tunica. They stayed at this location into
6765-591: The Tunica Biloxi Indians of Louisiana , later taking the name of Tunica-Biloxi Indian Tribe. The Tunica-Biloxi Tribe operates Louisiana's first land-based casino, Paragon Casino Resort. It opened in Marksville in June 1994. It is now the largest employer in Avoyelles Parish. The Tribe also owns and operates a Tribal Lending Enterprise —the online installment loan company, Mobiloans—and
6888-413: The dihydrate NaCl·2H 2 O. Solutions of sodium chloride have very different properties from those of pure water; the freezing point is −21.12 °C (−6.02 °F) for 23.31 wt% of salt, and the boiling point of saturated salt solution is around 108.7 °C (227.7 °F). Salt is essential to the health of humans and other animals, and it is one of the five basic taste sensations . Salt
7011-826: The obsidian trade in Anatolia in the Neolithic Era . Salt was included among funeral offerings found in ancient Egyptian tombs from the third millennium BC, as were salted birds, and salt fish. From about 2800 BC, the Egyptians began exporting salt fish to the Phoenicians in return for Lebanon cedar , glass, and the dye Tyrian purple ; the Phoenicians traded Egyptian salted fish and salt from North Africa throughout their Mediterranean trade empire. Herodotus described salt trading routes across Libya back in
7134-454: The tanning of hides, the preservation of meat and fish and the canning of meat and vegetables. Food-grade salt accounts for only a small part of salt production in industrialized countries (7% in Europe), although worldwide, food uses account for 17.5% of total production. In 2018, total world production of salt was 300 million tonnes , the top six producers being China (68 million),
7257-774: The 1760s, when the French ceded control west of the Mississippi to the Spanish following the French defeat by the British in the Seven Years' War . In 1764 the Tunica moved 15 miles (24 km) south of the Trudeau Landing site to just outside the French settlement at Pointe Coupée, Louisiana . Other tribes had also settled in the area, including the Offagoula , Pascagoula and Biloxi . The latter came to have
7380-538: The 527th Engineer Battalion of the 225th Engineer Brigade is located in Marksville, Louisiana . The 1086TH Transportation Company of the 165TH CSS (Combat Service Support) Battalion of the 139TH RSG (Regional Support Group) resides in Bunkie, Louisiana . Artists, authors and entertainers: Athletes: Other: Political leaders: 31°00′N 92°00′W / 31.00°N 92.00°W / 31.00; -92.00 Salt In common usage, salt
7503-613: The 5th century BC. In the early years of the Roman Empire, roads were built for the transportation of salt from the salt imported at Ostia to the capital. In Africa, salt was used as currency south of the Sahara, and slabs of rock salt were used as coins in Abyssinia . The Tuareg have traditionally maintained routes across the Sahara especially for the transportation of salt by Azalai (salt caravans). The caravans still cross
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#17327719352817626-520: The Acadians of present-day Nova Scotia, who were expelled by the British from their homeland (Acadie) beginning in 1755 during the Seven Years' War with France. Many deported Acadians eventually made it to Louisiana from 1764 - 1788, after several years of living in exile along the eastern Atlantic seaboard, Canada, St. Pierre and France. In the later 19th century, immigrants from Scotland , Belgium , Italy , and Germany also settled here, following
7749-604: The Caddoan areas. They established a loose collection of hamlets and villages at present-day Angola, Louisiana . The archeological remains of a small hamlet from this time period were discovered in 1976 by an inmate of Angola Prison. It is known as the Bloodhound Site . During the 1710s and 1720s, war periodically broke out between the French and the Natchez. The last uprising in 1729, the Natchez Massacre ,
7872-580: The English language and Protestant Christianity, especially in the northern parts of the area. In the late 19th century, railroads surpassed the rivers as main avenues of trade and transportation, and the Marksville area became a quiet backwater. The only U.S. government mention of the Tunica from 1803 to 1938 was made in 1806 by an Indian Commissioner for Louisiana. He noted that the Tunica numbered only about 25 men, lived in Avoyelles Parish, and made their livings by occasionally hiring out as boatmen. Although
7995-688: The French Creoles. Together they established today's towns and villages. Their direct ties to Europe set them apart from the Acadians (Cajuns) of southern Louisiana, who came from a culture established for generations in Canada. At the turn of the 19th century, free people of color of African-French descent also settled in Avoyelles. Many came from New Orleans, which had a large community of free people of color. Others were refugees from Saint-Domingue , where slaves had rebelled to gain independence as
8118-680: The Menard, Walls, Belle Meade, Parkin and Nodena phases as the de Soto-named provinces of Anilco, Quizquiz, Aquixo, Casqui and Pacaha , respectively. It was 150 years before another European group recorded the Tunica. In 1699 the LaSource expedition (coming downriver from French Canada) encountered the Tunica, describing them as a modestly sized tribe numbering only a few hundred warriors. They and other peoples had suffered from smallpox epidemics, which had high mortality rates as they had no natural immunity to this new disease carried by Europeans. By
8241-535: The Red River was still an important avenue of trade. But rapid changes took place. Under Napoleon Bonaparte , France reacquired the area in 1800. After failing to regain power in its colony of Saint-Domingue , France sold the large territory known as the Louisiana Purchase to the fledgling United States in 1803. Anglo-Americans migrated to Louisiana in great numbers, mostly from the southern United States, eventually changing its culture to one dominated by
8364-530: The Spanish in control of Louisiana, politics were volatile in the area. In 1779 Governor Galvez led a force, which included Tunica and other tribal warriors, to take the British-held town of Baton Rouge . This was the last military campaign for which the Tunica were recorded. By sometime in the late 1780s or 1790s, the Tunica moved again, probably because of the large influx of Anglo-Americans moving into
8487-687: The Tunica from 1731 to 1764 when they occupied the site. With help from the State of Louisiana, the tribe filed suit to gain title to the artifacts, which has subsequently become known as the "Tunica treasure". The case took a decade to be decided in the courts, but the ruling became a landmark in American Indian history. It helped to lay the groundwork for new federal legislation, the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), passed in 1990. Because
8610-422: The Tunica were prosperous at this time, eventually problems with their white neighbors would take its toll. The whites imposed the binary social system based on slavery as a racial caste, recognizing only whites and blacks (in which they classified all people of color). They also tended to discount Indian identity among mixed-race people, failing to understand that they identified culturally and socially as Tunica. By
8733-412: The UK the recommended iodine content of iodized salt is 10–22 ppm. Sodium ferrocyanide , yellow prussiate of soda, is sometimes added to salt as an anticaking agent . Such anticaking agents have been added since at least 1911 when magnesium carbonate was first added to salt to make it flow more freely. The safety of sodium ferrocyanide as a food additive was found to be provisionally acceptable by
8856-496: The US Army Corps of Engineers built a system of levees along the Mississippi River. It reduced immediate flooding in Marksville and other towns, but has caused indirect damage to the wetlands. This has ultimately caused more serious flooding as the speed of the river has increased. According to the U.S. Census Bureau , the parish has a total area of 866 square miles (2,240 km ), of which 832 square miles (2,150 km )
8979-490: The United States (42 million), India (29 million), Germany (13 million), Canada (13 million) and Australia (12 million). The manufacture of salt is one of the oldest chemical industries. A major source of salt is seawater, which has a salinity of approximately 3.5%. This means that there are about 35 g (1.2 oz) of dissolved salts , predominantly sodium ( Na ) and chloride ( Cl ) ions , per kilogram (2.2 lbs) of water. The world's oceans are
9102-428: The age of 18 living with them, 51.70% were married couples living together, 15.70% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.20% were non-families. 25.00% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.90% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.60 and the average family size was 3.11. In the parish the population was spread out, with 26.80% under
9225-467: The age of 18, 9.20% from 18 to 24, 29.00% from 25 to 44, 21.30% from 45 to 64, and 13.70% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 96.40 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.90 males. The median income for a household in the parish was $ 23,851, and the median income for a family was $ 29,389. Males had a median income of $ 27,122 versus $ 18,250 for females. The per capita income for
9348-429: The annual global production of around three hundred million tonnes , only a small percentage is used for human consumption. Other uses include water conditioning processes, de-icing highways, and agricultural use. Edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt, the latter of which usually contains an anti-caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency . As well as its use in cooking and at
9471-558: The area have been defined by archaeologists by archaeological phases ; these include the Menard , Tipton , Belle Meade-Walls , Parkin and Nodena phases. In the spring of 1541 Hernando de Soto and his army approached the eastern bank of the Mississippi River, coming upon the Province of Quizquiz (pronounced "keys-key"). These people spoke a dialect of the Tunica language , which is
9594-476: The area under Napoleon Bonaparte in the early 19th century. After his troops failed to regain control over Saint-Domingue (now Haiti ), Napoleon withdrew from North America. He sold the large Louisiana Purchase territory in 1803 to the United States under President Thomas Jefferson . As the US expanded its rule, local documents began to be recorded in the English of the new government. The United States arranged for
9717-407: The area. They moved west to a site on the Red River named Avoyelles . In 1794 Marco Litche (recorded by the French as Marc Eliche), a Sephardic Jewish trader from Venice, established a trading post in the area. A European-American settlement developed around the post and became known as Marksville . It was noted on Louisiana maps as of 1809. Marksville was a good location for a trading post, as
9840-406: The artifacts had been separated from the original burials and connections were lost, the tribe decided to build a museum to house these items. Members of the tribe were trained as conservators in order to repair damage done to the artifacts by the centuries underground and handling during the ten-year court battle. The museum was built in the shape of the ancient temple mounds of their people, with
9963-692: The ash produced by burning the timber of the Indian salt tree ( Maytenus vitis-idaea ) and other trees. The largest mine operated by underground workings in the world is the Sifto mine, located mostly 550 meters below Lake Huron, in Goderich, Ontario (Canada). About seven million tons of salt are extracted from it annually. The Khewra Salt Mine in Pakistan has nineteen storeys, eleven of which are underground, and 400 km (250 mi) of passages. The salt
10086-671: The availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization. What is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata , in Bulgaria , which was a salt mine, providing the area now known as the Balkans with salt since 5400 BC. Salt was the best-known food preservative, especially for meat, for many thousands of years. A very ancient salt-works operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to
10209-456: The canebrake around the village. Cahura-Joligo informed the Natchez party that he could not receive them unless they gave up their arms. They said they intended to do so, but asked to keep their arms a while longer. He consented and had food distributed to his new guests. A dance was held that night. After the dance and when the village had gone to sleep, the Natchez, Chickasaw and Koroa attacked their hosts. Cahura-Joligo killed four Natchez during
10332-604: The central Mississippi Valley. They absorbed the smaller remnant of Avoyel people nearly two centuries ago. Through the years, they also intermarried with the more numerous Biloxi people . The peoples organized politically in the 20th century and were federally recognized in 1981 as the Tunica-Biloxi Indian Tribe . They are the largest Native American tribe in Avoyelles Parish and have a reservation that extends into Marksville. Descendants of other smaller tribes are also enrolled in this tribe. Avoyelles Parish
10455-656: The city of Marksville, Louisiana . A part of the city extends onto reservation land. The reservation has a land area of 1.682 km (0.649 sq mi). Currently, they operate Louisiana's first land based casino, Paragon Casino Resort , opened in Marksville in June 1994. The casino is known for its contributions back to its members. The 2000 census lists 648 persons identified as Tunica. Tribal government currently consists of an elected tribal council and tribal chairman. The tribe maintains its own police force, health services, education department, housing authority, and court system. Former tribal chairman Earl J. Barbry Sr.,
10578-400: The coast natives lost their previous profits; as of the late 1950s, sea salt was still the currency best appreciated in the interior. Salzburg , Hallstatt , and Hallein lie within 17 km (11 mi) of each other on the river Salzach in central Austria in an area with extensive salt deposits. Salzach means "salt river" while Salzburg means "salt castle", both taking their names from
10701-674: The description in A Grammar of the Tunica Language in 1941, followed by Tunica Texts in 1950, and Tunica Dictionary in 1953. Tunica is a reawakening language, with immersion programs and youth summer camps teaching second-language learners. The Biloxi language is a Siouan language which was at one time spoken by the Biloxi people in Louisiana and southeast Texas . The Biloxi were first noted in European records as living along
10824-444: The desert from southern Niger to Bilma , although much of the trade now takes place by truck. Each camel takes two bales of fodder and two of trade goods northwards and returns laden with salt pillars and dates. In Gabon, before the arrival of Europeans, the coast people carried on a remunerative trade with those of the interior by the medium of sea salt. This was gradually displaced by the salt that Europeans brought in sacks, so that
10947-484: The earthen structure to take the symbolic place of the original burial underground. It opened in 1989 as The Tunica-Biloxi Regional Indian Center and Museum. Due to structural problems, it was closed in 1999, with plans for a new larger facility underway. Today the Tunica Treasure collection is housed in the Tunica-Biloxi Cultural and Educational Resources Center, a state-of-the-art facility that includes
11070-528: The export of salt extracted from the salt mines of Cheshire . Various governments have at different times imposed salt taxes on their peoples. The voyages of Christopher Columbus are said to have been financed from salt production in southern Spain, and the oppressive salt tax in France was one of the causes of the French Revolution . After being repealed, this tax was reimposed by Napoleon when he became emperor to pay for his foreign wars , and
11193-411: The fighting, but was killed along with 12 of his warriors. His war chief Brides les Boeufs (Buffalo Tamer) repulsed the attack. He rallied the warriors, and after fighting for five days and nights, regained control of the village. Twenty Tunica were killed and as many wounded in the fighting. They killed 33 of the Natchez warriors. After the attack at Angola, in 1731 the Tunica moved a few miles away to
11316-477: The flow of the three rivers. At the 2020 United States census , there were 39,693 people, 15,163 households, and 9,840 families residing in the parish, up from 42,073 residents in 2010. At the census of 2000, there were 41,481 people, 14,736 households, and 10,580 families living in the parish. The population density was 50 people per square mile (19 people/km ). There were 16,576 housing units at an average density of 20 per square mile (7.7/km ). In 2000,
11439-478: The food ingredients. The refined salt industry cites scientific studies saying that raw sea and rock salts do not contain enough iodine salts to prevent iodine deficiency diseases . Salts have diverse mineralities depending on their source, giving each a unique flavour. Fleur de sel , a natural sea salt from the surface of evaporating brine in salt pans, has a distinctive flavour varying with its source. In traditional Korean cuisine , so-called " bamboo salt "
11562-435: The furnace vaporises before condensing onto the surface of the ceramic material, forming a strong glaze . When drilling through loose materials such as sand or gravel, salt may be added to the drilling fluid to provide a stable "wall" to prevent the hole collapsing. There are many other processes in which salt is involved. These include its use as a mordant in textile dying, to regenerate resins in water softening, for
11685-651: The iodine. Iodine deficiency affects about two billion people around the world and is the leading preventable cause of intellectual disabilities . Iodized table salt has significantly reduced disorders of iodine deficiency in countries where it is used. The amount of iodine and the specific iodine compound added to salt varies. In the United States , the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends 150 micrograms of iodine per day for both men and women. US iodized salt contains 46–77 ppm (parts per million), whereas in
11808-399: The late 18th century. They contributed strongly to the development of culture in this area, as did Africans and the indigenous Native Americans. The parish is noted for its brand of Cajun / Creole style music and its gumbo , a popular soup with roots in the three major ethnicities noted above. The central part of Avoyelles Parish is sited on a large plateau, slightly above the floodplain of
11931-444: The late 19th century, the dominant white conservative Democrats imposed legal racial segregation after disenfranchising blacks and other minorities of color. The Tunica became subsistence farmers, with some hunting and fishing to support themselves. Others turned to sharecropping on their white neighbors' land. As the 20th century dawned, the Tunica came together around their ancient heritage. They had managed to retain possession of
12054-412: The latter two compounds. In "doubly fortified salt", both iodide and iron salts are added. The latter alleviates iron deficiency anaemia , which interferes with the mental development of an estimated 40% of infants in the developing world. A typical iron source is ferrous fumarate . Another additive, especially important for pregnant women, is folic acid (vitamin B 9 ), which gives the table salt
12177-527: The lower Mississippi River were a target of Chickasaw raids for the English slave trade in South Carolina . By 1706 the Tunica decided to move. As their enemies the Natchez were to their immediate south, they moved to the Mississippi side of the Mississippi and Red River confluence . This allowed them to keep control of their salt trade , as the Red River also connected to their salt source in
12300-485: The majority of their communal land, some still spoke the Tunica language, and they still practiced traditional tribal ceremonies. Gradually the remnant descendants of other local tribes (the Ofo, Avoyel, Choctaw, and Biloxi) merged into the Tunica. They have preserved much of their ethnic identity, maintaining their tribal government and the hereditary chieftainship up to the mid-1970s. The modern Tunica-Biloxi tribe, which has
12423-399: The manufacture and distribution of salt , a valuable item to both native and Europeans. Salt was extremely important in the trade between the French and the various Caddoan groups in what are now northwestern Louisiana and southwestern Arkansas. The Tunica were believed to be the middlemen in the trade of salt from the Caddoan areas to the French. By the early 18th century, the tribes along
12546-442: The memory of valiant deeds and triumphs of his bellicose youth, and the fact that he held sway over a province so large and good as his, gave him strength to utter those fierce threats and even fiercer ones. Based on evaluations of the three surviving de Soto narratives for topography, linguistics and cultural traits, combined with archaeological excavations and analysis, most archaeologists and ethnohistorians have agreed to identify
12669-470: The missionaries hoped to convert the natives to Christianity. The trading post was built near the Avoyel/Tunica settlement; it was preserved until the mid-1960s. Historic roadside markers on LA 1 identify the site of the historic Catholic mission school. Franco-European settlers first called this area Hydropolis, meaning water city, referring to the marshes and bayous. The major mode of transportation
12792-537: The more southern Acadian parishes. But, few families in Avoyelles are of Acadian descent. From the 1800s until the mid-1900s, local Confederate units and local newspaper reports in The Villager always referred to the Avoyelles French families as Creoles, the term for native-born people of direct descent from early French colonists and born in the colony. Following the disastrous Great Flood of 1927 ,
12915-517: The nation of Haiti . Others came from other colonies in the French West Indies. The blending of these three cultures: Native American, European and African, created a distinct Louisiana Creole culture noted in the local language, food, Catholic religion, and family ties. In the 21st century, the Avoyelles Parish culture has been classified as "Cajun" because of the perceived similarities in speech, food, and various folk traditions with
13038-512: The parish was $ 12,146. About 21.70% of families and 25.90% of the population were below the poverty line , including 32.50% of those under age 18 and 25.00% of those age 65 or over. All primary public schools are run by the Avoyelles Parish School Board . It operates 10 schools with an enrollment over 6,000 students. The school board website is Avoyelles Parish School Board . The 1020th Engineer Company (Vertical) of
13161-433: The population was 39,693. The parish seat is Marksville . The parish was created in 1807, with the name deriving from the French name for the historic Avoyel people, one of the local Indian tribes at the time of European encounter. Today the parish is the base of the federally recognized Tunica-Biloxi Indian Tribe, who have a reservation there. The tribe has a land-based gambling casino on their reservation. It
13284-417: The province, who like his land was called Quizquiz, was now old and sick in bed; but on hearing the noise and confusion in his village, he arose and came from his bedchamber. Then beholding the pillage and seizure of his vassals, he grasped a battle-ax and began to descend the stairs with the greatest fury, in the meantime vowing loudly and fiercely to slay anyone who came into his land without permission.... But
13407-633: The racial makeup of the parish was 68.47% White , 29.49% Black or African American , 1.01% Native American , 0.17% Asian , 0.19% from other races , and 0.66% from two or more races. 0.97% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 17.64% reported speaking French or Cajun French at home, while 2.12% speak Spanish . In 2020, its racial makeup was 63.58% non-Hispanic white, 26.83% Black or African American, 0.88% Native American, 0.87% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 4.1% multiracial, and 3.74% Hispanic or Latino American. In 2000, there were 14,736 households, out of which 36.30% had children under
13530-503: The sea, salt is extracted from the vast sedimentary deposits which have been laid down over the millennia from the evaporation of seas and lakes. These sources are either mined directly, producing rock salt, or are extracted by pumping water into the deposit. In either case, the salt may be purified by mechanical evaporation of brine. Traditionally, purification was achieved in shallow open pans that were heated to accelerate evaporation. Vacuum -based methods are also employed. The raw salt
13653-727: The spread of civilization, salt became one of the world's main trading commodities. It was of high value to the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites and other peoples of antiquity. In the Middle East, salt was used to seal an agreement ceremonially, and the ancient Hebrews made a " covenant of salt " with God and sprinkled salt on their offerings to show their trust in him. An ancient practice in time of war
13776-491: The surface of Xiechi Lake near Yuncheng in Shanxi , China, dates back to at least 6000 BC, making it one of the oldest verifiable saltworks. There is more salt in animal tissues, such as meat, blood, and milk, than in plant tissues. Nomads who subsist on their flocks and herds do not eat salt with their food, but agriculturalists, feeding mainly on cereals and vegetable matter, need to supplement their diet with salt. With
13899-623: The table, salt is present in many processed foods. Sodium is an essential element for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute . However, excessive salt consumption increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension . Such health effects of salt have long been studied. Accordingly, numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods. The World Health Organization recommends that adults consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium, equivalent to 5 grams of salt, per day. All through history,
14022-538: The time of Brahmanic sacrifices, in Hittite rituals and during festivals held by Semites and Greeks at the time of the new moon , salt was thrown into a fire where it produced crackling noises. The ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans invoked their gods with offerings of salt and water and some people think this to be the origin of Holy Water in the Christian faith. In Judaism , it is recommended to have either
14145-627: The time the French arrived, the Central Mississippi Valley was sparsely occupied by the Quapaw . They became significant allies to the French and aided their successful settlement. The French established a mission among the Tunica around 1700, on the Yazoo River . Father Antoine Davion was assigned to the Tunica, as well as to the smaller tribes of the Koroa , Yazoo , and Houspé tribes. The Tunica were skilled traders and entrepreneurs, especially in
14268-579: The upper Mississippi, the Ohio River and other tributaries, from about 900 AD to 1500 AD. Mounds of its major city, Cahokia , are preserved in western Illinois across the Mississippi from St. Louis, Missouri. The trading network reached from the Gulf Coast to the Great Lakes. A museum and a National Park commemorate this early culture. The Tunica people had bands whose territory extended into
14391-572: The waterways. Travel by water was long the primary way to move around this area. The Indians used canoes, and the early French settlers developed their own boats, known as pirogues. Records from the Catholic churches in Mansura and Marksville document the founding of a trading post and a Catholic school by French colonists. The merchants wanted to conduct fur trading with the Tunica Tribe and
14514-555: Was salting the earth : scattering salt around in a defeated city to prevent plant growth. The Bible tells the story of King Abimelech who was ordered by God to do this at Shechem , and various texts claim that the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus Africanus ploughed over and sowed the city of Carthage with salt after it was defeated in the Third Punic War (146 BC). Salt may have been used for barter in connection with
14637-415: Was by Indian canoe and pirogue (a French-style dug-out canoe). Church records identify settlers with all their family members listed, as well as some property; in some cases they listed slaves by name. Church records and documentation were recorded in French during the years of initial settlement, then in Spanish during their brief rule in the late 18th century, with a return to French after France reacquired
14760-460: Was not finally abolished until 1946. In 1930, Mahatma Gandhi led a crowd of 100,000 protestors on the "Dandi March" or " Salt Satyagraha ", during which they made their own salt from the sea as a demonstration of their opposition to the colonial salt tax . This act of civil disobedience inspired numerous Indians and transformed the Indian independence movement into a national struggle. Salt
14883-499: Was the largest; the Natchez killed most of the French at the village of Natchez and Fort Rosalie. French colonists gained the aid of Indian allies and returned to the villages, killing or capturing most of the Natchez. The survivors were sold into slavery. In 1729 the chiefs of the village sent emissaries to potential allies, including the Yazoo, Koroa, Illinois , Chickasaw , and Choctaw. The Natchez Rebellion or Natchez War expanded into
15006-606: Was the period of immigration. They have not been used in France for many generations. The Spanish influence in Louisiana was more dominant in New Iberia — this was named after colonists from the Iberian Peninsula, commonly known as Spain and Portugal. There are no Spanish surnames in Avoyelles. A few families from French Canada (Quebec) settled in Avoyelles. They were from a different geographic area of Canada than
15129-567: Was widely noted as one of the longest-serving chairmen in Indian Country, serving from 1978 until his death in July 2013. Barbry was succeeded as chairman by Marshall Pierite, formerly vice chairman of the tribe, from August 2013 through April 2014. Barbry's son, Joey Barbry, served as chairman from April 2014. Marshall Pierite again became chairman upon his election in April 2018. In the 1960s
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