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50-491: In 939, Ngô Quyền became King of Tĩnh Hải quân (as Vietnam was called then) after defeating the Southern Han and declaring independence from centuries of Chinese rule. After Ngô Quyền's death in 944, his brother-in-law Dương Tam Kha , who was to serve as regent to the king's son Crown Prince Ngô Xương Ngập , usurped the throne and proclaimed himself king under the title Dương Bình Vương , ruling from 944 to 950. As

100-558: A calligraphic style of writing Chinese characters. Over time, however, the term evolved and broadened in scope, eventually coming to refer to the Chinese script in general. This meaning came from the viewpoint that the script belonged to followers of Confucianism. This is further shown with Neo-Confucianism becoming the state ideology of the Lê dynasty . Classical Chinese is referred to as Hán văn ( 漢文 ) and văn ngôn ( 文言 ). After

150-508: A chữ Hán character causing confusion between pronunciations. Chữ Hán can be classified into the traditional classification for Chinese characters , this is called lục thư ( 六書 , Chinese: liùshū), meaning six types of Chinese characters. The characters are largely based on 214 radicals set by the Kangxi Dictionary . Some chữ Hán characters were simplified into variants of characters that were easier to write, but they are not

200-432: A chữ Nôm character. Most chữ Hán characters that were used for Vietnamese words were often used for their Sino-Vietnamese pronunciations rather than their meaning which could be completely different from the actual word being used. These characters were called chữ giả tá (phonetic loan characters), due to them being borrowed phonetically. This was one reason why it was preferred to create a chữ Nôm character rather than using

250-512: A joint rule, which lasted until the collapse of the royal family in 966. The first history of Dai Viet by Lê Văn Hưu (13th century), Anthology of Palace Spirits of Lý Tế Xuyên (14th Century), and successive histories all recognized the importance of Ngô Quyền. "The Battle of Bach-dang River took place in the autumn of 938. It has been remembered by the Vietnamese as an important milestone on their path to national independence. It had

300-531: A part of the new elementary curriculum complied by Ministry of Education and Training after the Vietnam War. Today, Chinese characters can still be seen adorned in temples and old buildings. Chữ Hán is now relegated to obscurity and cultural aspects of Vietnam. During Vietnamese festivals, calligraphists will write some couplets written in Chinese characters wishing prosperity and longevity. Calligraphists that are skilled in calligraphy are called ông đồ. This

350-626: A powerful effect on the people of the time, as well, for it directly led to the abandonment of T'ang-style political titles and to the proclamation of the first Vietnamese "king" of the tenth century." Ch%E1%BB%AF H%C3%A1n Chữ Hán ( 𡨸漢 [t͡ɕɨ˦ˀ˥ haːn˧˦] ; lit.   ' Han characters ' ) are the Chinese characters that were used to write Literary Chinese ( Hán văn ; 漢文 ) and Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary in Vietnam. They were officially used in Vietnam after

400-462: A result, Crown Prince Ngô Xương Ngập fled and hid in the countryside. The prince's younger brother, Prince Ngô Xương Văn became the adopted son of Dương Tam Kha. Because of the illegitimate accession of Dương Tam Kha , many local warlords rebelled by seizing power of their local governments and creating conflicts with the Dương court. King Dương Tam Kha sent an army led by Prince Ngô Xương Văn to suppress

450-459: A single character. While most characters usually have one or two pronunciations, some characters can have up to as many as four pronunciations and more. An example of this would be the character 行 hàng – which could have the readings hàng , hành , hãng , hạng , and hạnh . The readings typically depend on the context and definition of the word. If talking about a store or goods, the reading hàng would be used, but if talking about virtue ,

500-515: A year, until Đinh Bộ Lĩnh seized the fortress and Đỗ Cảnh Thạc was killed. In Tây Phù Liệt, Nguyễn Siêu lost four of his generals in the first battle with Đinh Bộ Lĩnh. In the second battle, he split his army in half to seek backup. However, their ships were wrecked, upon which Đinh Bộ Lĩnh commanded his soldiers to set fire to the camps of the remaining army. Nguyễn Siêu died. By the beginning of 968, after defeating and killing Nguyễn Thủ Tiệp, Kiểu Công Hãn, Nguyễn Khoan, Kiều Thuận, Lý Khuê, Lã Đường,

550-805: Is especially reflected in the poem, Ông đồ, by Vũ Đình Liên. The poem talks about the ông đồ during Tết and how the art of Vietnamese calligraphy is no longer appreciated. In the preface of Khải đồng thuyết ước ( 啟童說約 ; 1853) written by Phạm Phục Trai ( 范复齋 ), it has the passage, 余童年，先君子從俗命之，先讀《三字經》及三皇諸史，次則讀經傳，習時舉業文字，求合場規，取青紫而已 。 Dư đồng niên, tiên quân tử tùng tục mệnh chi, tiên độc “Tam tự kinh” cập Tam Hoàng chư sử, thứ tắc độc kinh truyện, tập thì cử nghiệp văn tự, cầu hợp trường quy, thủ thanh tử nhi dĩ. Tôi hồi tuổi nhỏ nghe các bậc quân tử đời trước theo lệ thường dạy mà dạy bảo, trước hết đọc Tam tự kinh và các sử đời Tam Hoàng, tiếp theo thì đọc kinh truyện, tập lối chữ nghĩa cử nghiệp thời thượng, sao cho hợp trường quy để được làm quan mà thôi. In my childhood, under

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600-566: Is made of chữ meaning 'character' and Hán 'Han (referring to the Han dynasty )'. Other synonyms of chữ Hán includes chữ Nho ( 𡨸儒 , literally ' Confucian characters') and Hán tự ( 漢字 ) which was borrowed directly from Chinese. Chữ Nho was first mentioned in Phạm Đình Hổ's essay, Vũ trung tùy bút ( 雨中隨筆 lit.   ' Essays in the Rain ' ) where it initially described

650-417: Is the character, 𫢋 phật (⿰亻天) which is a common variant of the character 佛 meaning 'Buddha'. It is composed of the radicals, 人 nhân [ 亻 ] and 天 thiên, all together to mean 'heavenly person'. The character 匕 (chuỷ) or 〻 is often used as an iteration mark to indicate that the current chữ Hán character is to be repeated. This is used in words that use reduplication . For example, in

700-459: The Four Books and Five Classics . While literature in Vietnamese (written with chữ Nôm ) was the minority. Literature such as Nam quốc sơn hà (chữ Hán: 南國山河 ) and Truyền kỳ mạn lục (chữ Hán: 傳奇漫錄 ) being written with Chinese characters. With every new dynasty with the exception of two dynasties, Literary Chinese and thus Chinese characters remained in common usage. It was until in

750-590: The Red River Delta region was incorporated into the Han dynasty and continued to be used until the early 20th century (111 BC – 1919 AD) where usage of Literary Chinese was abolished alongside the Confucian court examinations causing chữ Hán to be no longer used in favour of the Vietnamese alphabet . The main Vietnamese term used for Chinese characters is chữ Hán ( 𡨸漢 ). It

800-502: The Sino-Xenic pronunciations. Non-Sino-Vietnamese readings (âm phi Hán Việt; 音非漢越 ) are pronunciations that were not consistently derived from Middle Chinese. Typically these readings came from Old Chinese, Cantonese, and other Chinese dialects. ( Old > Middle ) Nôm readings (âm Nôm; 音喃 ) were used when there were characters that were phonetically close to a native Vietnamese word's pronunciation would be used as

850-542: The Southern Han dynasty at the Battle of Bạch Đằng River north of modern Haiphong . The battle is celebrated in Vietnamese national history as it ended 1,000 years of Chinese rule over Vietnam dating back to 111 BC under the Western Han dynasty . A central district in modern Haiphong is named after him. Ngô Quyền was born in 898 AD in Đường Lâm (modern-day Sơn Tây District, Hanoi of northern Vietnam) during

900-519: The Tang dynasty . He was the son of Ngô Mân , an influential official in Phong , Annan (today Phu Tho province ). Ngô Mân's ancestor was Wu Ridai (Ngô Nhật Đại), a local tribal chief from Fuluzhou, Annan (Modern-day Ha Tinh Province ). In 722, Wu Ridai and his family migrated to Aizhou (Modern-day Thanh Hoa Province ) after the defeat of Mai Thúc Loan . According to the family's stele erected in 1631,

950-481: The Three Character Classic ( 三字經 ). The primers were often glossed with chữ Nôm. As such with Nhất thiên tự ( 一千字 ), it was designed to allow students to make the transition from Vietnamese grammar to Classical Chinese grammar . If students read the Chinese characters only, the words will be in an alternating rhyme of three and four, but if it was read with the chữ Nôm glosses, it would be in

1000-590: The 20th century that Chinese characters alongside chữ Nôm began to fall into disuse. The French Indo-Chinese administration sought to westernise and modernise Vietnam by abolishing the Confucian court examinations . During this time, the French language was used for the administration. The French officials favoured Vietnamese being written in the Vietnamese alphabet. Chinese characters were still being taught in classes (in South Vietnam ) up to 1975, but failed to be

1050-605: The Admiral Liu Hongcao (the prince of the Southern Han Emperor), were killed. Similar tactics were later repeated by Lê Hoàn in 981 and Trần Hưng Đạo against the Mongols in 1288. After overthrowing the Chinese government in Vietnam and proclaimed as king, Ngô Quyền transferred the capital to Cổ Loa citadel, the capital of Âu Lạc , the ancient Yue kingdom, thus affirming the continuity of

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1100-660: The Chinese kingdom of Southern Han invaded Jinghai and removed the Khúc family from power. A formal vassal of the Khúc family, Dương Đình Nghệ launched a revolt in 931 that ousted the Chinese. In 931, he served under Dương Đình Nghệ (the governor of Jinghai circuit/principality ) and quickly rose through the military ranks and government administration; by 934, he was promoted to the post of military governor of Ái Châu. Dương Đình Nghệ loved his talent and gave him one of his daughters, Lady Dương, in marriage and placed him in charge of Ái Châu (Nghệ An province at present). The province

1150-449: The Ngô dynasty, Phạm Bạch Hổ, Đỗ Cảnh Thạc, Kiều Công Hãn were officials of the Ngô dynasty. The remainders were considered local landlords or nobles from Northern nations, which was the ancient nations holding what is now China. Four of the lords are verified to have traced their lineage from what is now China today. Recent findings suggest that there was a 13th warlord that is not included in

1200-483: The Sino-Vietnamese name for Đèo Ba Dội. Practically all surnames in Vietnamese are Sino-Vietnamese words; they were once written in Chinese characters. Such as common surnames include Nguyễn ( 阮 ), Trần ( 陳 ), Lê ( 黎 ), Lý ( 李 ), etc. Owing to historical contact with Chinese characters before the adoption of Chinese characters and how they were adapted into Vietnamese, multiple readings can exist for

1250-512: The Southern Han would sail down the Bạch Đằng River to unload their troops right in the middle of Giao Châu to do the most damage. To prevent this incursion, Ngô Quyền strategized and ordered the waters of Bạch Đằng embedded with thousands of large wooden pikes hidden just beneath the rising tide water. He used boats with shallow drafts to instigate and lure the Southern Han toward the traps after

1300-606: The Vietnamese lục bát rhyme. These books gave students a foundation to start learning more difficult texts that involved longer sentences and more difficult grammatical structures in Literary Chinese. Students would study texts such as Sơ học vấn tân ( 𥘉學問津 ; 'inquiring in elementary studies'), Ấu học ngũ ngôn thi ( 幼學五言詩 ; 'elementary learning of the five-character verses'), Minh tâm bảo giám ( 明心寶鑑 ; 'precious lessons of enlightenment'), and Minh Đạo gia huấn ( 明道家訓 ; 'precepts of Minh Đạo'). These books taught

1350-454: The age of 6. The first grade level was called ấu học ( 幼學 ) (ages 6–12), next was tiểu học ( 小學 ) (ages under 27), and then finally, trung học ( 中學 ) (ages under 30). Đại học ( 大學 ) at this time referred to students studying in the national academies. The education reform by North Vietnam in 1950 eliminated the use of chữ Hán and chữ Nôm. Chinese characters were still taught in schools in South Vietnam until 1975. During those times,

1400-526: The army to occupy Hoa Lư, which became the national capital under his reign afterward. Đinh Bộ Lĩnh was respected as Vạn Thắng Vương (萬勝王, Wànshèng Wáng , lt. the King of Ten Thousand Victories ) because of the continuous victories. In 968, the era ended and was replaced by the era of the Đinh dynasty . Đinh Bộ Lĩnh began by defeating Lã Xử Bình in Cổ Loa. The battle with Đỗ Cảnh Thạc in Đỗ Động Giang took over

1450-540: The basic sentences necessary to read Literary Chinese and taught core Confucian values and concepts such as filial piety . In Sơ học vấn tân ( 𥘉學問津 ), it has four character phrases that were divided into three sections, one on Chinese history, then Vietnamese history, and lastly on words of advice on education. During the period of reformed imperial examinations (khoa cử cải lương; 科舉改良 ) that took place from 1906 to 1919, there were three grades of education. Students would start learning Chinese characters beginning from

1500-438: The conflict: the Ngô dynasty royalists under Ngô Xương Xí ; military junta under Lã Xử Bình in Cổ Loa; and the regional governorship under Trần Lãm . Other minor warlords eventually joined in and formed alliances among the three main factions of the conflict. Đinh Bộ Lĩnh , adopted son of Lord Trần Lãm who ruled the region of Bố Hải Khẩu (now Thái Bình Province ), succeeded Lãm after his death. In 968, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh defeated

1550-748: The conquest of Nanyue ( Vietnamese : Nam Việt; chữ Hán: 南越 ), parts of modern-day Northern Vietnam were incorporated into the Jiāozhǐ province ( Vietnamese : Giao Chỉ ; chữ Hán : 交趾 ) of the Han dynasty . It was during this era, that the Red River Delta was under direct Chinese rule for about a millennium. Around this time, Chinese characters became widespread in northern Vietnam. Government documents, literature, and religious texts such as Buddhist sutras were all written in Literary Chinese ( Vietnamese : Hán văn; chữ Hán: 漢文 ). From independence from China and onward, Literary Chinese still remained as

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1600-517: The family claimed to has dated back to Hung kings period. Ngô Quyền's birth, according to Vietnamese tradition, that he was bathed with strange luminosity and three strangle black moles were seen on the baby's back, which were signs of his future greatness, and the mother named him "Quyền", meaning authority and power. Since 905, the Tang dynasty lost control of Jinghai to locals and native chieftains. The Khúc family ruled Annam autonomy until in 930

1650-685: The guidance of my elders and conforming to the customs, I first studied the "Three Character Classic" and various histories of the Three Emperors. Afterward, I delved into the classics and their commentaries, honing my skills in calligraphy and writing, aiming to conform to the rules of society and attain a respectable status. Children around the age of 6–8 begin learning chữ Hán at schools. Students began by learning characters from books such as Nhất thiên tự ( 一千字 ; 'one thousand characters'), Tam thiên tự ( 三千字 ; 'three thousand characters'), Ngũ thiên tự ( 五千字 ; 'five thousand characters'), and

1700-572: The late Tang dynasty (618-907). Vietnamese scholars used Chinese rime dictionaries to derive consistent pronunciations for Chinese characters. After Vietnam had regained independence, its rulers sought to build the country on the Chinese model, during this time, Literary Chinese was used for formal government documents. Around this, the Japanese and Koreans also borrowed large amount of characters into their languages and derived consistent pronunciations, these pronunciations are collectively known as

1750-534: The list: Dương Huy, who ruled a region to the South-East of Cổ Loa. Đinh Bộ Lĩnh used to hold some posts in Hoan Châu (Nghệ An and Hà Tĩnh today), but lost his positions and went back to Hoa Lư in 950. Here, he became an adoptive son and subordinate general to Trần Lãm. Considering Đinh Bộ Lĩnh as a reasonable leader who could manage the circumstances, Trần Lãm retired and gave all power to him. Đinh Bộ Lĩnh led

1800-452: The new Southern Han regime due to its strategic geographical location. Ngô Quyền foresaw the Southern Han intention. He quickly mobilized the armed forces and made war preparations well in advance. His victory at the Battle of Bach Dang paved the way for Vietnamese independence. In 938, the Southern Han emperor Liu Yan dispatched an naval fleet to subdue Jinghai. Ngô Quyền calculated that

1850-510: The official language for writing whether if it was government documents or literature. Every succeeding dynasty modeled their imperial exams after China's model . Scholars drew lessons from Neo-Confucianism and used its teachings to implement laws in the country. The spread of Confucianism meant the spread of Chinese characters, thus the name for Chinese characters in Vietnamese is called chữ Nho (literally: 'Confucian characters; 𡨸儒 ). Scholars were focused on reading Chinese classics such as

1900-401: The other eleven major warlords and reunified the nation under his rule. In the same year, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh ascended the throne, proclaiming himself emperor with the title Đinh Tiên Hoàng , establishing the Đinh dynasty , and he renamed the nation as Đại Cồ Việt ("Great Viet"). He moved the capital to Hoa Lư (modern-day Ninh Bình ). Of those, Ngô Xương Xí and Ngô Nhật Khánh were nobles of

1950-938: The reading hạnh would be used. But typically, knowing what readings was not a large problem due to context and compound words. Most Sino-Vietnamese words are restricted to being in compound words. Readings for chữ Hán, often classified into Sino-Vietnamese readings and Non-Sino-Vietnamese readings. Non-Sino-Vietnamese readings are derived from Old Chinese and recent Chinese borrowings during the 17th–20th centuries when Chinese people migrated to Vietnam. Most of these readings were food related as Cantonese Chinese had introduced their food into Vietnam. Borrowings from Old Chinese are also referred to as Early Sino-Vietnamese pronunciations according to Mark Alves. Sino-Vietnamese readings are usually referred to as âm Hán Việt ( 音漢越 ; literally "sound Sino-Vietnamese"), which are Vietnamese systematic pronunciations of Middle Chinese characters. These readings were largely borrowed into Vietnamese during

2000-403: The rebellion. However, with the army at his command, the prince staged a coup d'état in 950. Rather than administering a harsh punishment, Ngô Xương Văn forgave Dương Tam Kha and demoted him to the title of "Lord". Ngô Xương Văn was then crowned king under the title "Nam Tấn Vương", and sent envoys in search for his refuged older brother, Ngô Xương Ngập. In 951, Ngô Xương Ngập returned to Cổ Loa and

2050-452: The royal capital at Cổ Loa . Prince Ngô Xưong Xí , the son of King Ngô Xương Văn, inherited the throne, but he could not maintain his father's authority. He retreated to the area of Bình Kiều and established his power base there. When the Ngô dynasty collapsed under Lã Xử Bình's rebellion, Tĩnh Hải Quân became a power vacuum and divided into 12 domains where each was administered by a powerful warlord converging into three main factions during

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2100-689: The same simplified characters used by current-day Chinese. According to Trịnh Khắc Mạnh, when he analysed the early 13th century book, 釋氏寶鼎行持秘旨全章 (Thích thị Bảo đỉnh hành trì bí chỉ toàn chương). He found that the number of character variants is double the number of variants borrowed from China. This means that Vietnamese variant characters may differ from Chinese variants and simplified characters , for example: Some characters matching Simplified Chinese do exist, but these characters are rare in Vietnamese literature. There are other variants such as 𭓇 học (variant of 學 ; ⿳⿰〢⿻ 丨 𰀪 冖子 ) and 𱻊 nghĩa (variant of 義 ; ⿱𦍌 又 ). Another prominent example

2150-764: The textbooks that were used were mainly derived from colonial textbooks. There were two main textbooks, Hán-văn tân khóa bản ( 漢文新課本 ; 1973) and Hán-văn giáo-khoa thư ( 漢文敎科書 ; 1965). Students could begin learning Chinese characters in secondary school. The department dealing with Literary Chinese and Chinese characters was called Ban Hán-tự D. Students could either chose to learn a second language such as English and French or choose to learn Literary Chinese. Exams for Literary Chinese mainly tested students on their ability to translate Literary Chinese to Vietnamese. These exams typically took around 2 hours. In Vietnam, many provinces and cities have names that come from Sino-Vietnamese words and were written using Chinese characters. This

2200-408: The tide had risen. When the hundreds of Southern Han ships were punctured and caught against the deadly traps, Ngô Quyền led his forces in the attack. Hundreds of trapped ships were burned and sabotaged and thousands of Southern Han soldiers were killed, while some managed to retreat and were chased out relentlessly by the forces of An Nam. In the thick of battle, most of the Southern Han army, including

2250-470: The traditions of the Lạc Việt people. He strengthened old rituals, and also provided feathered accessories, yellow banners, brass gongs, and deerskin drums for all the ancient dances with sword and battle axe, reminiscent of scenes depicted on Đông Sơn drums . Despite having defeated Southern Han, Quyền also imposed a Chinese style administration that followed Chinese etiquette such as the color of dress that

2300-515: The war ended and Đinh Bộ Lĩnh successfully united the divided regions. He also convinced Phạm Bạch Hồ, Ngô Xương Xí, and Ngô Nhật Khánh to surrender and join his army. Ng%C3%B4 Quy%E1%BB%81n Ngô Quyền ( chữ Hán : 吳權 ) (April 17, 898 – February 14, 944), often referred to as Tiền Ngô Vương (前吳王; "First King of Ngô"), was a warlord who later became the founding king of the Ngô dynasty of Vietnam. He reigned from 939 to 944. In 938, he defeated

2350-489: Was Dương Đình Nghệ's hometown and military power base. By giving Ngô Quyền command of this region Dương Đình Nghệ recognized Ngô Quyền's loyalty and talent. After Dương Đình Nghệ was assassinated in a military coup in 937 by a usurper named Kiều Công Tiễn , he took control of the military and was well received. That same year, Ngô Quyền's forces defeated the rebel Kiều Công Tiễn and had him executed. This transpired into an opportunistic pretense for wrestling control of Annam by

2400-629: Was crowned king under the title "Thiên Sách Vương", and with his brother became a co-ruler of the Tĩnh Hải Quân . However, the co-rulership was short-lived, as the elder brother King Ngô Xương Ngập died of illness in 954. Despite the return of the legitimate heirs to the throne, rebellions continued to afflict the country. In 965, in an attempt to quell a rebellion, King Ngô Xương Văn was killed in Bố Hải Khẩu (now Thái Bình Province ) by his subordinate general, Lã Xử Bình . Lã Xử Bình then took control of

2450-411: Was done because historically the government administration needed to have a way to write down these names, as some native names did not have characters. Even well-known places like Hanoi ( 河內 ) and Huế ( 化 ) were written in Chinese characters. Often, villages only had one word names in Vietnamese. Some Sino-Vietnamese names were translated from their original names, like Tam Điệp Quan ( 三疊關 ) being

2500-449: Was worn. But his new realm quickly succumbed to prolonged civil conflict, beginning with internecine struggles between members of the Dương and Ngô families, who continued to alternate in power until the mid-960s. Ngô Quyền's immediate heirs proved unable to maintain a unified state. After his death in 944, Dương Tam Kha usurped the throne for a brief time, until Ngô Quyền's two sons, Ngô Xương Văn and Ngô Xương Ngập , finally established

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