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107-617: The Urban Renewal Authority ( URA ) is a quasi-governmental, profit-making statutory body in Hong Kong responsible for accelerating urban redevelopment . The authority's predecessor, the Land Development Corporation (土地發展公司, or 土發 for short), was founded in 1988. The new Urban Renewal Authority was founded in 1999 with the aim of speeding up urban renewal. Difficulties reaching agreement on compensation packages for people affected by planned redevelopments delayed

214-447: A certain extent, and comes from the foundation of engineering. In Anglo-Saxon countries, it is often considered as a branch under the architecture, urban planning, and landscape architecture and limited as the construction of the urban physical environment. However Urban Design is more integrated into the social science-based, cultural, economic, political, and other aspects. Not only focus on space and architectural group, but also look at

321-621: A cluster of several garden cities as satellites of a central city of 50,000 people, linked by road and rail. His model for a garden city was first created at Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City in Hertfordshire . Howard's movement was extended by Sir Frederic Osborn to regional planning. In the early 1900s, urban planning became professionalized. With input from utopian visionaries, civil engineers, and local councilors , new approaches to city design were developed for consideration by decision-makers such as elected officials. In 1899,

428-464: A corporate Commonwealth entity or a non-corporate Commonwealth entity. A statutory authority may also be a body within a Commonwealth entity, exercising the powers given by Parliament but administratively part of the entity." A statutory corporation is defined in the government glossary as a "statutory body that is a body corporate, including an entity created under section 87 of the PGPA Act" (i.e.

535-441: A dynamic concept to cities as ecosystems that grow, shrink or change phases of development according to Waldheim. Everyday Urbanism is a concept introduced by Margaret Crawford and influenced by Henry Lefebvre that describes the everyday lived experience shared by urban residents including commuting, working, relaxing, moving through city streets and sidewalks, shopping, buying, eating food, and running errands. Everyday urbanism

642-654: A fair and reasonable basis before it could apply to the Secretary for Planning, Environment and Lands for compulsory land resumption. The difficulty in overriding dissenting property owners was the main reason the LDC was slow to undertake urban renewal. Unlike the LDC, the URA is also tax-exempt. At present, there are about 16,000 private buildings that are 30 or more years old within the metro area of Hong Kong Island , Kowloon , Tsuen Wan District and Kwai Tsing District . By 2030,

749-429: A form of self-organising design to medieval towns. Throughout history, the design of streets and deliberate configuration of public spaces with buildings have reflected contemporaneous social norms or philosophical and religious beliefs. Yet the link between designed urban space and the human mind appears to be bidirectional . Indeed, the reverse impact of urban structure upon human behaviour and upon thought

856-503: A key issue in urban design. As previously mentioned, past urban strategies have caused injustices within communities incapable of being remedied via simple means. As urban designers tackle the issue of justice, they often are required to look at the injustices of the past and must be careful not to overlook the nuances of race, place, and socioeconomic status in their design efforts. This includes ensuring reasonable access to basic services, transportation, and fighting against gentrification and

963-572: A lot labelled "site B" to house the displaced vendors. This plan was criticised as the proposed building would accommodate fewer than half the vendors currently operating in the area. By 2013, though vendors had been served eviction notices, no wet market had been constructed. The major criticism of the Kwun Tong Town Centre redevelopment project , was the scandal that the URA altered the original redevelopment plan repetitively without underwent any formal public consultation procedures. It

1070-460: A majority have backgrounds in urban planning , architecture , or landscape architecture . Many collegiate programs incorporate urban design theory and design subjects into their curricula. There is an increasing number of university programs offering degrees in urban design at the post-graduate level. Urban design considers: The original urban design was thought to be separated from architecture and urban planning . Urban Design has developed to

1177-556: A positive light. The URA's director of corporate communications also authored a Misplaced Pages page about himself that was later deleted. Apple Daily compared the editing to Mainland China's 50 cent party internet commenters paid by the Chinese government to sway public opinion. The Hong Kong Wikimedia Chapter stressed that in order to maintain Misplaced Pages's neutrality, entities with a conflict of interest should avoid editing. In 2007,

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1284-666: A statutory authority may be a statutory corporation). An earlier definition describes a statutory corporation as "a statutory authority that is a body corporate", and the New South Wales Government 's Land Registry Services defines a state-owned corporation as "a statutory authority that has corporate status". Statutory authorities at the State or Territory level are established under corresponding State or Territory laws. Each statutory authority tends to have its own enabling legislation, or originating act , even if it

1391-455: A term of three years. The authority's managing director serves as both its administrative head and deputy chairman of its board. In 2012, the URA was criticised for editing Misplaced Pages pages about itself, its projects, and certain senior staff including former director Barry Cheung. The edits, on both the Chinese and English Wikipedias, suppressed information unfavourable to the URA and the government and referred to controversial URA projects in

1498-453: Is Douglas Farr. Feminist Urbanism is the study and critique of how the built environment affects genders differently because of patriarchal social and political structures in society. Typically, the people at the table making design decisions are men, so their conception about public space and the built environment relates to their life perspectives and experiences, which do not reflect the same experiences of women or children. Dolores Hayden

1605-462: Is a body set up by law ( statute ) that is authorised to implement certain legislation on behalf of the relevant country or state, sometimes by being empowered or delegated to set rules (for example regulations or statutory instruments ) in their field. They are typically found in countries which are governed by a British style of parliamentary democracy such as the United Kingdom and

1712-443: Is a designer investigating how to accomplish this change in infrastructure in what she calls "next-generation infrastructure" which is "multifunctional; public; visible; socially productive; locally specific, flexible, and adaptable; sensitive to the eco-economy; composed of design prototypes or demonstration projects; symbiotic; technologically smart; and developed collaboratively across disciplines and agencies". Sustainable Urbanism

1819-440: Is a scholar who has researched this topic from 1980 to the present day. Hayden's writing says, “when women, men, and children of all classes and races can identify the public domain as the place where they feel most comfortable as citizens, Americans will finally have homelike urban space.” Educational Urbanism is an emerging discipline, at the crossroads of urban planning, educational planning, and pedagogy. An approach that tackles

1926-478: Is a theory that first surfaced in the 1990s, arguing that the city is constructed of interconnected and ecologically rich horizontal field conditions, rather than the arrangement of objects and buildings. Charles Waldheim, Mohsen Mostafavi , James Corner , and Richard Weller are closely associated with this theory. Landscape urbanism theorises sites, territories, ecosystems, networks, and infrastructures through landscape practice according to Corner, while applying

2033-436: Is an interdisciplinary field that utilizes the procedures and the elements of architecture and other related professions, including landscape design , urban planning , civil engineering , and municipal engineering . It borrows substantive and procedural knowledge from public administration, sociology, law, urban geography, urban economics and other related disciplines from the social and behavioral sciences, as well as from

2140-459: Is an approach that began in the 1980s as a place-making initiative to combat suburban sprawl. Its goal is to increase density by creating compact and complete towns and neighborhoods. The 10 principles of new urbanism are walkability, connectivity, mixed-use and diversity, mixed housing, quality architecture and urban design, traditional neighborhood structure, increased density, smart transportation, sustainability, and quality of life. New urbanism and

2247-432: Is an important reference in the history of urban planning . He envisioned the self-sufficient garden city to house 32,000 people on a site of 6,000 acres (2,428 ha). He planned on a concentric pattern with open spaces, public parks, and six radial boulevards , 120 ft (37 m) wide, extending from the center. When it reached full population, Howard wanted another garden city to be developed nearby. He envisaged

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2354-407: Is announced for a specific area, a "freezing survey" is undertaken to identify the current inhabitants, with an aim to preventing opportunists from moving into urban renewal sites in order to receive compensation. The URA then compensates owners and demolishes the district. URA redevelopments generally comprise luxury shopping centres and luxury residential developments. With the stated aim to address

2461-513: Is evidenced by both observational study and historical records. There are clear indications of impact through Renaissance urban design on the thought of Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei . Already René Descartes in his Discourse on the Method had attested to the impact Renaissance planned new towns had upon his own thought, and much evidence exists that the Renaissance streetscape

2568-640: Is not always available in newly developed commercial buildings. Even owner-operators of commercial premises are unable to relocate in the same district because the compensation they get from the Urban Renewal Authority does not always match the purchase price of similar-sized properties in the same district. It was proposed, therefore, that options should be made available to owners or tenants so that they can choose between physical relocation by developers, cash compensation to allow them buy or rent elsewhere, or wind up their businesses altogether. At

2675-572: Is not concerned with aesthetic value. Instead, it introduces the idea of eliminating the distance between experts and ordinary users and forces designers and planners to contemplate a 'shift of power' and address social life from a direct and ordinary perspective. Tactical Urbanism (also known as DIY Urbanism, Planning-by-Doing, Urban Acupuncture, or Urban Prototyping) is a city, organizational, or citizen-led approach to neighborhood-building that uses short-term, low-cost, and scalable interventions and policies to catalyze long term change. Top-up Urbanism

2782-459: Is often considered to be a "father of European urban planning ", and the namesake of the "Hippodamian plan", also known as the grid plan of a city layout. European Medieval cities are often, and often erroneously, regarded as exemplars of undesigned or 'organic' city development. There are many examples of considered urban design in the Middle Ages. In England, many of the towns listed in

2889-481: Is sure to be comprehensive and well regarded in order to be as successful as possible. Infrastructural Urbanism is the study of how the major investments that go into making infrastructural systems can be leveraged to be more sustainable for communities. Instead of the systems being solely about efficiency in both cost and production, infrastructural urbanism strives to utilize these investments to be more equitable for social and environmental issues as well. Linda Samuels

2996-492: Is the study from the 1990s of how a community can be beneficial for the ecosystem, the people, and the economy for which it is associated. It is based on Scott Campbell's planner's triangle which tries to find the balance between economy, equity, and the environment. Its main concept is to try and make cities as self-sufficient as possible while not damaging the ecosystem around them, today with an increased focus on climate stability . A key designer working with sustainable urbanism

3103-403: Is the theory and implementation of two techniques in urban design: top-down and bottom-up. Top-down urbanism is when the design is implemented from the top of the hierarchy - normally the government or planning department. Bottom-up or grassroots urbanism begins with the people or the bottom of the hierarchy. Top-up means that both methods are used together to make a more participatory design, so it

3210-509: The Baroque period the design approaches developed in French formal gardens such as Versailles were extended into urban development and redevelopment. In this period, when modern professional specializations did not exist, urban design was undertaken by people with skills in areas as diverse as sculpture , architecture , garden design , surveying , astronomy , and military engineering . In

3317-527: The Commonwealth countries like Australia , Canada , India and New Zealand . They are also found in Israel and elsewhere. Statutory authorities may also be statutory corporations , if created as a body corporate . '. A statutory authority is a generic term for an authorisation by Parliament given to a person or group of people to exercise specific powers. A statutory authority can be established as

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3424-804: The Town and Country Planning Association was founded. In 1909, the first academic course on urban planning was offered by the University of Liverpool . Urban planning was first officially embodied in the Housing and Town Planning Act of 1909 Howard's 'garden city' compelled local authorities to introduce a system where all housing construction conformed to specific building standards. In the United Kingdom following this Act, surveyor , civil engineers , architects , and lawyers began working together within local authorities . In 1910, Thomas Adams became

3531-507: The laissez-faire style of government, in fashion for most of the Victorian era , was starting to give way to a New Liberalism . This gave more power to the public. The public wanted the government to provide citizens, especially factory workers, with healthier environments. Around 1900, modern urban design emerged from developing theories on how to mitigate the consequences of the industrial age . The first modern urban planning theorist

3638-587: The "goose egg" because of worries over practicality, he cited the authority's reply to the district council stating that the "goose egg" design was taken out to make it more practical and easier to manage for sake of profitable outcomes. Apart from being criticized for the vanished "goose-egg" major design, URA has been criticized aiming to reap profits with private developers by constructing luxurious flats rather than providing affordable housing to residents. Albert Cheng criticized that URA used market prices to buy up old buildings, however sets compensation benchmark at

3745-542: The 'medical model' of disability which saw physical and mental problems as an individual 'tragedy' and people with disabilities as 'brave' for enduring them. They proposed instead a 'social model' which said that barriers to disabled people result from the design of the built environment and attitudes of able-bodied people. 'Access Groups' were established composed of people with disabilities who audited their local areas, checked planning applications, and made representations for improvements. The new profession of 'access officer'

3852-614: The 18th and 19th centuries, urban design was perhaps most closely linked with surveyors engineers and architects. The increase in urban populations brought with it problems of epidemic disease, the response to which was a focus on public health, the rise in the UK of municipal engineering and the inclusion in British legislation of provisions such as minimum widths of street in relation to heights of buildings in order to ensure adequate light and ventilation . Much of Frederick Law Olmsted 's work

3959-880: The 1956 Urban Design conference, Harvard University established the first graduate program with urban design in its title, The Master of Architecture in Urban Design, although as a subject taught in universities its history in Europe is far older. Urban design programs explore the built environment from diverse disciplinary backgrounds and points of view. The pedagogically innovative combination of interdisciplinary studios, lecture courses, seminars, and independent study creates an intimate and engaging educational atmosphere in which students thrive and learn. Soon after in 1961, Washington University in St. Louis founded their Master of Urban Design program. Today, twenty urban design programs exist in

4066-443: The 9th-century Burghal Hidage were designed on a grid, examples including Southampton , Wareham, Dorset and Wallingford, Oxfordshire , having been rapidly created to provide a defensive network against Danish invaders. 12th century western Europe brought renewed focus on urbanisation as a means of stimulating economic growth and generating revenue. The burgage system dating from that time and its associated burgage plots brought

4173-535: The URA and Kwun Tong District Council , not to mention local residents in Kwun Tong. In response to public criticisms, URA explained the change was caused by management and practicability issue. Major URA stakeholder Miss Judy Chan Ka-pui , non-executive director of the authority, also member of the New People's Party and Southern District Council for South Horizons West , whose role is one more of monitoring

4280-420: The URA announced a plan to demolish several city blocks of old tong lau on Graham Street ( Chinese : 嘉咸街 ) and Peel Street ( Chinese : 卑利街 ), replacing them with a $ 3.8 billion scheme comprising four high-rises: two residential blocks, one office tower, and a hotel. Some 360 property owners and 1,120 residents in 37 existing buildings, built from the pre-war years to the 1960s, have been affected. In

4387-401: The URA's decision-making process. In regard to this, the public prompts the organization to hold a formal and open public consultation and no to keep the public in the dark, local councilors suggested that Kwun Tong residents should be well consulted over the design of this multi-billion dollar project. Pan-democrat lawmaker Jeremy Tam Man-ho further criticized the URA for resuming the design of

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4494-759: The United States: In the United Kingdom, Master's programmes in Urban Design at University of Manchester or University of Sheffield and Cardiff University or London South Bank University and City Design at the Royal College of Art or Queen's University Belfast are offered. The field of urban design holds enormous potential for helping us address today's biggest challenges: an expanding population, mass urbanization, rising inequality, and climate change . In its practice as well as its theories, urban design attempts to tackle these pressing issues. As climate change progresses, urban design can mitigate

4601-433: The actual commencement of the URA. The agency was finally established on 1 May 2001 and the LDC was dissolved the same day. A main difference between the former LDC and the URA is the URA's ability to directly resume land (akin to expropriation in other countries). The LDC was required to undertake lengthy negotiations with owners in order to acquire land, and had to demonstrate that it had taken all steps to acquire land on

4708-474: The acute, in hypertension and alterations in heart rate, and the chronic, the outright development of atherosclerosis. More people die from air pollution each year than from car accidents. This issue has been used to fuel movements for alternative forms of long to mid range transportation such as trains and bicycles, with walking as the primary means of short-range travel. This would bring benefits from two simultaneous avenues. The physical activity from walking, and

4815-444: The area by upset locals. One resident, a former shopowner, staged a hunger strike after the bulldozers moved in earlier than anticipated and was hospitalised after four days. Development chief Carrie Lam defended the project, stating that the buildings of Lee Tung Street were "not worth keeping and had little historic value" and that "stopping the plan would jeopardise the city's future planning". The H15 Concern Group proposal to save

4922-545: The authority has submitted a revised planning layout regarding the Development Area 4&5 to the Town Planning Board , which revised layout differ greatly from the original planning, the "goose-egg" shaped landmark architecture was taken out, and the terrace-garden design with water features was absent. The change of plan was kept opaque from the Town Planning Board to the non-executive directors in

5029-527: The authority made this move only after it was put under pressure. On 7 November 2017, URA announced in a meeting in the Kwun Tong District Council that the 'goose-egg' shaped office and retail complex will be retained in the redevelopment plan. Similarly, the revised plan was not subjected to any public consultation process. The arbitrary revision of plans clearly indicates a lack of transparency, public understanding and accountability in

5136-436: The authority, however claimed she had been "kept in the dark" about the changes laid out in a plan submitted to the Town Planning Board , and she stressed that the revised design had not been finalized and could still be discussed, that the authority would attend the next meetings of the working group, plus to collect views of the district councilors. Lawmaker and Kwun Tong district councilor Jonathan Ho Kai-ming criticized that

5243-408: The authority. After all, if I really want to work for the people, then there is no point in staying there." Another Civic Party member and Legislative Councillor Tanya Chan was appointed to the URA board in his place. On 30 March 2015, URA Managing Director Iris Tam Siu-ying suddenly resigned over what she called (in a letter to staff) "fundamental differences" with chairman Victor So Hing-woh over

5350-648: The body's philosophy and mission. Tam objected to So placing profit ahead of the agency's social mission. So, a former Link REIT chief executive, joined the URA in 2013. Tam, a two-time president of the Hong Kong Institute of Planners , had been with the URA since 2006, and served as managing director since 2013. As of 2015, she remained a member of the Hong Kong Housing Authority . Tam had objected to various proposals by So, including to outsource URA's acquisition department, and for

5457-436: The car-free, pedestrian-friendly zone to walk through a big shopping mall to get to public transport or car park, thereby highly increased shopper volume. The revised design has been further criticized as shifting in favor of commercial operators and developers. This list is not exhaustive. It also includes projects by the former Land Development Corporation. Statutory body A statutory body or statutory authority

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5564-409: The city popular, rather than the two-dimensional physical master plans of the previous 50 years. Other notable works: The popularity of these works resulted in terms that become everyday language in the field of urban planning . Aldo Rossi introduced 'historicism' and 'collective memory' to urban design. Rossi also proposed a 'collage metaphor' to understand the collection of new and old forms within

5671-454: The city under threat of destruction. In addition to economic exclusivity and disregard for existing local communities, URA redevelopments have also been criticised for poor urban design , such as long stretches of blank wall at ground level which effectively kills the vibrant street life for which older districts are known. Lee Tung Street ( Chinese : 利東街 ), better known by its local nickname "Wedding Card Street" ( Chinese : 喜帖街 ),

5778-540: The city. Cooperation with public agencies, authorities and the interests of nearby property owners is necessary to manage public spaces. Users often compete over the spaces and negotiate across a variety of spheres. Input is frequently needed from a wide range of stakeholders . This can lead to different levels of participation as defined in Arnstein's Ladder of Citizen Participation. While there are some professionals who identify themselves specifically as urban designers,

5885-473: The city. Each theory makes a unique claim about how to effectively design thriving, sustainable urban environments. Debates over the efficacy of these approaches fill the urban design discourse. Landscape Urbanism and New Urbanism are commonly debated as distinct approaches to addressing suburban sprawl. While Landscape Urbanism proposes landscape as the basic building block of the city and embraces horizontality, flexibility, and adaptability, New Urbanism offers

5992-640: The commodification of space for economic gain. Organizations such as the Divided Cities Initiatives at Washington University in St. Louis and the Just City Lab at Harvard work on promoting justice in urban design. Until the 1970s, the design of towns and cities took little account of the needs of people with disabilities . At that time, disabled people began to form movements demanding recognition of their potential contribution if social obstacles were removed. Disabled people challenged

6099-504: The compensation the URA offers to displaced residents and merchants is rarely sufficient to permit them to return to the affected district. Such grievances are leveled against most URA redevelopment projects, and have escalated to community uprising and hunger strikes by those unwilling to be evicted. The authority has been said to view all older, low-rise districts as merely "vacant airspace with great development potential" rather than functioning communities, thus putting vast older areas of

6206-493: The concept of 'serial vision'. It defined the urban landscape as a series of related spaces. Also in 1961, Jane Jacobs published The Death and Life of Great American Cities . She critiqued the modernism of CIAM (International Congresses of Modern Architecture). Jacobs also claimed crime rates in publicly owned spaces were rising because of the Modernist approach of 'city in the park'. She argued instead for an 'eyes on

6313-637: The controversy surrounding the Graham Street market eviction, and in reference to the "undemocratic" approach undertaken by the URA in demolishing Lee Tung Street. Redevelopment projects by the Urban Renewal Authority typically involve the wholesale demolition of urban districts and the consolidation of numerous city blocks to accommodate large-scale commercial development. This approach is frequently criticised for destroying cultural heritage , unique local character, and touchstones of collective memory . Community and economic networks are also dismantled as

6420-979: The design and management of public space (i.e. the 'public environment', 'public realm' or 'public domain'), and the way public places are used and experienced. Public space includes the totality of spaces used freely on a day-to-day basis by the general public, such as streets, plazas, parks, and public infrastructure. Some aspects of privately owned spaces, such as building facades or domestic gardens, also contribute to public space and are therefore also considered by urban design theory. Important writers on urban design theory include Christopher Alexander , Peter Calthorpe , Gordon Cullen , Andrés Duany , Jane Jacobs , Jan Gehl , Allan B. Jacobs , Kevin Lynch , Aldo Rossi , Colin Rowe , Robert Venturi , William H. Whyte , Camillo Sitte , Bill Hillier ( space syntax ), and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk . Although contemporary professional use of

6527-415: The destruction of the market, a tourist attraction, would "bring its rich and dynamic history to an end" and that many of the vendors did not want to be evicted. The shop owners lamented the high rent levels elsewhere, the cost of relocation, the emotional attachment they held to the longstanding marketplace and the loss of their customer base. In opposition to the redevelopment, a Graham Street Market Festival

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6634-411: The developments that it has created are sources of debates within the discipline, primarily with the landscape urbanist approach but also due to its reproduction of idyllic architectural tropes that do not respond to the context. Andres Duany , Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk , Peter Calthorpe , and Jeff Speck are all strongly associated with New Urbanism and its evolution over the years. Landscape Urbanism

6741-433: The end of April 2007, Alan Leong Kah-kit was dropped from the board of directors of the URA after two years of service. Leong said he was not angry or surprised, and expressed doubt on whether the authority works in the public interest: "The government expects those who are appointed to statutory bodies to shut up and not express any opposing view to the public [...] It doesn't really matter that I have not been reappointed to

6848-672: The field. Today, urban design seeks to create sustainable urban environments with long-lasting structures, buildings, and overall livability. Walkable urbanism is another approach to practice that is defined within the Charter of New Urbanism . It aims to reduce environmental impacts by altering the built environment to create smart cities that support sustainable transport . Compact urban neighborhoods encourage residents to drive less. These neighborhoods have significantly lower environmental impacts when compared to sprawling suburbs. To prevent urban sprawl, Circular flow land use management

6955-545: The first Town Planning Inspector at the Local Government Board and began meeting with practitioners. In 1914, The Town Planning Institute was established. The first urban planning course in America was not established until 1924 at Harvard University . Professionals developed schemes for the development of land, transforming town planning into a new area of expertise. In the 20th century, urban planning

7062-510: The following areas; Urban design Some important focuses of urban design on this page include its historical impact, paradigm shifts, its interdisciplinary nature, and issues related to urban design. Urban design deals with the larger scale of groups of buildings, infrastructure, streets, and public spaces , entire neighbourhoods and districts, and entire cities, with the goal of making urban environments that are equitable , beautiful, performative, and sustainable . Urban design

7169-441: The lack of particulate matter (carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, etc.) has shown to alleviate and lower the risk of many maladies such as diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Physical activity levels from walking are closely related to the abundance of open public spaces, commercial shops, greenery, among others. These attributes also have been stated to contribute to stronger social and emotional health as

7276-404: The metropolitan areas they have done so much to help revive over the past half-century. The goal is not to build black cities for black people but to explore and develop the creative energy that exists in so-called black areas: that has the potential to contribute to the sustainable development of the whole city. Underlying the practice of urban design are the many theories about how to best design

7383-495: The natural sciences. In more recent times different sub-subfields of urban design have emerged such as strategic urban design, landscape urbanism , water-sensitive urban design , and sustainable urbanism . Urban design demands an understanding of a wide range of subjects from physical geography to social science, and an appreciation for disciplines, such as real estate development , urban economics , political economy , and social theory . Urban design theory deals primarily with

7490-537: The neighborhood as the basic building block of the city and argues for increased density, mixed uses, and walkability. Opponents of Landscape Urbanism point out that most of its projects are urban parks, and as such, its application is limited. Opponents of New Urbanism claim that its preoccupation with traditional neighborhood structures is nostalgic, unimaginative, and culturally problematic. Everyday Urbanism argues for grassroots neighborhood improvements rather than master-planned, top-down interventions. Each theory elevates

7597-421: The new strategy was promulgated on 24 Feb 2011. Following this review, the stated strategy of the URA is that Hong Kong's urban renewal should follow three major principles: "Putting People first"; "District-Based"; and "Community Participation". Their adherence to these tenets has been questioned by some, including legislator Kenneth Chan , who stated that "the URA always puts its interests first" in reference to

7704-421: The notion that economic activities, the need for new skills at the workplace, and the spatial configuration of the workplace rely on the spatial reorientation in the design of educational spaces and the urban dimension of educational planning. Black Urbanism is an approach in which black communities are active creators, innovators, and authors of the process of designing and creating the neighborhoods and spaces of

7811-417: The number of buildings over 30 years old will increase fourfold, and more than 14,000 will be over 50 years old. Urban renewal in Hong Kong typically involves relatively large-scale redevelopment of urban areas, rather than piecemeal rebuilding of individual buildings or the provision of specific facilities. Streets are often closed, combining smaller urban blocks into larger superblocks . When urban renewal

7918-438: The organisation to partner with Richfield Realty, a commercial developer. The URA board unanimously asked Tam to stay, but she quit anyway, stating, "I find it totally unacceptable to position URA as a developer or a land assembly agent to supply land for developers." Daniel Lam Chun was appointed interim managing director following Tam's resignation, with Wai Chi-sing taking up the position on a permanent basis from 15 June 2016 for

8025-428: The price of seven-year-old buildings in the area. While the redevelopment project involves one of the poorest districts in Hong Kong, the act of URA has been blasted for going against the fundamental principle of gentrification of old districts. After encountering numerous criticism and receiving different stakeholders' views during the Town Planning Board 's consultation, the "goose-egg" shaped landmark architecture and

8132-592: The problem of urban decay and improve the living conditions of residents in dilapidated areas, the Urban Renewal Authority Ordinance (Chapter 563) was enacted in July 2000. The Ordinance provides a new institutional framework for carrying out urban renewal in locations that the private market finds unprofitable. The Hong Kong Government conducted a comprehensive review of "Urban Renewal Strategy" in 2008. After two years' 'community engagement',

8239-521: The process the URA plans to also evict the oldest wet market in the city, founded 1841. The plan was submitted to and approved by the Town Planning Board in early 2007. The market is considered culturally significant by many Hong Kong people for its vibrancy, "unique cultural landscape", and its preservation of "a very traditional Chinese way of life". The Central and Western Concern Group, a coalition of ten community groups, pointed out that

8346-543: The redevelopment includes a "Wedding City"-themed shopping mall, merchants complained they could not return to the area because most could not afford the increased rents. Under the Land Resumption Ordinance, the URA was able to expropriate tenants and landowners regardless of their will, leading to accusations that URA activities run contrary to public interest and represent an infringement on property rights. The H15 Concern Group ( Chinese : H15關注組 )

8453-428: The redevelopment would incorporate an "old shops street" which would, according to managing director Billy Lam Chung-lun, "bring back the old charm and streetscapes". The Central and Western Concern Group called the plan "artificial" given that such an environment already exists, and that the so-called "decorated stage" would take too long to build. Secondly, the URA also promised to build a two-storey wet market complex on

8560-646: The requirements were fairly minimal but continue to be improved with ongoing amendments. The Disability Discrimination Act 1995 continues to raise awareness and enforce action on disability issues in the urban environment. The issue of walkability has gained prominence in recent years, not only with the concerns of the aforementioned climate change, but also the health outcomes of residents. Car-centric urban design has an invariably negative effect on such outcomes. With proximity to internal combustion engines, residents tend to suffer from dangerous levels of air pollution which lead to cardiovascular complications ranging from

8667-415: The resulting congestion. Throughout the young existence of the Urban Design discipline, many paradigm shifts have occurred that have affected the trajectory of the field regarding theory and practice. These paradigm shifts cover multiple subject areas outside of the traditional design disciplines. There have been many different theories and approaches applied to the practice of urban design. New Urbanism

8774-408: The results of flooding, temperature changes, and increasingly detrimental storm impacts through a mindset of sustainability and resilience. In doing so, the urban design discipline attempts to create environments that are constructed with longevity in mind, such as zero-carbon cities . Cities today must be designed to minimize resource consumption, waste generation, and pollution while also withstanding

8881-478: The roles of certain professions in the urban design process, further fueling the debate. In practice, urban designers often apply principles from many urban design theories. Emerging from the conversation is a universal acknowledgement of the importance of increased interdisciplinary collaboration in designing the modern city. Urban designers work with architects , landscape architects , transportation engineers , urban planners, and industrial designers to reshape

8988-564: The same fashion as an act of parliament, but usually with specific initials (depending on the authority) and a number. Just as with laws enacted by Parliament, all laws made by a statutory authority must be published in the Government Gazette. The Parliament of Australia , or a State or Territory Parliament , will delegate its authority to a statutory authority for several reasons; The power to enact legislation has been delegated by Australian Parliaments (State and/or Federal) in

9095-507: The same urban space. Peter Calthorpe developed a manifesto for sustainable urban living via medium-density living. He also designed a manual for building new settlements in his concept of Transit Oriented Development (TOD). Bill Hillier and Julienne Hanson introduced Space Syntax to predict how movement patterns in cities would contribute to urban vitality, anti-social behaviour, and economic success. 'Sustainability', 'livability', and 'high quality of urban components' also became commonplace in

9202-565: The street was rejected by the Planning Department in January 2008 for failing to include a structural assessment, which the concern group said was outside their financial capability. The URA and the government went on to demolish the street as planned, and redevelopment is well underway. Commercial tenants sometimes have a different view towards urban renewal as low-cost premises are getting hard to find. Affordable commercial space

9309-477: The street' approach to town planning through the resurrection of main public space precedents (e.g. streets, squares). In the same year, Kevin Lynch published The Image of the City . He was seminal to urban design, particularly with regards to the concept of legibility. He reduced urban design theory to five basic elements: paths, districts, edges, nodes, landmarks. He also made the use of mental maps to understand

9416-614: The term 'urban design' dates from the mid-20th century, urban design as such has been practiced throughout history. Ancient examples of carefully planned and designed cities exist in Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Americas, and are particularly well known within Classical Chinese, Roman, and Greek cultures. Specifically, Hippodamus of Miletus was a famous ancient Greek architect and urban planner , and all around academic that

9523-577: The terrace-garden design with water features are retained in the latest design released in Nov 2017. However, iconic features are still different from the original generally-welcomed design. The "goose egg" shaped architecture now is only a "half-egg" design and the terrace-garden is smaller than the original one. A large commercial development has raised the original height restrictions by 20 meters, thereby creating more areas for retail shopping, offices and hotel business. The footfall design apparently tended to lead

9630-414: The unprecedented impacts of climate change. To be truly resilient, our cities need to be able to not just bounce back from a catastrophic climate event but to bounce forward to an improved state. Another issue in this field is that it is often assumed that there are no mothers of planning and urban design. However, this is not the case, many women have made proactive contributions to the field, including

9737-471: The view to making the urbanising process completely culturally and economically, and environmentally sustainable, and as a possible solution to the urban sprawl , Frank Reale has submitted an interesting concept of Expanding Nodular Development (E.N.D.) that integrates many urban designs and ecological principles, to design and build smaller rural hubs with high-grade connecting freeways, rather than adding more expensive infrastructure to existing big cities and

9844-400: The whole city from a broader and more holistic perspective to shape a better living environment. Compared to architecture, the spatial and temporal scale of Urban Design processing is much larger. It deals with neighborhoods, communities, and even the entire city. The University of Liverpool 's Department of Civic Design is the first urban design school in the world founded in 1909. Following

9951-463: The work of Mary Kingsbury Simkhovitch, Florence Kelley, and Lillian Wald, to name a few of whom were prominent leaders in the City Social movement. The City Social was a movement that steamed between the commonly known City Practical and City Beautiful movements. It was a movement mainly concerning lay with the economic and social equalities regarding urban issues. Justice is and will always be

10058-607: Was Sir Ebenezer Howard . His ideas, although utopian, were adopted around the world because they were highly practical. He initiated the garden city movement . in 1898. His garden cities were intended to be planned, self-contained communities surrounded by parks. Howard wanted the cities to be proportional with separate areas of residences, industry, and agriculture. Inspired by the Utopian novel Looking Backward and Henry George 's work Progress and Poverty , Howard published his book Garden Cities of To-morrow in 1898. His work

10165-596: Was also the perceptual stimulus that had led to the development of coordinate geometry. The beginnings of modern urban design in Europe are associated with the Renaissance but, especially, with the Age of Enlightenment . Spanish colonial cities were often planned, as were some towns settled by other imperial cultures. These sometimes embodied utopian ambitions as well as aims for functionality and good governance, as with James Oglethorpe 's plan for Savannah, Georgia . In

10272-609: Was changed by the automobile industry. Car-oriented design impacted the rise of 'urban design'. City layouts now revolved around roadways and traffic patterns. In June 1928, the International Congresses of Modern Architecture (CIAM) was founded at the Chateau de la Sarraz in Switzerland, by a group of 28 European architects organized by Le Corbusier , Hélène de Mandrot , and Sigfried Giedion . The CIAM

10379-430: Was concerned with urban design, and the newly formed profession of landscape architecture also began to play a significant role in the late 19th century. In the 19th century, cities were industrializing and expanding at a tremendous rate. Private businesses largely dictated the pace and style of this development. The expansion created many hardships for the working poor and concern for public health increased. However,

10486-582: Was established around that time to produce guidelines based on the recommendations of access groups and to oversee adaptations to existing buildings as well as to check on the accessibility of new proposals. Many local authorities now employ access officers who are regulated by the Access Association. A new chapter of the Building Regulations (Part M) was introduced in 1992. Although it was beneficial to have legislation on this issue

10593-680: Was established before the relevant over-riding legislation. For example, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) was established in 1949 by the Science and Industry Research Act , but it has since come under the jurisdiction of the Commonwealth Authorities and Companies Act 1997 as legislation covering statutory authorities has evolved. Laws made by statutory authorities are usually referred to as regulations. They are not cited in

10700-556: Was famous for its printing shops that sell custom-made wedding cards, coloured bright red for good luck. Tens of thousands purchased their wedding cards in the area in the preceding decades, and the district was also the birthplace of the publishing business in Hong Kong. The URA announced in 2003 its intention to redevelop an area of 8,900 square metres centred on Lee Tung and McGregor streets. Fifty-four buildings housing 930 households were planned to be torn down to accommodate four residential towers and four shopping malls. The redevelopment

10807-505: Was first used at a series of conferences hosted by Harvard University. The event provided a platform for Harvard's Urban Design program. The program also utilized the writings of famous urban planning thinkers: Gordon Cullen , Jane Jacobs , Kevin Lynch , and Christopher Alexander . In 1961, Gordon Cullen published The Concise Townscape . He examined the traditional artistic approach to city design of theorists including Camillo Sitte, Barry Parker, and Raymond Unwin . Cullen also created

10914-530: Was formed to save the wedding card shops and produced an alternative plan called the "dumbbell proposal" which retained the signature tong lau (Chinese walk-up buildings). This plan later received a Silver Award from the Institute of Planners . The URA faced criticism when demolition of the area began three weeks before the Town Planning Board was set to consider the concern group's alternative proposal, with URA chairman Barry Cheung Chun-yuen being driven out of

11021-520: Was initially proposed to create a unique "goose egg" shaped office and retail complex at the center of the redevelopment project with a consensus within the Kwun Tong community dating back in 2007. In 2007, URA initially proposed to create a unique "goose-egg" shaped multipurpose complex at Hong Ming Road, which is the center of the development project. The "goose-egg" proposal was applauded when seen in plans laid on general public. However, later in June 2017,

11128-460: Was introduced in Europe to promote sustainable land use patterns. As a result of the recent New Classical Architecture movement, sustainable construction aims to develop smart growth , walkability, architectural tradition , and classical design . It contrasts with modernist and globally uniform architecture. In the 1980s, urban design began to oppose the increasing solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl . Managed Urbanisation with

11235-539: Was one of many 20th century manifestos meant to advance the cause of "architecture as a social art". Team X was a group of architects and other invited participants who assembled starting in July 1953 at the 9th Congress of the International Congresses of Modern Architecture (CIAM) and created a schism within CIAM by challenging its doctrinaire approach to urbanism . In 1956, the term "Urban design"

11342-492: Was organised in November 2007 to showcase the "cultural treasures and unique features" of the market with the aim of encouraging the government to "rethink its town planning policy". Support was lent by TVB celebrity chef Chow Chung, who offered cooking classes with ingredients purchased from the market. A second such festival was held in November 2008. The URA responded to this backlash through several proposals. They promised

11449-416: Was subject to a heavy backlash in the community. The decision to demolish was called "undemocratic" and contrary to the stated "people-centred" mandate of the URA. The wedding card printers and publishers were concerned about the loss of invaluable economic and social networks, having to leave the district due to high real estate prices, and the loss of accessibility to suppliers and customers alike. Even though

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