129-503: Studentenverbindung or studentische Korporation ( German: [ʃtuˈdɛntn̩.fɛɐ̯ˌbɪndʊŋ] ; often referred to as Verbindung ) is the umbrella term for many different kinds of fraternity -type associations in German-speaking countries , including Corps , Burschenschaften , Landsmannschaften , Turnerschaften , and Catholic fraternities . Worldwide, there are over 1,600 Studentenverbindungen , about
258-414: A Studentenverbindung . Studentenverbindungen consist of active members who are students currently enrolled at a university, and the graduated Alte Herren, Altherren or Philister (Elder Gentlemen or alumni) / Hohe Damen (High Ladies) that were once active in these corporations and now provide guidance and the necessary financial backing. The active students are commonly divided into four groups:
387-449: A Kneipe or, more formally, Commers , a kind of gathering only still preserved at Studentenverbindungen . Such events can happen regularly but specially during holidays, for example to celebrate Christmas, to commemorate a deceased Verbindungs-brother ( Trauerkneipe ), or in remembrance of historic events or important dates in the fraternity's history e.g. the founding day of the fraternity ( Stiftungstagskneipe ). During these gatherings,
516-577: A dormitory and common rooms for festivities, most notably the Kneipe ( pub ), celebrations on a regular basis involving student songs and other traditions. One of the many benefits of joining a fraternity in Germany is the especially low pricing of the often high-quality rooms. Because Studentenverbindungen are much less prevalent in campus life in comparison to US fraternities, some actively try to recruit new members through these low-priced rooms. After
645-416: A jukebox or dartboard ). By the 1970s, divisions between saloons and public bars were being phased out, usually by the removal of the dividing wall or partition. While the names of saloon and public bar may still be seen on the doors of pubs, the prices (and often the standard of furnishings and decoration) are the same throughout the premises. Most present day pubs now comprise one large room, although with
774-420: A broad category of actions. For example, verbs such as stare , gaze , view and peer can also be considered hyponyms of the verb look , which is their hypernym. The meaning relation between hyponyms and hypernyms applies to lexical items of the same word class (that is, part of speech) , and holds between senses rather than words. For instance, the word screwdriver used in the previous example refers to
903-446: A ceremonial chant. While such rituals are only performed on the most solemn of occasions and thus very rare, a Kneipe commonly involves the lighter sides of life, such as rampant beer consumption and uninhibited singing of traditional student songs , of which some can be bawdy for the standards of time. Thus, this allows to get to know otherwise daunting members on a personal level due to the relaxed atmosphere at these gatherings. When
1032-431: A certain annual sum to help sustain the fraternity fiscally, to actively participate in democratic decisions concerning only Alte Herren , and to pay regular visits to the fraternity's festivities. A notable characteristic of this structure is that the relationship between active members and Alte Herren is usually so close that even the youngest members are asked to address even their most decorated Alte Herren by Du ,
1161-531: A certain period, the Fuchsenzeit , these new members have the opportunity to learn the traditions. After successful completion of all necessary tests and examinations they are usually accepted as full members. Once finished with higher education and having started a career, the inactive Burschen are asked to resign from the fraternity's core members and become Alte Herren or Philister . This involves losing influence in active fraternity life and in voting in
1290-524: A day, was increasing and that 39,404 pubs in England and Wales remained open at the end of June. There was regulation of public drinking spaces in England from at least the 15th century. In 1496, under, Henry VII, an act was passed, "against vagabonds and beggers" (11 Hen. VII c2), that included a clause empowering two justices of the peace, "to rejecte and put awey comen ale-selling in tounes and places where they shall think convenyent, and to take suertie of
1419-523: A dog, it's a bitch" ("That hypernym Z isn't a hyponym Z, it's a hyponym Y"). The term "autohyponym" was coined by linguist Laurence R. Horn in a 1984 paper, Ambiguity, negation, and the London School of Parsimony. Linguist Ruth Kempson had already observed that if there are hyponyms for one part of a set but not another, the hypernym can complement the existing hyponym by being used for the remaining part. For example, fingers describe all digits on
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#17327906500161548-442: A dorm assigned by their native state and soon started taking up formal signs, often colorful clothing, to display their membership in a Burse . This continues in the colored sashes worn by modern Studentenverbindungen . When the first duels were fought is not known exactly, because students were allowed to carry épées or sabers to be able to protect themselves and to deal with confrontations between rival groups ( Raufduell ). In
1677-412: A hand, but the existence of the word thumb for the first finger means that fingers can also be used for "non-thumb digits on a hand". Autohyponymy is also called "vertical polysemy ". Horn called this "licensed polysemy ", but found that autohyponyms also formed even when there is no other hyponym. Yankee is autohyponymous because it is a hyponym (native of New England) and its hypernym (native of
1806-482: A historic interiors list in order that they can be preserved. The pub took the concept of the bar counter to serve the beer from gin palaces in the 18th century. Until that time beer establishments used to bring the beer out to the table or benches, as remains the practice in (for example) beer gardens and some other drinking establishments in Germany. A bar might be provided for the manager or publican to do paperwork while keeping an eye on his or her customers, and
1935-548: A historical symbol for German unity. These colors were first worn by the Urburschenschaft in 1815. There are also color-carrying or -bearing ("farbenführend") Verbindungen: while their members do not wear a sash their colors are often represented in their uniforms and other Couleur, like flags. Another visual hallmark is the Zirkel , a monogram containing the fraternity's initials and the letters v , c , and f for
2064-498: A more general word than its hyponym, the relation is used in semantic compression by generalization to reduce a level of specialization . The notion of hyponymy is particularly relevant to language translation , as hyponyms are very common across languages. For example, in Japanese the word for older brother is ani ( 兄 ) , and the word for younger brother is otōto ( 弟 ) . An English-to-Japanese translator presented with
2193-415: A more specific term (hyponym). The hypernym is also called a supertype, umbrella term, or blanket term. The hyponym names a subtype of the hypernym. The semantic field of the hyponym is included within that of the hypernym. For example, pigeon , crow , and hen are all hyponyms of bird and animal ; bird and animal are both hypernyms of pigeon, crow, and hen . A core concept of hyponymy
2322-411: A particular kind of image, or in many cases simply as a pun on the word "in". The original services of an inn are now also available at other establishments. Hotels, lodges, and motels focus more on lodging customers than on other services but usually provide meals. Pubs are primarily alcohol-serving establishments. Restaurants and taverns serve food and drink. In North America, the lodging aspect of
2451-609: A patent in favour of John Lofting for a fire engine, but remarked upon and recommended another invention of his, for a beer pump: "Whereas their Majesties have been Graciously Pleased to grant Letters patent to John Lofting of London Merchant for a New Invented Engine for Extinguishing Fires which said Engine have found every great encouragement. The said Patentee hath also projected a Very Useful Engine for starting of beer and other liquors which will deliver from 20 to 30 barrels an hour which are completely fixed with Brass Joints and Screws at Reasonable Rates. Any Person that hath occasion for
2580-464: A phrase containing the English word brother would have to choose which Japanese word equivalent to use. This would be difficult, because abstract information (such as the speakers' relative ages) is often not available during machine translation . Pub A pub (short for public house ) is in several countries a drinking establishment licensed to serve alcoholic drinks for consumption on
2709-452: A possibility to continue their traditions, they began rebuilding a similar form of community under the then-common and insuspicious French word " Corps ". Symbols, oaths, regulations and rituals were continued from Studentenorden tradition (although the secrecy was omitted for longevity's sake), and the Latin names, status designations and affiliation with a country of origin were copied from
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#17327906500162838-651: A series of small rooms served drinks and food by waiting staff. By the early 1970s there was a tendency to change to one large drinking room as breweries were eager to invest in interior design and theming. Isambard Kingdom Brunel , the British engineer and railway builder, introduced the idea of a circular bar into the Swindon station pub in order that customers were served quickly and did not delay his trains. These island bars became popular as they also allowed staff to serve customers in several different rooms surrounding
2967-553: A strict antisemitic policy and was formed in 1881 as a decidedly political group. As a reaction, the first Jewish fraternities were established in the 1880s, prevailing until the National Socialist regime. Theodor Herzl , the founder of zionism and a former Burschenschaft student, was soon made an honorary member in many of these fraternities. Furthermore, Jewish fraternities were heavily focused on emancipating themselves through duel and Mensur . Finally, around
3096-434: A thin sash displaying (usually) three distinctive colors is worn in everyday life; this is called Band . Although this display was common in the past ( Wilhelmine Period ) it is not as common at German universities any more. Color-wearing ("farbentragend") Studentenverbindungen are those whose members wear a Band and headwear with their fraternity's colors. Many Burschenschaften wear the color combination Black-Red-Gold as
3225-456: A thousand in Germany, with a total of over 190,000 members. In them, students spend their university years in an organized community, whose members stay connected even after graduation. A goal of this lifelong bond ( Lebensbund ) is to create contacts and friendships over many generations and to facilitate networking. The Lebensbund is very important for the longevity of these networks. Their autonomous and grassroots democratic Convent
3354-537: A valuable school for the future. This allowed Alte Herren to identify with the active members of their fraternities, and the idea of a lifelong commitment arose ( Lebensbundprinzip ). Soon, the first Stiftungsfeste , annual festivities in celebration of the fraternity's founding, were celebrated, further cementing their standing. As increased liberty allowed it, a more regulated form of duel was conceived: The modern Mensur , which strived to reduce lethality rates while still being able to fence. The former objective, though,
3483-425: A wider selection of better quality drinks that cost a penny or two more than those served in the public bar. By the mid-20th century, the standard of the public bar had generally improved. Many were built between the world wars as part of the "improved" pub movement and as "roadhouse" inns—with large car parks to attract passing trade. Pub patrons only had to choose between economy and exclusivity (or youth and age:
3612-615: Is "An X is a kind/type of Y". The second relation is said to be more discriminating and can be classified more specifically under the concept of taxonomy. If the hypernym Z consists of hyponyms X and Y, then X and Y are identified as co-hyponyms (cohyponyms), also known as coordinate terms. Co-hyponyms are labelled as such when separate hyponyms share the same hypernym but are not hyponyms of one another, unless they happen to be synonymous. For example, screwdriver , scissors , knife , and hammer are all co-hyponyms of one another and hyponyms of tool , but not hyponyms of one another: *"A hammer
3741-441: Is "type of", whereas "instance of" is differentiable. For example, for the noun city , a hyponym (naming a type of city) is capital city or capital , whereas Paris and London are instances of a city, not types of city. In linguistics , semantics , general semantics , and ontologies , hyponymy (from Ancient Greek ὑπό ( hupó ) 'under' and ὄνυμα ( ónuma ) 'name') shows
3870-400: Is a hyponym of color . A word can be both a hypernym and a hyponym: for example purple is a hyponym of color but itself is a hypernym of the broad spectrum of shades of purple between the range of crimson and violet . The hierarchical structure of semantic fields can be seen in hyponymy. They could be observed from top to bottom, where the higher level is more general and the lower level
3999-431: Is a type of knife " is false. Co-hyponyms are often but not always related to one another by the relation of incompatibility. For example, apple , peach and plum are co-hyponyms of fruit . However, an apple is not a peach , which is also not a plum . Thus, they are incompatible. Nevertheless, co-hyponyms are not necessarily incompatible in all senses . A queen and mother are both hyponyms of woman but there
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4128-978: Is also an important similarity of all student corporations. Apart from the Lebensbund and the Convent , every Studentenverbindung also has a so-called Comment (borrowed French for 'how'). The Comment is a body of rules that organize various different aspects of fraternity life such as the Couleur , academic fencing ( Mensur ), and general rules of conduct. Fraternities of this particular type are present in Germany , Austria , Switzerland , Belgium , Hungary , Latvia , Estonia , (formerly) German or German-speaking areas and other smaller communities in Europe, and Chile . Less than 1% of all current students and living alumni in Germany are active members of
4257-516: Is autohyponymous because "smell" can also mean "to emit a bad smell", even though there is no "to emit a smell that isn't bad" hyponym. Hyperonym and hypernym mean the same thing, with both in use by linguists. The form hypernym interprets the -o- of hyponym as a part of hypo , such as in hypertension and hypotension . However, etymologically the -o- is part of the Greek stem ónoma . In other combinations with this stem, e.g. synonym , it
4386-400: Is more specific. For example, living things will be the highest level followed by plants and animals , and the lowest level may comprise dog , cat and wolf . Under the relations of hyponymy and incompatibility, taxonomic hierarchical structures too can be formed. It consists of two relations; the first one being exemplified in "An X is a Y" (simple hyponymy) while the second relation
4515-412: Is never elided. Therefore, hyperonym is etymologically more faithful than hypernym . Hyperonymy is used, for instance, by John Lyons, who does not mention hypernymy and prefers superordination . The nominalization hyperonymy is rarely used, because the neutral term to refer to the relationship is hyponymy . Computer science often terms this relationship an " is-a " relationship. For example,
4644-416: Is nothing preventing the queen from being a mother . This shows that compatibility may be relevant. A word is an autohyponym if it is used for both a hypernym and its hyponym: it has a stricter sense that is entirely a subset of a broader sense. For example, the word dog describes both the species Canis familiaris and male individuals of Canis familiaris , so it is possible to say "That dog isn't
4773-585: Is the most central principle to some Verbindungen , especially of the Corps , Burschenschaften and Landsmannschaften , these organizations require their members to fence as their representative. Other Verbindungen allow their members to fence voluntarily, but the majority of these now forbid their members to fence. In particular, Christian fraternities decline the Mensur from general ethical perspectives, with Catholic fraternities even being formally restricted on
4902-420: Is when a pub owner allows patrons to continue drinking in the pub after the legal closing time, on the theory that once the doors are locked, it becomes a private party rather than a pub. Patrons may put money behind the bar before official closing time, and redeem their drinks during the lock-in so no drinks are technically sold after closing time. The origin of the British lock-in was a reaction to 1915 changes in
5031-548: The Burschenschaft , which was first founded in 1815. Sparked by the nationalist sentiment after the Napoleonic Wars , the members of the latter perceived the traditional forms of fraternities, who were still heavily affiliated with their state of origin, to be reactionary and elitist . Thus, they organized themselves into what was pictured as a single fraternity spanning all states of German language, allowing
5160-467: The Covid pandemic , followed by the wave of inflation that increased prices. By June 2022, pub numbers in England and Wales had fallen to a record low of 39,970, a loss of 7,000 in 10 years. Pubs also found it difficult to hire enough staff, with 142,000 jobs unfilled in the accommodation and food services sector by 2023. Figures published in 2023 showed that the rate of pub loss, equivalent to two closures
5289-636: The Drittchargierter is in charge of mail correspondence, finance and diplomacy. Another Function often referred to as a Charge (Chargierter) is the so-called Fuchsmajor (FM). He is in charge of the Füchse and teaches them everything they need to know in fraternity life, except for fencing. Studentenverbindungen, specially older ones, often possess large mansions, the Verbindungshaus , in which active members live. It usually consists of
Studentenverbindung - Misplaced Pages Continue
5418-626: The Hambach festival in 1832, where the German colors flew as a flag for the first time, and the Frankfurter Wachensturm in 1833, a failed attempt to take a large city's treasury to fund a revolution. Tensions started to build, with short lived, illegal fraternities forming, being dissolved and reforming at all universities, peaking in the German revolution of 1848 in which many members of Studentenverbindungen took part. Although
5547-660: The Kulturkampf . In 1848, a Germany-wide association of Corps was founded in Bad Kösen , the so-called Kösener Senioren-Convents-Verband , KSCV, (roughly, "the Kösen association of the committees of the first men in charge"). It consisted solely of the old Corps present at traditional liberal arts colleges and excluded those at technical colleges. In reaction, the Weinheimer Senioren Convent , WSC,
5676-401: The Mensur strives to educate physical and mental strength by exposing the combatants to a rare and extreme situation. In modern times, opinions differ, although the principle stays the same: whereas one would formerly engage in a Mensur to be hit, many fencing students of today will rather engage in combat in order to prove their competence by not being wounded, instead focusing on reinforcing
5805-493: The Senior (signing his name with an x at the end e.g. Mustermann Z! x ), Consenior (xx) and the Drittchargierter , or often also called Scriptor (xxx). The Senior's task is mainly to represent the fraternity to the outside and to lead it. The Consenior assists the Senior but mainly focuses on imparting the fencing practice, the organization of fraternity events and the constant contact to fellow female students. Whilst
5934-422: The occupation forces and universities, they slowly gained a foothold in society again (see Corps Suevia ). Special influences on this include several court decisions, amongst which are the decision that the Mensur does not violate moral code in 1951, that public display of fraternity colors can not be punished by expulsion from the university (1958, so called "Freiburg color dispute") and the forced acceptance of
6063-652: The oecumenical Wingolf (with Wingolf Bonn being the first in 1841). When the Catholic religion was beginning to be repressed during the Kulturkampf , a large number of fraternities of Catholic belief were formed as a reaction. The first organization of decidedly Catholic origin was the Schweizerische Studentenverein ("Swiss students' union") in 1841. These catholic fraternities understood themselves as an important network to counteract
6192-408: The screwdriver tool , and not to the screwdriver drink . Hypernymy and hyponymy are converse relations . If X is a kind of Y, then X is a hyponym of Y and Y is a hypernym of X. Hyponymy is a transitive relation : if X is a hyponym of Y, and Y is a hyponym of Z, then X is a hyponym of Z. For example, violet is a hyponym of purple and purple is a hyponym of color ; therefore violet
6321-574: The smoking ban of 2007 , intense competition from gastro-pubs, the availability of cheap alcohol in supermarkets or the general economic climate are either to blame, or are factors in the decline. Changes in demographics may be an additional factor. In 2015 the rate of pub closures came under the scrutiny of Parliament in the UK, with a promise of legislation to improve relations between owners and tenants. The Lost Pubs Project listed 42,519 closed English pubs on 6 August 2023, with photographs of over 29,000. In
6450-459: The "weasel" is unclear but the two most likely definitions are: a flat iron used for finishing clothing; or rhyming slang for a coat ( weasel and stoat ). A few pubs have stage performances such as serious drama, stand-up comedy, musical bands, cabaret or striptease ; however, juke boxes , karaoke and other forms of pre-recorded music have otherwise replaced the musical tradition of a piano or guitar and singing. The public bar, or tap room,
6579-555: The 17th century organizations) were reorganized. Each with their namesake as their central principle and idea of character building. Landsmannschaft Sorabia-Westfalen Münster is the oldest Studentenverbindung of modern constitution. It was founded in 1716 in the City of Leipzig. A notable exception from these self-centered principles is the VVDSt ( Verband der Vereine Deutscher Studenten , "union of associations of German students"), which had
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#17327906500166708-403: The 17th century, the respective sovereigns gained increasing control over "their" Burse , and the first fraternities were formally formed, calling themselves Landsmannschaften , giving themselves Latin names according to their country of origin ( Borussia for Prussia , Guestphalia for Westphalia , etc.) and introducing Fuchs and Bursche as status designations. Lifelong membership, though,
6837-471: The 17th century, this represented a fundamental shift in the way that many pubs were operated and the period is now widely regarded as the birth of the tied house system. Decreasing numbers of free houses and difficulties in obtaining new licences meant a continual expansion of their tied estates was the only feasible way for breweries to generate new trade. By the end of the century more than 90 per cent of public houses in England were owned by breweries, and
6966-504: The 1980s). In the Manchester area, the public bar was known as the "vault", other rooms being the lounge and snug as usual elsewhere. The vault was a men-only bar, meant for working men in their dirty working clothes. This style was in marked contrast to the adjacent saloon or lounge bar which, by the early 20th century, was where male or accompanied female middle-class drinkers would drink. It had carpeted floors, upholstered seats, and
7095-545: The German-speaking states, injuring and killing many. As a result, by the Karlsbad Decrees , any self-regulating student body was forcibly dissolved, severe censorship and punishments were instituted, and government authority was significantly increased. This resulted in secret gatherings and smaller revolutionary acts, many of which are seen as the foundation for a German nation in today's world, such as
7224-446: The Latin words vivat, crescat, floreat ('live, grow, flourish') or vivat circulus fratrum ('long live the circle of brothers'). In fraternity documents, members sign their names with a Zirkel after their signature. Zirkel have their origin in abbreviations, by student orders of the 18th century, to show their affiliation in written documents. Today, Zirkel are often used on clothing or other personal items. Sometimes,
7353-675: The UK, soft drinks and often food), but less commonly accommodation. Inns tend to be older and grander establishments: historically they provided not only food and lodging, but also stabling and fodder for travellers' horses, and on some roads fresh horses for the mail coach . Famous London inns include the George, Southwark and the Tabard . There is, however, no longer a formal distinction between an inn and other kinds of establishment. Many pubs use "Inn" in their name, either because they are long established former coaching inns , or to summon up
7482-463: The United States), even though there is no other hyponym of Yankee (as native of the United States) that means "not a native of New England". Similarly, the verb to drink (a beverage) is a hypernym for to drink (an alcoholic beverage). In some cases, autohyponyms duplicate existing, distinct hyponyms. The hypernym "smell" (to emit any smell) has a hyponym "stink" (to emit a bad smell), but
7611-826: The Unready prescribes fines for breaching the peace at meetings held in alehouses. A traveller in the early Middle Ages could obtain overnight accommodation in monasteries, but later a demand for hostelries grew with the popularity of pilgrimages and travel. The Hostellers of London were granted guild status in 1446, and in 1514 the guild became the Worshipful Company of Innholders . A survey in 1577 of drinking establishment in England and Wales for taxation purposes recorded 14,202 alehouses, 1,631 inns, and 329 taverns, representing one pub for every 187 people. Inns are buildings where travellers can seek lodging and, usually, food and drink. They are typically located in
7740-421: The advent of gastropubs , some establishments have returned to maintaining distinct rooms or areas. The "snug" was a small private room or area, typically with access to the bar and a frosted glass window above head height. Customers in the snug paid a higher price for beer and nobody could look in and see the drinkers. Not only did wealthy visitors use these rooms, but also patrons who preferred not to be seen in
7869-431: The bar. A "beer engine" is a device for pumping beer, originally manually operated and typically used to dispense beer from a cask or container in a pub's basement or cellar. The first beer pump known in England is believed to have been invented by John Lofting (born Netherlands 1659-d. Great Marlow Buckinghamshire 1742) an inventor, manufacturer and merchant of London. The London Gazette of 17 March 1691 published
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#17327906500167998-406: The basis of placing two equal opponents in front of each other. [...] This experience, and the intertwined need to overcome one's own fear, dedicated to the union of his Corps, and the connected strengthening of the sense of community aids the personal growth just as does taking a hit without losing one's stand and accepting the assessment of the Mensur by the own Corps Brothers." While the Mensur
8127-591: The big breweries to sell their tied houses, the Government introduced the Beer Orders in 1989. The result, however, was that the Big Six melted away into other sectors; selling their brewing assets and spinning off their tied houses, largely into the hands of branded pub chains, called pubcos. As these were not brewers, they were not governed by the Beer Orders and tens of thousands of pubs remain tied, much in
8256-495: The bond between members of the fraternity. Some fraternities that do not practice academic fencing have other rituals that are meant to substitute this ritual of group dynamics, such as extreme hiking. "The object and purpose of the Corps was and still is solely the education of students to become a strong, free and cosmopolitan personality who is not held back by religious, racist, national, scientific or philosophical limitations of
8385-610: The break of the century, women were admitted to visit universities, unifying to sororities in 1899. The first such organization was the Club der Namenlosen ("club of the nameless"), that was soon renamed to Verein Studierender Frauen Deutschlands Hilaritas ("association of female students of Germany Hilaritas"). This diversification progressed to the point that the formerly despised students' culture heavily influenced society, especially affecting
8514-469: The characteristics that make pubs instantly recognisable today. In particular, and contrary to the intentions of the Beerhouse Act, many drew inspiration from the gin houses and palaces. Bar counters had been an early adoption, but ornate mirrors, etched glass, polished brass fittings and lavishly tiled surfaces were all features that had first made their appearance in gin houses. Innovations such as
8643-519: The conclusion that he had "so large a gab, he would be able to eat it crosswise". This led to all Studentenverbindungen being classified as "reactionary", and most of them either dissolved themselves or were forcibly closed during 1934 to 1938. The former members were then reorganized in Kameradschaften ("comradeships") and forced to omit their principles of democratic vote, lifelong cooperation, honor and tradition. In secrecy, though, many of
8772-613: The core fraternity's democratic process, allowing younger generations to take their place. Major decisions, though, are still made by an annual Convent where every member, student or not, has at least one vote; the Alte Herren Commission (short AHC ) which represent all Alte Herren usually have double votes and veto rights. They also take care of the financial overview and supervising the Verbindungshaus . Furthermore, all Alte Herren are commonly asked to pay
8901-520: The country or along a highway. In Europe, they possibly first sprang up when the Romans built a system of roads two millennia ago. Some inns in Europe are several centuries old. In addition to providing for the needs of travellers, inns traditionally acted as community gathering places. In Europe, it is the provision of accommodation, if anything, that now distinguishes inns from taverns , alehouses and pubs. The latter tend to provide alcohol (and, in
9030-542: The crowd of members and guests present are presided over by the Chargierte (see above), with the Senior conducting the gathering, executing certain rituals, from as simple as welcoming guests, holding speeches to performing the so-called Landesvater ("father of the country"). The latter is a ceremonial where a sabre is pierced through the Couleur -bearing headgear of the participants in a complex ritual, accompanied by
9159-410: The development of the large London Porter breweries, a trend grew for pubs to become tied houses that only sold beer from a single brewery. (A pub not 'tied' in this way was called a free house .) The usual arrangement for a tied house was that the brewery owned the pub but rented it out to a private individual (landlord) who ran it as a separate business (even though contracted to buy the beer from
9288-533: The drinks traditionally served include draught beer and cider , most also sell wine , spirits , tea , coffee , and soft drinks . Many pubs offer meals and snacks, and those considered to be gastro-pubs serve food in a manner akin to a restaurant. A licence is required to operate a pub; the licensee is known as the landlord or landlady, or the publican. Often colloquially referred to as their "local" by regular customers, pubs are typically chosen for their proximity to home or work, good food, social atmosphere,
9417-621: The early 1700s, secret organizations known as Studentenorden (student orders) took their place and introduced elaborate rituals, formal oaths of membership, a strict constitutio to regulate internal behavior, and cryptic symbols to identify members. All of these traditions are still known and actively practised in today's fraternities. The Studentenorden , though, were heavily monitored by the then- absolutist government, as many of their traditions were derived from freemason or Illuminati lodges, and were subsequently banned in 1793. As Studentenorden were dissolved and their former members sought
9546-490: The fifteen years to 2017 a quarter of London's pubs had closed. The closures have been ascribed to factors such as changing tastes and a rise in the cost of beer due to tax increases. Some London boroughs where there has been an increase in British Muslim population— Islam forbids alcohol to its adherents—have seen a high amount of closures. The industry suffered a major decline from 2020, due to reduced trade during
9675-487: The first World War, which called all of the active students to serve their country, which many welcomed euphorically. Fatalities substantially reduced the number of fraternity students and students in general. When the war was lost and the Kaiser was forced to step down and hand over the power of state to a democratic government, the fraternities' world shook in its foundations. The violence the students had experienced at war,
9804-476: The first country in the world to ban smoking in all enclosed public areas. Scotland was the first UK nation to introduce a ban on indoor smoking in March 2006, followed by the rest of the UK in 2007. Australia introduced a similar ban in 2006 and now has some of the world's toughest anti-smoking laws, with some territories having also banned smoking in outside public areas. Some publicans raised concerns, prior to
9933-630: The first pubs, called tabernae (the origin of modern English " tavern "), began to appear. After the departure of Roman authority in the fifth century and the fall of the Romano-British kingdoms , the Anglo-Saxons established alehouses that may have grown out of domestic dwellings, first attested in the 10th century. These alehouses quickly evolved into meeting houses for folk to socially congregate, gossip and arrange mutual help within their communities. The Wantage law code of Æthelred
10062-452: The first universities formed in Paris , Bologna , and Salerno around the 12th century, Europe was divided into a large number of small states, which reflected itself in the composition of the student body. To ensure an equal influence on the university's decisions, the students and teachers began to form nationes , with one nation for each native state of its members. This basic tradition
10191-400: The former customs were still practised, although with the outbreak of World War II, few remained to do so during the war. After the war, the remaining former members soon tried to reorganize themselves, often fusing two or more Verbindungen to allow for greater impact, such as Guestphalia Bonn (West Germany) and Guestphalia Greifswald (East Germany). Although this was at first made illegal by
10320-502: The fraternity's coat of arms is also incorporated into objects, such as headgear or the épée (fencing rapier ). Many fraternity members can be identified through their Zirkel , or by less obvious codes such as a certain style of dressing, e.g. Timberland boots and polo shirts . Furthermore, rare figures of speech can give the hint that a person is a member of a Verbindung . Studentenverbindungen's coats of arms do not strictly follow heraldic rules, their use started around
10449-496: The ground of the 5th commandment "You shall not kill" , which includes the integrity of the God-given body in general. Visually, the most discerning characteristic of many Studentenverbindungen is the so-called Couleur , which can consist of anything from a small piece of ribbon worn over the belt, to elaborate uniforms with riding boots, sabers, and colorful cavalry jackets, depending on circumstances and tradition. Most commonly,
10578-609: The growth from 1869 by introducing magisterial control and new licensing laws. These aimed to make it harder to obtain a licence, and control drunkenness, prostitution, and other undesirable conduct on licensed premises. In the United Kingdom, restrictions were tightened considerably following the advent of the First World War. The Defence of the Realm Act , along with introducing rationing and censorship of
10707-494: The implementation of restrictions, that a smoking ban would have a negative impact on sales. The impact of the ban was mixed, with some pubs suffering declining sales, and others seeing an increase, particularly in food sales. By the end of the 18th century, a new room in the pub was established: the saloon. Beer establishments had always provided entertainment of some sort—singing, gaming or sport. Balls Pond Road in Islington
10836-429: The intimate form of addressing someone in German, or even by their first names. This commonly includes referring to one another as " Verbindungsbruder " ( Brother ). As it is possible for any Verbindung to forge treaties with another, this may also be extended to members of other fraternities. This relationship between the old and the young allows young members to learn how to bear responsibilities themselves. To laymen,
10965-566: The introduction of hand pumps (or beer engines ) allowed more people to be served, faster, while technological advances in the brewing industry and improved transportation links made it possible for breweries to deliver beer far from where it was brewed. The latter half of the 19th century saw increased competition within the brewing industry and, in an attempt to secure markets for their own products, breweries began rapidly buying local pubs and directly employing publicans to run them. Although some tied houses had existed in larger British towns since
11094-508: The keepers of ale-houses in their gode behavyng by the discrecion of the seid justices, and in the same to be avysed and aggreed at the tyme of their sessions." The Beerhouse Act of 1830 is widely considered to be a milestone in the history of public houses. Gin was popularised in England in the late 17th century, largely because it provided an alternative to French brandy at a time of political and religious conflict between Britain and France. Because of its cheapness, gin became popular with
11223-541: The language. During the Wilhelminian Era , this development peaked, with the largest part of the academic community (active or alumni) being member in one or more of the over 1300 fraternities and even non-members cutting themselves with razors to simulate the appearance of the characteristic fencing wounds. As of today, Bismarck and Kaiser Wilhelm II still remain the most well-known of Corps students and German fraternity students in general. This lasted until
11352-550: The last fencing fraternity in Berlin in 1968, and the formal obligation to head of state Theodor Heuss to abolish duels for honor. One side effect is that, due to this persistent struggle back to acceptance through legal action and sheer will of survival, post war fraternities in Germany, unlike their pre-war selves, did not receive any university funding, but had also become completely free and independent of University regulation or oversight. While this allowed for progress and such
11481-590: The licensing laws in England and Wales, which curtailed opening hours to stop factory workers from turning up drunk and harming the war effort. From then until the start of the 21st century, UK licensing laws changed very little, retaining these comparatively early closing times. The tradition of the lock-in therefore remained. Since the implementation of the Licensing Act 2003 , premises in England and Wales may apply to extend their opening hours beyond 11 pm, allowing round-the-clock drinking and removing much of
11610-592: The mind. Three primary institutions within the fraternity aid with achieving this aim; including the Corpsconvent [regular council meetings of the Corps Brothers], the Kneipe [celebratory get-together of Corps Brothers with speeches, beer and songs], and today's Bestimmungsmensur [the event of academic fencing with sharp blades for the first or one of the first times], where the ones to fence are chosen on
11739-473: The most well-known tradition of Studentenverbindungen is the Mensur , a special form of very strictly regulated, fixed-stance fencing ritual. The Mensur is practised with sharp blades, and although the body is well-protected, it allows for deep (cosmetic) facial and cranial wounds, which often result in a scar which is called Schmiss . The Schmiss was once regarded as the passport to a better future, because
11868-480: The need for lock-ins. Since the smoking ban , some establishments operated a lock-in during which the remaining patrons could smoke without repercussions but, unlike drinking lock-ins, allowing smoking in a pub was still a prosecutable offence. Concerns about the effects of cigarette smoke inhalation first surfaced in the 1950s and ultimately led many countries to ban or restrict smoking in specific settings, such as pubs and restaurants. Early in 2004, Ireland became
11997-605: The new, first year Fuchs [ de ] , the loose associate Renonce [ de ] , the Burschen (German for fellow , full members), and the inactive Burschen (having been members for a set time limit, usually three or four semesters) forming the fraternity's active core. The fourth group, the Chargen are Burschen elected by the former groups' democratic vote and entitled to decide over certain situations of everyday fraternity life. Common Chargierte are
12126-452: The now-extinct Landsmannschaften . A new characteristic was the heavy influence of German idealism , in particular the works of Kant and Fichte . This resulted in a strong focus on forming young members to be strong, upright and honorable, in order for the nation's "best and brightest" to spread these ideas throughout society. Political, especially geopolitical activities of Corps as a whole were actively discouraged, as social commitment
12255-414: The only practical way brewers could now grow their tied estates was to turn on each other. Buy-outs and amalgamations became commonplace, and by the end of the 1980s there were only six large brewers left in the UK, collectively known as the Big Six; Allied , Bass , Courage , Grand Metropolitan , Scottish & Newcastle and Whitbread . In an attempt to increase the number of free houses, by forcing
12384-400: The phrase "Red is-a color" can be used to describe the hyponymic relationship between red and color . Hyponymy is the most frequently encoded relation among synsets used in lexical databases such as WordNet . These semantic relations can also be used to compare semantic similarity by judging the distance between two synsets and to analyse anaphora . As a hypernym can be understood as
12513-482: The poor standard of rural roads meant that, away from the larger towns, the only beer available was often brewed by the publican himself. With the arrival of the Industrial Revolution , many areas of the United Kingdom were transformed by a surge in industrial activity and rapid population growth. There was huge demand for beer and for venues where the public could engage in social interaction, but there
12642-586: The poor, eventually leading to a period of drunkenness and lawlessness, known as the Gin Craze . In the early 19th century, encouraged by a reduction of duties, gin consumption again began to rise and gin houses and gin palaces (an evolution of gin shops) began to spread from London to most towns and cities in Britain. Alarmed at the prospect of a return to the Gin Craze, the government attempted to counter
12771-640: The popular music hall form of entertainment—a show consisting of a variety of acts. A most famous London saloon was the Grecian Saloon in the Eagle, City Road , referenced by name in the 18th-century nursery rhyme : "Up and down the City Road / In and out the Eagle / That's the way the money goes / Pop goes the weasel ." This meant that the customer had spent all his money at the Eagle, and needed to pawn his "weasel" to get some more. The meaning of
12900-523: The premises . The term first appeared in England in the late 17th century, to differentiate private houses from those open to the public as alehouses, taverns and inns . Today, there is no strict definition, but the Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) states a pub has four characteristics: The history of pubs can be traced to taverns in Roman Britain , and through Anglo-Saxon alehouses, but it
13029-525: The presence of friends and acquaintances, and the availability of pub games such as darts , pool , or snooker . Pubs often screen sporting events, such as rugby , cricket and football . The pub quiz was established in the UK in the 1970s. Ale was a native British drink before the arrival of the Roman Empire in the first century, but it was with the construction of the Roman road network that
13158-535: The press, restricted pubs' opening hours to 12 noon–2:30 pm and 6:30 pm–9:30 pm. Opening for the full licensed hours was compulsory, and closing time was equally firmly enforced by the police. There was also a special case established under the State Management Scheme where the brewery and licensed premises were bought and run by the state, most notably in Carlisle . A "lock-in"
13287-410: The public bar. Ladies often enjoyed a private drink in the snug in a time when many frowned on women visiting a pub. The local police officer might nip in for a quiet pint, the parish priest for his evening whisky, or lovers for a rendezvous. The Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) has surveyed the 50,000 pubs in Britain and it believes that there are very few pubs that still have classic snugs. These are on
13416-652: The relationship between a generic term (hypernym) and a specific instance of it (hyponym). A hyponym is a word or phrase whose semantic field is more specific than its hypernym. The semantic field of a hypernym, also known as a superordinate, is broader than that of a hyponym. An approach to the relationship between hyponyms and hypernyms is to view a hypernym as consisting of hyponyms. This, however, becomes more difficult with abstract words such as imagine , understand and knowledge . While hyponyms are typically used to refer to nouns, it can also be used on other parts of speech. Like nouns, hypernyms in verbs are words that refer to
13545-769: The said Engines may apply themselves to the Patentee at his house near St Thomas Apostle London or to Mr. Nicholas Wall at the Workshoppe near Saddlers Wells at Islington or to Mr. William Tillcar, Turner, his agent at his house in Woodtree next door to the Sun Tavern London." "Their Majesties" referred to were William III of England and Mary II of England , who had recently arrived from the Netherlands and had been appointed joint monarchs. A further engine
13674-441: The same way that they had been previously. In reality, government interference did very little to improve Britain's tied house system and all its large breweries are now in the hands of foreign or multi-national companies. The number of pubs in the UK has declined year on year at least since 1982. Various reasons are put forward for this, such as the failure of some establishments to keep up with customer requirements. Others claim
13803-621: The seventh verse of August Daniel von Binzer 's song " Wir hatten gebauet ein stattliches Haus ", citing the colors of the Burschenschaft: Das Band ist zerschnitten, war schwarz, rot und gold, und Gott hat es gelitten, wer weiß was er gewollt! The ribbon is cut, t'was black, red and gold, and God suffer'd it, who knows what his intent! In the same year, due to general antisemitism prevalent in any social class, massive antisemitic protests, mainly fueled by students, craftsmen and traders, (see Hep-Hep riots ) swept
13932-749: The shortest possible time. The other, more private, rooms had no serving bar—they had the beer brought to them from the public bar. A number of pubs in the Midlands or the North still retain this set up, though now customers fetch the drinks themselves from the taproom or public bar. One of these is the Vine, known locally as the Bull and Bladder, in Brierley Hill near Birmingham, another the Cock at Broom, Bedfordshire
14061-471: The students to coordinate a nationalist revolution; i.e. a revolution to unify Germany and to abolish all princedoms. From the beginning, they were a dedicated political organization, in contrast to the Corps . This early attempt failed in 1819 when the Burschenschaft was fragmented, but the sentiment prevailed. At this occasion, the modern German colors are mentioned for the first time in popular culture, in
14190-478: The term "bar" applied to the publican's office where one was built, but beer would be tapped directly from a cask or barrel on a table, or kept in a separate taproom and brought out in jugs. When purpose built Victorian pubs were built after the Beerhouse Act 1830 , the main room was the public room with a large serving bar copied from the gin houses, the idea being to serve the maximum number of people in
14319-518: The threat, and encourage the consumption of a more wholesome beverage, by introducing the Beerhouse Act of 1830. The Act introduced a new lower, and largely deregulated, tier of premises called "the beerhouse". Under the act any householder, upon payment of two guineas (roughly equal in value to £237 today), was permitted to brew and sell beer or cider in their own home. Beerhouses were not allowed to open on Sundays, or sell spirits and fortified wines; any beerhouse discovered to be breaking these rules
14448-633: The uncertainty of the Weimar Republic times and the deeply felt humiliation of the harsh conditions of the Peace of Versailles caused many fraternity members to enlist in the newly founded Freikorps , paramilitary organizations thought to protect democracy. As open battles between Freikorps members and communist activists began, many quickly radicalized throughout society, resulting in formerly non-political fraternities developing an extreme nationalist, anti-communist and antisemitic standpoint. As this
14577-509: The unification of Germany, according to the principles of the Burschenschaft soon failed violently, the Studentenverbindungen had emancipated themselves, and many of the members of the first Frankfurt parliament were in fact Corps students or Burschenschaft members. Thus, the general concept flourished quickly, and soon, the Studentenverbindungen were no longer seen as clubs of young rowdies and revolutionaries, but as
14706-582: The word "inn" lives on in hotel brand names like Holiday Inn , and in some state laws that refer to lodging operators as innkeepers. The Inns of Court and Inns of Chancery in London started as ordinary inns where barristers met to do business, but became institutions of the legal profession in England and Wales . Pubs as we know them today first appeared in the 19th century. Before this time alehouses were largely indistinguishable from private houses and
14835-482: The year 1800. The escutcheon is often divided in four, Burschenschaften's most commonly by a cross. These fields are filled with various non heraldic symbols, for example with the fraternity's colors, the Zirkel, allusions to their university or city and other regional heraldic elements, also symbols for friendship and eternity, that are taken from Freemasons and antiquity. More elaborate uniforms are usually worn at
14964-684: Was a fertile ground for the newly founded NSDAP to flourish on, many soon committed themselves to its principles, with some, such as the Burschenschaft , expelling Jews as early as 1920. When the NSDAP seized power in 1933, many rejoiced, although it was soon made clear that Studentenverbindungen would not be allowed to persist. There are several exceptions, though, most notably the Corps Saxo-Borussia , whose members loudly discussed on different occasions if "the fuehrer were to eat his asparagus with his knife, his fork, or his paws", coming to
15093-495: Was achieved during the 1950s and early 1960s, the Verbindungen again took a hard hit in 1968 with the general socialist sentiment amongst the student movement and their desire to abolish anything deemed reactionary. As of today, many of the prejudices then expressed still form the base of what little is known to the public about Verbindungen , resulting in a slow and steady decline in membership count since. A notable upswing
15222-494: Was also intense competition for customers. Gin houses and palaces became increasingly popular, while the Beerhouse Act of 1830 caused a proliferation of beerhouses. By the mid-19th century, pubs were widely purpose-built, and could incorporate architectural features that distinguished them from private houses to make them stand out from the competition. Many existing public houses were also redeveloped at this time, borrowing features from other building types and gradually developing
15351-443: Was closed down and the owner heavily fined. Within eight years 46,000 new beerhouses opened and, because operating costs were so low, huge profits were often made. The combination of increasing competition and high profits eventually led to what has been described as a golden age of pub building when many landlords extended or redeveloped their properties, adopting many features modern pubs still have. Authorities attempted to check
15480-691: Was continued for a long time and still survives in Sweden and Finland to the present day. When the first universities of the Holy Roman Empire were founded in Prague (1348), Vienna , and Heidelberg in the 14th century, they established a similar system, the Burse (From Latin "bursa" meaning "coin purse", from which Bursche stems, for the Burse's collective funds). Students were forced to live in
15609-433: Was established, which unified the latter. Today, the two umbrella organizations are tightly linked by a cooperation treaty, known as Die Corps . The types of fraternities soon diversified, and formerly informal clubs, such as sports clubs influenced by the political ideas of Turnvater Jahn ( Turnerschaften ), academic choirs ( Sängerschaften ), and groups influenced by the progressive movement ( Landsmannschaften after
15738-436: Was greatly impaired by treatment possibilities, with infected wounds posing a substantial risk. During this time, the first Christian fraternities were established by religious students missing belief as a basic principle of unity. Although some of them still took up weapons, many refused to do so from an ethical and religious standpoint. They often carried generic names, unifying themselves under an umbrella organization such as
15867-407: Was invented in the late 18th century by the locksmith and hydraulic engineer Joseph Bramah (1748–1814). Strictly the term refers to the pump itself, which is normally manually operated, though electrically powered and gas powered pumps are occasionally used. When manually powered, the term "handpump" is often used to refer to both the pump and the associated handle. In the 18th century, after
15996-405: Was named after an establishment run by a Mr. Ball that had a duck pond at the rear, where drinkers could, for a fee, go out and take a potshot at the ducks. More common, however, was a card room or a billiards room. The saloon was a room where, for an admission fee or a higher price of drinks, singing, dancing, drama, or comedy was performed and drinks would be served at the table. From this came
16125-490: Was not known. During this period, the regulated duel was developed, accompanied by the idea to defend one's honor with a weapon and a strict code to guide the confrontation. This potentially lethal tradition continued until 1933 in Germany, with being so strict at some points, that e.g. a Prussian officer could be expelled if he was not willing to demand or give satisfaction . As the Landsmannschaften faded during
16254-502: Was not until the early 19th century that pubs, as they are today, first began to appear. The model also became popular in countries and regions of British influence, where pubs are often still considered to be an important aspect of their culture . In many places, especially in villages, pubs are the focal point of local communities. In his 17th-century diary, Samuel Pepys described the pub as "the heart of England". Pubs have been established in other countries in modern times. Although
16383-399: Was only delivered by the recent Bologna process , depriving students of long known means of studying and thus increasing the demand for assistance by experienced alumni. As of 2013, a bit less than 1% of German university students are active members of a Studentenverbindung . Umbrella term Hypernymy and hyponymy are the semantic relations between a generic term (hypernym) and
16512-505: Was seen as more promising and less controversial. Another characteristic was to unify all of a city's, and ultimately Germany's, Corps under an umbrella organization and to vote on common rules and principles for each Corps to abide by. Hence the KSCV was created in 1848. The oldest, still existing Studentenverbindung , Corps Guestphalia Halle established in 1789, was a founding member. The Corps soon saw themselves heavily confronted by
16641-454: Was where the working class were expected to congregate and drink. It had unfurnished floorboards, sometimes covered with sawdust to absorb the spitting and spillages (known as "spit and sawdust"), bare bench seats and stools. Drinks were generally lower-quality beers and liquors. Public bars were seen as exclusive areas for only men; strictly enforced social etiquettes barred women from entering public bars (some pubs did not lift this rule until
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