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123-545: The Vickers Valiant was a British high-altitude jet bomber designed to carry nuclear weapons, and in the 1950s and 1960s was part of the Royal Air Force 's " V bomber " strategic deterrent force. It was developed by Vickers-Armstrongs in response to Specification B.35/46 issued by the Air Ministry for a nuclear-armed jet-powered bomber. The Valiant was the first of the V bombers to become operational, and

246-676: A Civil Defense gas mask. To comment on the smell and the secrecy the project entailed, another engineer, Irv Culver , referred to the facility as "Skonk Works". As the development was very secret, the employees were told to be careful even with how they answered phone calls. One day, when the Department of the Navy was trying to reach the Lockheed management for the P-80 project, the call was accidentally transferred to Culver’s desk. Culver answered

369-517: A ' Safe-Life ' strategy; this combination of 'Safe-Life' and DTD683 came to be viewed as a severe mistake. In 1956, a publication within the Journal of the Institute of Metals condemned the material DTD683 as being unstable and capable of catastrophic failure when stressing the airframe close to its design limits. The "Safe-Life" design strategy was dismissed by a Lockheed engineer in a talk given to

492-586: A common practice within the Skunk Works. Many times a customer would come to the Skunk Works with a request and on a handshake the project would begin, with no contracts in place, no official submittal process. Kelly Johnson and his Skunk Works team designed and built the XP-80 in only 143 days, seven fewer than was required. Warren M. Bodie, journalist, historian, and Skunk Works engineer from 1977 to 1984, wrote that engineering independence, elitism and secrecy of

615-417: A fatal mid-air collision on the fourth launch, the drones were re-built as D-21Bs, and launched with a rocket booster from B-52s . Four operational missions were conducted over China, but the camera packages were never successfully recovered. Kelly Johnson headed the Skunk Works until 1975. He was succeeded by Ben Rich. In 1976, the Skunk Works began production on a pair of stealth technology demonstrators for

738-506: A fatigue failure of the landing gear. It was scrapped in 1958. In April 1951, an initial production order for 25 Valiant B.1 (Bomber Mark 1) aircraft was placed by the Ministry of Supply on behalf of the RAF. The timing of this order was key to establishing production quickly. Due to shortages of steel and other materials while setting up an assembly line at Brooklands, substantial portions of

861-722: A few meters of their assigned target. In October and November 1956 the Valiant was the first of the V-bombers to see combat, during the Anglo-French-Israeli Suez campaign. During Operation Musketeer , the British military operation in what became known as the Suez Crisis , Valiants operating from the airfield at Luqa on Malta dropped conventional bombs on targets inside Egypt. Egyptian military airfields were

984-424: A focus on stealth technology for strategic bombers. Strategic bombing is done by heavy bombers primarily designed for long-range bombing missions against strategic targets such as supply bases, bridges, factories, shipyards, and cities themselves, to diminish the enemy's ability to wage war by limiting access to resources through crippling infrastructure or reducing industrial output. Current examples include

1107-571: A group within an organization given a high degree of autonomy and unhampered by bureaucracy, with the task of working on advanced or secret projects. There are conflicting observations about the birth of Skunk Works. Engineer Ben Rich sets the origin as June 1943 in Burbank, California . Kelly Johnson has made contradictory statements, some agreeing with Rich, and others putting the origin earlier, in 1939. The official Lockheed Skunk Works story states: The Air Tactical Service Command (ATSC) of

1230-592: A larger and more streamlined form of airship designed by German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin , were outfitted to carry bombs to attack targets at long range. These were the first long range, strategic bombers. Although the German air arm was strong, with a total of 123 airships by the end of the war, they were vulnerable to attack and engine failure, as well as navigational issues. German airships inflicted little damage on all 51 raids, with 557 Britons killed and 1,358 injured. The German Navy lost 53 of its 73 airships, and

1353-411: A length of 108 ft 3 in (32.99 m) for the Valiant B.1, with the extra length giving room for more avionics. The prototype B.2, serial number WJ954 first flew on 4 September 1953. Finished in a gloss black night operations paint scheme, it became known as the "Black Bomber". Its performance at low level was superior to that of the B.1 (or any other V-bomber), particularly at sea level , with

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1476-483: A major limitation, combined with the desire for accuracy and other operational factors, bomber designs tended to be tailored to specific roles. By the start of the war this included: Bombers of this era were not intended to attack other aircraft although most were fitted with defensive weapons. World War II saw the beginning of the widespread use of high speed bombers which began to minimize defensive weaponry in order to attain higher speed. Some smaller designs were used as

1599-538: A means of evading detection and attack. Designs such as the English Electric Canberra could fly faster or higher than contemporary fighters. When surface-to-air missiles became capable of hitting high-flying bombers, bombers were flown at low altitudes to evade radar detection and interception. Once "stand off" nuclear weapon designs were developed, bombers did not need to pass over the target to make an attack; they could fire and turn away to escape

1722-538: A part. It was the last time RAF V-bombers flew a live combat mission until Avro Vulcans bombed Port Stanley airfield in the Falkland Islands during the Falklands War in 1982. Valiant tankers were flown by No. 214 Squadron at RAF Marham , operational in 1958, and No. 90 Squadron at Honington, operational in 1959. The two squadrons became dedicated tanker squadrons on 1 April 1962. Aircraft assigned to

1845-490: A repair programme was underway, but a change of Government led to the new Minister of Defence Denis Healey deciding that the Valiant should be retired from service, and this happened in early 1965. The Victor and Vulcan V-bombers remained in service until the 1980s. In November 1944, the Joint Technical Warfare Committee, along with a separate committee chaired by Sir Henry Tizard , examined

1968-470: A smoldering still , for some mysterious, unspecified purpose. In mid-1939 when Lockheed was expanding rapidly, the YP-38 project was moved a few blocks away to the newly purchased 3G Distillery, also known as Three G or GGG Distillery. Lockheed took over the building but the sour smell of bourbon mash lingered, partly because the group of buildings continued to store barrels of aging whiskey. The first YP-38

2091-693: A spyplane known as the U-2 with the intention of flying over the Soviet Union and photographing sites of strategic interest. The U-2 was tested at Groom Lake in the Nevada desert, and the Flight Test Engineer in charge was Joseph F. Ware, Jr . The first overflight took place on July 4 1956 . The U-2 ceased overflights when Francis Gary Powers was shot down during a mission on May 1, 1960, while over Russia. The Skunk Works had predicted that

2214-449: A strategic reconnaissance version and a multi-purpose version capable conventional bombing, aerial reconnaissance and aerial refuelling . 18 squadron operated 6 Valiants with electronic countermeasures equipment. Valiants of 90 and 214 squadrons were used for air refuelling through the addition of a Hose Drum Unit (HDU) in the bomb bay, mounted on the same suspension units that were also used for bombs. This meant that for refuelling,

2337-468: A survey of Vickers employees. On 11 January 1952, the first Valiant prototype was lost while making internal noise measurements for the V.1000 programme. Testing included engine shutdowns and re-lights, one of which caused a fire in the starboard wing; most of the crew managed to escape the aircraft safely, except for the co-pilot, who struck the tail after ejecting. On 11 April 1952, the second prototype WB215 made its maiden flight, after modifications to

2460-595: A thermonuclear explosion. On 8 November 1957 a British hydrogen bomb detonated with its planned yield in the Grapple X test. The Grapple series of tests continued into 1958, and in April 1958 the Grapple Y bomb exploded with ten times the yield of the original "Short Granite". Testing was finally terminated in November 1958, when the British government decided it would perform no more air-delivered nuclear tests. Originally

2583-580: Is a fine irony to the situation, for Vickers had produced the Type 673 B Mk 2 version designed as a fast, low-level pathfinder... The Air Ministry was not interested..." The Valiant was Vickers' last purpose-built military aircraft. It was followed by the Vanguard , a passenger turboprop designed in 1959, and the Vickers VC10 , a jet passenger aircraft in 1962, also used as a military transport and tanker by

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2706-419: Is aimed at countering enemy military activity and in supporting offensive operations, and is typically assigned to smaller aircraft operating at shorter ranges, typically near the troops on the ground or against enemy shipping. During WWII with engine power as a major limitation, combined with the desire for accuracy and other operational factors, bomber designs tended to be tailored to specific roles. Early in

2829-575: Is responsible for a number of aircraft designs, highly classified research and development programs, and exotic aircraft platforms. Known locations include United States Air Force Plant 42 (Palmdale, California), United States Air Force Plant 4 (Fort Worth, Texas), and Marietta, Georgia. Skunk Works' history started with the P-38 Lightning in 1939 and the P-80 Shooting Star in 1943. Skunk Works engineers subsequently developed

2952-488: Is typically assigned to smaller aircraft operating at shorter ranges, typically near the troops on the ground or against enemy shipping. This role is filled by tactical bomber class, which crosses and blurs with various other aircraft categories: light bombers , medium bombers , dive bombers , interdictors , fighter-bombers , attack aircraft , multirole combat aircraft , and others. The first use of an air-dropped bomb (actually four hand grenades specially manufactured by

3075-474: The Air Staff issued Operational Requirements OR229 and OR230 for the development of turbojet -powered heavy bombers capable of carrying nuclear weapons at high altitude and speed, without defensive armament, to act as a deterrent to hostile powers and, if deterrence failed, to perform a nuclear strike. In conjunction with this ambition, Britain set about developing its own atomic weapons . In January 1947,

3198-799: The Bristol Aeroplane Company . They were fitted with a prismatic Bombsight in the front cockpit and a cylindrical bomb carrier in the lower forward fuselage capable of carrying twelve 10 lb (4.5 kg) bombs, which could be dropped singly or as a salvo as required. The aircraft was purchased for use both by the Royal Naval Air Service and the Royal Flying Corps (RFC), and three T.B.8s, that were being displayed in Paris during December 1913 fitted with bombing equipment, were sent to France following

3321-477: The Cold War however, bombers were the only means of carrying nuclear weapons to enemy targets, and held the role of deterrence . With the advent of guided air-to-air missiles, bombers needed to avoid interception. High-speed and high-altitude flying became a means of evading detection and attack. With the advent of ICBMs the role of the bomber was brought to a more tactical focus in close air support roles, and

3444-551: The Handley Page Type O ; the majority of bombing was done by single-engined biplanes with one or two crew members flying short distances to attack enemy lines and immediate hinterland. As the effectiveness of a bomber was dependent on the weight and accuracy of its bomb load, ever larger bombers were developed starting in World War I, while considerable money was spent developing suitable bombsights. With engine power as

3567-477: The Operation Buffalo nuclear tests in that area . Windscreen blinds were fitted in advance of the test to protect the crew from the intense flash of light from the nuclear detonation. Following the landing of the aircraft after deploying the weapon, WZ366 was assessed for potential damage and for radioactive contamination . On 15 May 1957, a Valiant B(K).1 (XD818) piloted by Kenneth Hubbard dropped

3690-594: The Royal Aeronautical Society in 1956, because it did not guarantee safety from catastrophic failure. The Valiant B.1 could carry a 10,000-pound (4,500 kg) nuclear weapon or up to 21 1,000 lb (450 kg) conventional bombs in its bomb bay. It was designed for the early fission -based nuclear weapons and also the newer and larger thermonuclear hydrogen bombs . A "clean" Valiant (one without underwing tanks) could climb straight to 50,000 ft after takeoff unless it had heavy stores in

3813-570: The S.A.4 Sperrin . Two prototypes were completed, the first conducting its maiden flight in 1951, but the Sperrin was ultimately relegated to research and development purposes only. Vickers had emerged from World War II as one of the world's pre-eminent companies in the field of aeronautical manufacturing and development. The company operated its own secretive Skunk Works -like development organisation based at Weybridge, Surrey, which had been involved in several secret wartime development projects. It

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3936-505: The Swedish Air Force dropped bombs on a forest fire, snuffing out flames with the aid of the blast waves. The fires had been raging in an area contaminated with unexploded ordnance , rendering them difficult to extinguish for firefighters. Skunk Works Skunk Works is an official pseudonym for Lockheed Martin 's Advanced Development Programs ( ADP ), formerly called Lockheed Advanced Development Projects. It

4059-641: The Turkish railway station of Karağaç (near the besieged Edirne ) from an Albatros F.2 aircraft piloted by Radul Milkov , during the First Balkan War . This is deemed to be the first use of an aircraft as a bomber. The first heavier-than-air aircraft purposely designed for bombing were the Italian Caproni Ca 30 and British Bristol T.B.8 , both of 1913. The Bristol T.B.8 was an early British single engined biplane built by

4182-419: The U-2 , SR-71 Blackbird , F-117 Nighthawk , F-22 Raptor , and F-35 Lightning II , the latter being used in the air forces of several countries. The Skunk Works name was taken from the "Skonk Oil" factory in the comic strip Li'l Abner . Derived from the Lockheed use of the term, the designation "skunk works" or "skunkworks" is now widely used in business, engineering, and technical fields to describe

4305-718: The U.S. Air Force became interested in the design, and it ordered the SR-71 Blackbird , a two-seater version of the A-12. This aircraft first flew in 1966 and remained in service until 1998. The D-21 drone , similar in design to the Blackbird, was built to overfly the Lop Nur nuclear test facility in China . This drone was launched from the back of a specially modified A-12, known as M-21, of which there were two built. After

4428-569: The U.S. Air Force named Have Blue in Building 82 at Burbank. These scaled-down demonstrators, built in only 18 months, were a revolutionary step forward in aviation technology because of their extremely small radar cross-section . After a series of successful test flights beginning in 1977, the Air force awarded Skunk Works the contract to build the F-117 stealth fighter on November 1, 1978. During

4551-966: The V bomber force was phased out; the last of which left service in 1983. The French Mirage IV bomber version was retired in 1996, although the Mirage 2000N and the Rafale have taken on this role. The only other nation that fields strategic bombing forces is China , which has a number of Xian H-6s . Currently, only the United States Air Force , the Russian Aerospace Forces ' Long-Range Aviation command, and China's People's Liberation Army Air Force operate strategic heavy bombers. Other air forces have transitioned away from dedicated bombers in favor of multirole combat aircraft . At present, these air forces are each developing stealth replacements for their legacy bomber fleets,

4674-568: The V bombers , or V-class, with the aircraft given names that started with the letter "V". Vickers' submission had initially been rejected as not being as advanced as the Victor and the Vulcan, but Vickers' chief designer George Edwards lobbied the Air Ministry on the basis that it would be available much sooner than the competition, going so far as to promise that a prototype would be flown by

4797-486: The pressurization , ice protection , and air conditioning systems. The aircraft's DC electrical generators were also driven by the engines. Napier Spraymat electric heaters were installed in the engine inlets to prevent ice formation and subsequent shedding possibly causing engine damage. The shape of the engine inlets were long rectangular slots in the first prototype, whereas production Valiants had oval or "spectacle" shaped inlets designed to pass greater airflow for

4920-448: The 1950s-designed B-52s are projected to remain in use until the 2040s. Similarly, the Soviet Union used the intermediate-range Tu-22M 'Backfire' in the 1970s, but their Mach 3 bomber project stalled. The Mach 2 Tu-160 'Blackjack' was built only in tiny numbers, leaving the 1950s Tupolev Tu-16 and Tu-95 'Bear' heavy bombers to continue being used into the 21st century. The British strategic bombing force largely came to an end when

5043-591: The Air Force. One month after the ATSC and Lockheed meeting, the young engineer Clarence L. “Kelly” Johnson and other associate engineers hand delivered the initial XP-80 proposal to the ATSC. Two days later the go-ahead was given to Lockheed to start development and the Skunk Works was born, with Kelly Johnson at the helm. The formal contract for the XP-80 did not arrive at Lockheed until October 16, 1943; some four months after work had already begun. This would prove to be

Vickers Valiant - Misplaced Pages Continue

5166-538: The Air Staff issued a specification with the designation B.9/48 written around the Type 660 Vickers design; and an 'Instruction to Proceed' was received by Vickers on 16 April 1948. In February 1949, two prototypes of the Vickers 660 series were ordered. The first was to be fitted with four Rolls-Royce RA.3 Avon turbojet engines, while the second was to be fitted with four Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire engines and

5289-629: The Allied Armies." When the war started, bombing was very crude (hand-held bombs were thrown over the side) yet by the end of the war long-range bombers equipped with complex mechanical bombing computers were being built, designed to carry large loads to destroy enemy industrial targets. The most important bombers used in World War I were the French Breguet 14 , British de Havilland DH-4 , German Albatros C.III and Russian Sikorsky Ilya Muromets . The Russian Sikorsky Ilya Muromets ,

5412-527: The Army Air Force met with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation to express its need for a jet fighter. A rapidly growing German jet threat gave Lockheed an opportunity to develop an airframe around the most powerful jet engine that the allied forces had access to, the British Goblin . Lockheed was chosen to develop the jet because of its past interest in jet development and its previous contracts with

5535-561: The Avon engine became available. Also, there was an increased risk of accidents if one booster rocket failed on takeoff, resulting in asymmetric thrust. Some Valiant engines had water injection , which increased takeoff thrust by about 1,000 pounds-force (4.4 kN) per engine. The crew were in a pressurized compartment in the forward fuselage and consisted of a pilot, co-pilot, two navigators, and air signaller (later called an air electronics officer (AEO)). Manufacture of this pressurized section

5658-484: The British Air Ministry issued Specification B.35/46 for an advanced jet bomber intended to carry nuclear weapons and to fly near the speed of sound at altitudes of 50,000 ft (15,000 m). Three firms: A.V. Roe , Handley-Page and Vickers-Armstrongs submitted advanced designs intended to meet the stringent requirements. While Short Brothers submitted a design, by Geoffrey T. R. Hill , that

5781-461: The Canberra, with second pilots needing 700 hours in command and the remaining three crewmembers had to be recommended for posting to the Valiant by their commanding officers. Valiants were originally assigned to the strategic nuclear bombing role, as were the Vulcan and Victor B.1s when they became operational. At its peak, the Valiant equipped ten RAF squadrons. According to Gunston and Gilchrist,

5904-540: The Egyptians did not oppose the attacks and there were no Valiant combat losses, the results of the raids were reported as disappointing. Although the Valiants dropped a total of 842 long tons (856 t) of bombs, only three of the seven airfields attacked were seriously damaged. The Egyptian Air Force had been effectively destroyed in a wider series of multinational attacks of which the Valiant bombing missions had been

6027-604: The German Army lost 26 of its 50 ships. The Caproni Ca 30 was built by Gianni Caproni in Italy . It was a twin-boom biplane with three 67 kW (80 hp) Gnome rotary engines and first flew in October 1914 . Test flights revealed power to be insufficient and the engine layout unworkable, and Caproni soon adopted a more conventional approach installing three 81 kW (110 hp) Fiat A.10s . The improved design

6150-653: The Italian naval arsenal) was carried out by Italian Second Lieutenant Giulio Gavotti on 1 November 1911 during the Italo-Turkish war in Libya – although his plane was not designed for the task of bombing, and his improvised attacks on Ottoman positions had little impact. These picric acid -filled steel spheres were nicknamed "ballerinas" from the fluttering fabric ribbons attached. On 16 October 1912, Bulgarian observer Prodan Tarakchiev dropped two of those bombs on

6273-552: The P-38 team to engineer a drop tank system to extend range for the fighter, and they completed the initial research and development without a contract. When the Army Air Forces officially asked for a range extension solution it was ready. The range modifications were performed in Lockheed's Building 304, starting with 100 P-38F models on April 15, 1942. Some of the group of independent-minded engineers were later involved with

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6396-570: The RAF. The Valiant was based on contemporary aeronautical knowledge with no advanced untried aerodynamics that required proving with scaled-down research aircraft or lengthy research and development. As a result George Edwards described the Valiant appropriately and simply but using his own, mostly original, idiom as an "unfunny" aircraft. The Valiant had a shoulder-mounted wing and four Rolls-Royce Avon RA.3 turbojet engines, each providing up to 6,500 pounds-force (29 kN) of thrust, installed in pairs in fireproof bays in each wing root. The design of

6519-502: The Skunk Works variety were demonstrated earlier when Lockheed was asked by Lieutenant Benjamin S. Kelsey (later air force brigadier general) to build for the United States Army Air Corps a high speed, high altitude fighter to compete with German aircraft. In July 1938, while the rest of Lockheed was busy tooling up to build Hudson reconnaissance bombers to fill a British contract, a small group of engineers

6642-579: The Skunk Works was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum . Next generation optionally-manned U-2 aircraft. During September 2015 the proposed aircraft was deemed to have developed into more of a tactical reconnaissance aircraft, instead of strategic reconnaissance . The term "Skunk Works" came from Al Capp 's satirical , hillbilly comic strip Li’l Abner , which

6765-565: The U-2 would have a limited operational life over the Soviet Union. The CIA agreed. In late 1959, Skunk Works received a contract to build five A-12 aircraft at a cost of $ 96 million. Building a Mach 3.0+ aircraft out of titanium posed enormous difficulties, and the first flight did not occur until 1962. (Titanium supply was largely dominated by the Soviet Union, so the CIA used several shell corporations to acquire source material.) Several years later,

6888-828: The USAF with the Northrop Grumman B-21 , the Russian Aerospace Forces with the PAK DA , and the PLAAF with the Xian H-20 . As of 2021 , the B-21 is expected to enter service by 2026–2027. The B-21 would be capable of loitering near target areas for extended periods of time. Occasionally, military aircraft have been used to bomb ice jams with limited success as part of an effort to clear them. In 2018,

7011-429: The Valiant gave an overall impression of a clean aircraft with swept-wing aerodynamics. The root chord thickness ratio of 12% allowed the Avon engines to be within the wing rather than on pods as in the contemporary Boeing B-47 . This "buried engine" installation contributed to the aircraft's aerodynamic cleanness, and was British practice at the time. It made engine access for maintenance and repair difficult and increased

7134-506: The Valiant had a main backbone beam to support the weight of the two widely-set wing spars and five fuel cells in the upper fuselage. The bomb bay was also in the lower half of the centre fuselage. The aft fuselage used a semi-monocoque structure, being lighter than the centre fuselage; the Boulton-Paul -produced electro-hydraulic power units for the ailerons, elevators , and rudder were contained within this space. The tail, which

7257-408: The Valiant had performed "extremely well" during the annual bombing competition hosted by American Strategic Air Command (SAC). American interest in the Valiant resulted in a visit to Vickers by USAF generals Vandenberg , Johnson and LeMay . Vickers test-pilot Brian Trubshaw believed that George Edwards was put under some pressure to build the Boeing B-47 under license. The only result from the visit

7380-477: The Valiant into service, for a total of three types of nuclear-armed strategic bombers in RAF service. In September 1957, the final Valiant was delivered. All production aircraft had been delivered on time and below budget. A total of 108 Valiants were manufactured, including the sole B.2 prototype. In addition to its principal role as part of Britain's nuclear deterrent , the Valiant bomber also dropped high explosive bombs. The bombers were followed into service by

7503-472: The Victor and Vulcan height and speed requirements or to change equipment from that originally specified as these distractions would jeopardize his promised delivery dates. Although developing three different aircraft types in response to a single Operational Requirement (OR) was costly, events such as the Berlin Blockade had led to a sense of urgency in providing a deterrent to the Soviet Union from possible acts of aggression in Western Europe. In April 1948,

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7626-405: The War as the German air arm was forced to concentrate its resources on a defensive strategy. Notably, bombing campaigns formed a part of the British offensive at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in 1915, with Royal Flying Corps squadrons attacking German railway stations in an attempt to hinder the logistical supply of the German army . The early, improvised attempts at bombing that characterized

7749-471: The Warsaw Pact powers. Other squadrons undertook aerial refuelling , aerial reconnaissance and Electronic Warfare. In 1962, in response to advances in Soviet Union surface-to-air missile (SAM) technology, the V-force fleet including the Valiant changed from high-level flying to flying at low-level to avoid high altitude SAM attacks. In 1964 it was found that Valiants showed fatigue and crystalline corrosion in wing rear spar attachment forgings. In late 1964

7872-400: The XP-80 project, the prototype of the P-80 Shooting Star . Mary G. Ross , the first Native American female engineer, began working at Lockheed in 1942 on the mathematics of compressibility in high-speed flight —a problem first seriously encountered in the P-38. In 1952, she was invited to join the Skunk Works team. In 1955, the Skunk Works received a contract from the CIA to build

7995-400: The aerodynamic control surfaces meant that in-service speeds were limited to Mach 0.84 and a typical cruise of Mach 0.75 at heights up to 55,000 feet (17,000 m) when lightly loaded. A drogue parachute was not necessary even operating from runways as short as 6,000 feet (1,800 m). The wing was mounted high on the fuselage and the location of the engines and main landing gear within

8118-411: The aircraft being cleared for 580 mph (930 km/h) at low level (with speeds of up to 640 mph (1,030 km/h) being reached in testing). This was compared to the B.1 sea-level limit of 414 mph (665 km/h). The Air Ministry ordered 17 production B.2 aircraft, which were to be powered by Rolls-Royce Conway turbofans . Although the Valiant B.2 low-level capabilities were significant,

8241-515: The aircraft could be reverted to the bomber role if required. Bomber There are two major classifications of bomber: strategic and tactical. Strategic bombing is done by heavy bombers primarily designed for long-range bombing missions against strategic targets to diminish the enemy's ability to wage war by limiting access to resources through crippling infrastructure, reducing industrial output, or inflicting massive civilian casualties to an extent deemed to force surrender. Tactical bombing

8364-550: The aircraft nose contained the scanner for the H2S radar in a glass fiber radome ; in addition, a visual bomb sight was located beneath the lower floor of the pressurised cockpit. The avionics bay was not accessible from the cockpit but could be accessed using an entrance at the base of the rear fuselage leading to an internal catwalk above the aft part of the bomb bay . The electrical systems used 112 volt direct current generators, one on each engine, for functions requiring large amounts of electrical power. A 28 V DC system

8487-511: The basis for night fighters . A number of fighters, such as the Hawker Hurricane were used as ground attack aircraft, replacing earlier conventional light bombers that proved unable to defend themselves while carrying a useful bomb load. At the start of the Cold War, bombers were the only means of carrying nuclear weapons to enemy targets, and had the role of deterrence . With the advent of guided air-to-air missiles, bombers needed to avoid interception. High-speed and high-altitude flying became

8610-436: The blast. Nuclear strike aircraft were generally finished in bare metal or anti-flash white to minimize absorption of thermal radiation from the flash of a nuclear explosion . The need to drop conventional bombs remained in conflicts with non-nuclear powers, such as the Vietnam War or Malayan Emergency . The development of large strategic bombers stagnated in the later part of the Cold War because of spiraling costs and

8733-409: The bomb-bay doors had to be opened so that the refuelling hose could be streamed (unlike later tankers where the HDU was flush with the under fuselage rather than inside a bomb bay). Several Valiants were also used for testing and development purposes, such as its use as a flying testbed during trials of the Blue Steel nuclear-armed standoff missile , which was later added to the arsenal of munitions

8856-643: The bombing role was to have been carried out at high altitude, but following the shooting down in 1960 of the Lockheed U-2 flown by Gary Powers by an early Soviet SA-2 Guideline missile, the SAM threat caused bomber squadrons to train for low-level attack as a means of avoiding radar detection when flying within hostile airspace. They were repainted in grey/green camouflage with normal markings, replacing their anti-flash white scheme. By 1963, four Valiant squadrons (49, 148, 207 and 214) had been assigned to SACEUR in

8979-568: The crew during flight or to a headquarters for analysis. Use of the Valiant's Navigational and Bombing System (NBS) and the high quality of assigned crews, who were typically veterans and often had been previously decorated for wartime service, meant a high level of bombing accuracy could be achieved, greater than that of aircraft during the Second World War. According to Gunston and Gilchrist, Valiant crews were able to place practice bombs from an altitude of 45,000 feet (14,000 m) within

9102-588: The development of the Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) – which was felt to have similar deterrent value while being impossible to intercept. Because of this, the United States Air Force XB-70 Valkyrie program was cancelled in the early 1960s; the later B-1B Lancer and B-2 Spirit aircraft entered service only after protracted political and development problems. Their high cost meant that few were built and

9225-474: The early part of the war slowly gave way to a more organized and systematic approach to strategic and tactical bombing, pioneered by various air power strategists of the Entente , especially Major Hugh Trenchard ; he was the first to advocate that there should be "... sustained [strategic bombing] attacks with a view to interrupting the enemy's railway communications ... in conjunction with the main operations of

9348-525: The end of 1951, that subsequent production aircraft would be flown prior to the end of 1953, and that serial deliveries would commence during early 1955. Gaining the bomber contract was considered of crucial importance to the future of aircraft manufacturing at Vickers. "Edwards was supremely confident that Weybridge could deliver the aircraft as specified .. " and "..committed to the brochure performance figures and dates because he thought they knew how to do it". He resisted being pushed to try to more closely match

9471-564: The entirety of the Cold War , the Skunk Works was located in Burbank, California, on the eastern side of Burbank-Glendale-Pasadena Airport ( 34°12′03″N 118°21′07″W  /  34.200768°N 118.351826°W  / 34.200768; -118.351826 ). After 1989, Lockheed reorganized its operations and relocated the Skunk Works to Site 10 at U.S. Air Force Plant 42 in Palmdale, California , where it remains in operation today. Most of

9594-552: The first British hydrogen bomb, the Short Granite, over the Pacific as part of Operation Grapple . No 49 Squadron was selected to perform the live weapon drop, and were equipped with specially-modified Valiants to conform with the scientific requirements of the tests and other precautionary measures to protect against heat and radiation. However, the measured yield was less than a third of the maximum expected although achieving

9717-408: The forward area of the bomb bay; the external wing tanks were fitted as standard on Valiants that were operated as aerial refuelling tankers. For receiving fuel, a fixed refuelling probe was fitted onto the aircraft's nose, this was connected to the fuel tanks via a pipe running along the outside of the canopy to avoid penetrating the pressure cabin. The first squadron to be equipped with the Valiant

9840-402: The fuel system. It was fitted with more powerful RA.7 Avon engines with 7,500 pounds-force (33 kN) thrust each, rather than the originally planned Sapphires. It also featured more rounded air inlets , replacing the narrow slot-type intakes of the first prototype, to feed sufficient air to the more powerful engines. The short delay until the second prototype became available meant that loss of

9963-617: The future potential of "weapons of war" and the accompanying Tizard Report published on 3 July 1945 made specific policy directions for the Royal Air Force (RAF) Bomber Command . After the Second World War , the policy of using heavy four-engined bombers for massed raids continued into the immediate postwar period; the Avro Lincoln , an updated version of the Avro Lancaster , became the RAF's standard bomber. In 1946,

10086-402: The large bomb bay. In the aerial reconnaissance role, a camera crate would be installed in the bomb bay, along with a pair of cameras set into the fuselage and larger rear fuel tanks to extend the aircraft's endurance. Large external fuel tanks under each wing with a capacity of 1,650 imperial gallons (7,500 L), could be used to extend range; an auxiliary fuel tank could also be installed in

10209-406: The low-level tactical bombing role. By this point, there had been a noticeable decline in flying rates for the type. Peacetime practice involved the dropping of small practice bombs on instrumented bombing ranges, and a system of predicted bombing using radio tones to mark the position of the bomb drop over non-range targets, the bomb error being calculated by a ground radar unit and passed either to

10332-410: The main wheels retracted, allowing the wing torsion box structure to be uninterrupted and giving more room for internal fuel storage. Instead, the main landing gear, which had four wheels instead of the two wheels of the B.1, retracted backwards into large fairings set into the rear of the wings. The B.2 had a lengthened fuselage with a total length of 112 ft 9 in (34.37 m), in contrast to

10455-404: The more powerful engines that were installed. The jet exhausts emerged from fairings above the trailing edge of the wings. For required takeoff performance from short tropical dispersal bases, a jettisonable rocket booster engines pack was developed for the Valiant. Trials were performed with two underwing de Havilland Sprite boosters; they were no longer needed when more powerful variants of

10578-406: The name leaked out, Lockheed ordered it changed to "Skunk Works" to avoid potential legal trouble over use of a copyrighted term. The term rapidly circulated throughout the aerospace community, and became a common nickname for research and development offices. The once informal nickname is now a registered trademark of Lockheed Martin. In November 1941, Kelsey gave the unofficial nod to Johnson and

10701-493: The old Skunk Works buildings in Burbank were demolished in the late 1990s to make room for parking lots. One main building still remains at 2777 Ontario Street in Burbank (near San Fernando Road), now used as an office building for digital film post-production and sound mixing. During the late 1990s when designing Pixar's building, Edwin Catmull and Steve Jobs visited a Skunkworks Building which influenced Jobs' design. In 2009,

10824-654: The original test pilot on the Supermarine Spitfire , and wanted to add another "first" to his record before he retired. His co-pilot on the first flight was Gabe "Jock" Bryce, who succeeded Summers as Vickers' chief test pilot upon his retirement shortly after. The next month, the Vickers Type 660 was given the official name of "Valiant", reusing the name given to the Vickers Type 131 general-purpose biplane of 1931. The name Valiant had been selected by

10947-457: The other V-bombers were equipped with. Unlike the Vulcan and Victor, the Valiant did not see the production of a more capable mark 2 model. In 1962 the Valiant bomber squadrons were switched to a low-level flight profile in order to avoid enemy Surface-to-Air (SAM) defence systems. In 1964 fatigue was discovered due to the increased air turbulence in low level flying and led to the type's premature retirement. Vic Flintham observed that: "There

11070-421: The outbreak of war. Under the command of Charles Rumney Samson , a bombing attack on German gun batteries at Middelkerke , Belgium was executed on 25 November 1914. The dirigible, or airship, was developed in the early 20th century. Early airships were prone to disaster, but slowly the airship became more dependable, with a more rigid structure and stronger skin. Prior to the outbreak of war, Zeppelins ,

11193-419: The phone in his trademark fashion of the time, by picking up the phone and stating "Skonk Works, inside man Culver". "What?" replied the voice at the other end. "Skonk Works", Culver repeated. The name stuck. Culver later said at an interview conducted in 1993 that "when Kelly Johnson heard about the incident, he promptly fired me. It didn’t really matter, since he was firing me about twice a day anyways." At

11316-575: The pressure for which was provided from a ram-air inlet . A Smith Aerospace autopilot and instrument landing system (ILS) was installed along with various navigational aids , such as the Marconi Company -built Green Satin doppler radar , Gee radio navigation , Automatic Direction Finder (ADF), VOR / Distance Measuring Equipment (DME), and radar altimeters . Provisions for additional equipment and sensors, such as side looking airborne radar , were also made. The centre fuselage of

11439-404: The principal target; other targets included communications such as radio stations and transport hubs. On the first night of the operation, six Valiants were dispatched to bomb Cairo West Air Base (which was aborted in flight due to potential risk to US personnel in the vicinity) while six more attacked Almaza Air Base and a further five bombed Kibrit Air Base and Huckstep Barracks. Although

11562-547: The production jigs for the Valiant were made from concrete . The first five Valiants produced were completed to a pre-production standard, the first being WP199. On 21 December 1953, the production aircraft conducted its first flight; this had again occurred within the schedule that Edwards had promised. On 8 February 1955, this first production Valiant was delivered to the RAF. Britain's "V-bomber" force, as it had been nicknamed in October 1952, formally entered operational service on that day. The Victor and Vulcan would soon follow

11685-399: The programme was terminated because the World War 2 "Pathfinder concept" was considered obsolete in the nuclear era. The B.2 prototype was used for tests for a few years, including the clearance of rocket-assisted take-offs, for the Valiant B.1 at hot or high airfields, using two Super-Sprite rocket motors. It also did extensive taxiing tests to investigate the cause of brake judder which caused

11808-426: The prototype did not compromise the development schedule. One of the three prototypes was the B.2 version. The B.2 was intended to serve as a Pathfinder aircraft, flying at low level to mark targets for the main bomber force. To cope with increased air turbulence at low level, the B.2 had a strengthened airframe. In particular, the wing was strengthened with the removal of the cut-outs in the wing structure into which

11931-452: The rear crew had to bail out of the oval main entrance door on the port side of the fuselage. Safe escape using this exit was not considered likely. The fuselage area behind the pressurised crew section and forward of the wing was used to house much of the avionics , and air conditioning equipment, and was sometimes called the "organ loft". The Valiant had twin-wheel nosegear and tandem -wheel main gear that retracted outwards into recesses in

12054-606: The request of the comic strip copyright holders, Lockheed changed the name of the advanced development company to "Skunk Works" in the 1960s. The name "Skunk Works" and the skunk design are now registered trademarks of the Lockheed Martin Corporation. The company also holds several registrations of it with the United States Patent and Trademark Office . They have filed several challenges against registrants of domain names containing variations on

12177-402: The risk that an uncontained failure of one engine would cause damage to the adjacent engine; it also increased the complexity of the design of the main spar which had to be routed around the engines. The wing of the Valiant used a "compound sweep" configuration, devised by Vickers aerodynamicist Elfyn Richards. Richards found that it was necessary to increase the sweep on the inboard section of

12300-494: The strategic nuclear-armed bombers: B-2 Spirit , B-52 Stratofortress , Tupolev Tu-95 'Bear' , Tupolev Tu-22M 'Backfire' and Tupolev Tu-160 "Blackjack" ; historically notable examples are the: Gotha G.IV , Avro Lancaster , Heinkel He 111 , Junkers Ju 88 , Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress , Consolidated B-24 Liberator , Boeing B-29 Superfortress , and Tupolev Tu-16 'Badger'. Tactical bombing , aimed at countering enemy military activity and in supporting offensive operations,

12423-458: The tanker role were fitted with a Hose Drum Unit (HDU or "HooDoo") in the bomb bay. The HDU was mounted on bomb-mounting points and could be removed if necessary; this arrangement meant that the bomb bay doors had to be opened in order to transfer fuel to a receiver aircraft. A control panel at the radar navigator station in the cockpit was used to operate the HDU. The HDU equipment was removable so that

12546-568: The term under anti- cybersquatting policies, and have lost a case under the .uk domain name dispute resolution service against a company selling cannabis seeds and paraphernalia, which used the word "skunkworks" in its domain name (referring to " Skunk ", the pungent smell of the cannabis flower). Lockheed Martin claimed the company registered the domain in order to disrupt its business and that consumer confusion might result. The respondent company argued that Lockheed "used its size, resources and financial position to employ 'bullyboy' tactics against...

12669-405: The underside of the wing. Each of the main gears were equipped with multipad anti-skid disc brakes , and were telescopically linked so that a single drive motor could pull them up into the wing recesses. Most of the aircraft systems were electric, including the flaps and undercarriage. The brakes and steering gear were electrically powered, driving hydraulic pumps for actuation. The lower half of

12792-574: The wing limited the volume available for fuel. The trailing edge of the wing had two-section ailerons with trim tabs , and inboard of the ailerons were double-slotted flaps . Direct electrical drives were used to move the flaps and landing gear. The only hydraulically-operated equipment, the steering and brakes, was also powered by electric motors but driving hydraulic pumps instead of mechanical gearing. Production aircraft were powered by four Avon 201 turbojet engines, with 9,500 pounds-force (42 kN) thrust. The engines also provided bleed air for

12915-508: The wing, a discovery which he later patented as "Improvements in Aeroplane Wing Formation" with an explanation that "the formation of the shockwaves be delayed to the same extent over the whole span of the wing"; the Valiant wing had 37° sweepback for the inner third of the wing, and 21° for the remainder. This was because the thickness/chord ratio could be reduced closer to the tips. The choice to have mild sweepback around

13038-422: Was 138 Squadron , which formed at RAF Gaydon on 1 January 1955, with 232 Operational Conversion Unit forming at Gaydon on 21 February 1955 to convert crews to the new bomber. Since the Valiant was part of an entirely new class of bombers for the RAF, the crews for the new type were selected from experienced aircrew, with first pilots requiring 1,750 flying hours as an aircraft captain, with at least one tour flying

13161-458: Was joggled , fitted and flush-riveted, a design innovation not called for in the army's specification but one that would yield less aerodynamic drag and give greater strength with lower mass. As a result, the XP-38 was the first 400-mph fighter in the world. The Lightning team was temporarily moved to the 3G Distillery, a smelly former bourbon works where the first YP-38 (constructor's number 2202)

13284-592: Was Le May's insistence that the Valiant pilot side-by-side seating be incorporated in the B-52 instead of the tandem arrangement in the B-47 and prototype B-52. On 11 October 1956, a Valiant B.1 (WZ366) of No. 49 Squadron piloted by Edwin Flavell was the first British aircraft to drop an atomic bomb when it performed a test drop of a down-rated Blue Danube weapon on Maralinga , South Australia . This occurred as part of

13407-409: Was assigned to fabricate the first prototype of what would become the P-38 Lightning . Kelly Johnson set them apart from the rest of the factory in a walled-off section of one building, off limits to all but those involved directly. Secretly, a number of advanced features were being incorporated into the new fighter including a significant structural revolution in which the aluminum skin of the aircraft

13530-489: Was attached to the rear fuselage was tapered rather than swept back, the horizontal tailplane was mounted well up the vertical fin to keep it clear of the engines' exhaust. The tailcone contained an ARI 5800 Orange Putter tail warning radar . The main structural components, spars and beams of the Valiant had been constructed from a zinc/magnesium/copper aluminium alloy called DTD683 in the UK. The Valiant had been designed with

13653-531: Was bought by the Italian Army and it was delivered in quantity from August 1915 . While mainly used as a trainer , Avro 504s were also briefly used as bombers at the start of the First World War by the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) when they were used for raids on the German airship sheds. Bombing raids and interdiction operations were mainly carried out by French and British forces during

13776-434: Was built there before the team moved back to Lockheed's main factory a year later. In 1964, Johnson told Look magazine that the bourbon distillery was the first of five Lockheed skunk works locations. During the development of the P-80 Shooting Star , Johnson's engineering team was located adjacent to a malodorous plastics factory. According to Ben Rich’s memoir, an engineer jokingly showed up to work one day wearing

13899-463: Was built. Moving from the distillery to a larger building, the stench from a nearby plastic factory was so vile that Irv Culver , one of the engineers, began answering the intra-Lockheed "house" phone "Skonk Works, inside man Culver speaking!" In Al Capp's comic strip Li'l Abner , Big Barnsmell's Skonk Works — spelled with an "o" — was where Kickapoo Joy Juice was brewed from skunks, old shoes, kerosene, anvils, and other strange ingredients. When

14022-484: Was designated the Type 667. On 18 May 1951, the first prototype, serial number WB210 took to the air for its maiden flight, within the deadline that George Edwards had promised, only 27 months since the contract had been issued. This was several months before the competing Short Sperrin; the Sperrin had straight (not swept) wings and was not ordered. The Valiant pilot was Captain Joseph "Mutt" Summers , who had also been

14145-555: Was followed by the Handley Page Victor and the Avro Vulcan . The Valiant is the only V bomber to have dropped live nuclear weapons (for test purposes). In 1956, Valiants operating from Malta flew conventional bombing missions over Egypt for Operation Musketeer during the Suez Crisis . From 1956 until early 1966 the main Valiant force was used in the nuclear deterrence role in the confrontation between NATO and

14268-517: Was immensely popular from 1935 through the 1950s. In the comic, the “Skonk Works" was a dilapidated factory located on the remote outskirts of Dogpatch , in the backwoods of Kentucky . According to the strip, scores of locals were done in yearly by the toxic fumes of the concentrated "skonk oil", which was brewed and barreled daily by "Big Barnsmell" (known as the lonely "inside man" at the Skonk Works), by grinding dead skunks and worn shoes into

14391-421: Was judged too ambitious, the Air Staff accepted another submission from the company for a separate requirement, B.14/46, as "insurance" in case the advanced B.35/46 effort ran into trouble. Aviation authors Bill Gunston and Peter Gilchrist described Specification B.14/46 as "calling for little more than a traditional aircraft fitted with jet engines" Short submitted a conservative design to meet B.14/46, which became

14514-546: Was lighter than the hydraulic equivalent consisting of pumps, tubing, actuators, fluid and storage tanks. The flight controls of the Valiant (ailerons, elevator and rudder) consisted of two channels of power control with full manual backup; flying in manual was practised during training as it would be required if a complete electrical failure occurred during a flight. In "manual" the flight controls required considerable physical effort to operate. The pilot's controls for elevators, ailerons and rudder had an artificial feel system,

14637-525: Was relatively straightforward, being less aerodynamically advanced in comparison to competing bids made by rival firms. Both Handley-Page and Avro had produced advanced designs for the bomber competition. These were produced as the Victor and the Vulcan respectively. The Air Staff decided to award contracts to each company as a form of insurance in case one of the designs failed. The submissions became known as

14760-547: Was subcontracted to Saunders-Roe . The pilot and co-pilot were located side by side on an upper level, the remaining three crew members sat at stations lower in the cockpit, and faced to the rear. The crew was reduced to five with the deleted requirement for defensive gun turrets and air gunners , an operational philosophy proved by the De Havilland Mosquito bomber of World War II. The pilot and copilot were provided with Martin-Baker Mk.3 ejector seats , while

14883-525: Was the first four-engine bomber to equip a dedicated strategic bombing unit during World War I . This heavy bomber was unrivaled in the early stages of the war, as the Central Powers had no comparable aircraft until much later. Long range bombing raids were carried out at night by multi-engine biplanes such as the Gotha G.IV (whose name was synonymous with all multi-engine German bombers) and later

15006-405: Was this secretive division where the early development of the Valiant took place, including the later assembly of the initial two prototypes. Vickers initially produced a six-engine jet bomber design proposal to meet Specification B.35/46. As progress in the development of more powerful jet engines was made, this was re-worked to a four-engine proposal in 1948. The proposed design submitted by Vickers

15129-529: Was used for other uses including actuators that controlled the higher-voltage system functions. Backup power came from 24 V and 96 V batteries. 115 V alternating current was provided for the radar and the actuators for the flight surfaces, flaps, air brakes and undercarriage. It was decided during the design phase that as much of the aircraft would be electrically driven as was possible; the complete electrical system including high voltage generators and cabling, together with electric motors with mechanical drives,

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