The way
85-836: The "goal" Background Chinese texts Classical Post-classical Contemporary Zen in Japan Seon in Korea Thiền in Vietnam Western Zen Thiền Buddhism ( Vietnamese : Thiền tông , 禪宗 , IPA: [tʰîən təwŋm] ) is the name for the Vietnamese school of Zen Buddhism . Thiền is the Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation of the Middle Chinese word 禪 ( chán ), an abbreviation of 禪那 ( chánnà ; thiền na), which
170-535: A Commentary on The Diamond Sutra, as well as poetry. The first truly Vietnamese Thiền school was founded by the religious emperor Trần Nhân Tông (1258–1308), who became a monk. This was the Trúc Lâm or "Bamboo Grove" school, which evinced a deep influence from Confucian and Taoist philosophy. It seems to have been an elite religion for aristocrats and was also promoted by Chinese monks who traveled to Vietnam to teach. Nevertheless, Trúc Lâm's prestige waned over
255-437: A logographic script using Chinese characters ( chữ Hán ) to represent Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary and some native Vietnamese words, together with many locally invented characters representing other words. Early linguistic work in the late 19th and early 20th centuries ( Logan 1852, Forbes 1881, Müller 1888, Kuhn 1889, Schmidt 1905, Przyluski 1924, and Benedict 1942) classified Vietnamese as belonging to
340-636: A minor syllable occurred). These fricatives were not present in Proto-Viet–Muong, as indicated by their absence in Mường , but were evidently present in the later Proto-Vietnamese stage. Subsequent loss of the minor-syllable prefixes phonemicized the fricatives. Ferlus 1992 proposes that originally there were both voiced and voiceless fricatives, corresponding to original voiced or voiceless stops, but Ferlus 2009 appears to have abandoned that hypothesis, suggesting that stops were softened and voiced at approximately
425-597: A hostile government, Vietnamese Mahayana and Theravada Buddhists formed the Unified Buddhist Sangha . Thích Trí Quang led South Vietnamese Buddhists in acts of civil resistance in protest of the South Vietnamese government's repression of Buddhists during the " Buddhist crisis " of '63. Thiền master Thích Thanh Từ (1924–2022) is credited for renovating Trúc Lâm in Vietnam . He was one of
510-447: A main vowel component followed by a shorter semivowel offglide /j/ or /w/ . There are restrictions on the high offglides: /j/ cannot occur after a front vowel (i, ê, e) nucleus and /w/ cannot occur after a back vowel (u, ô, o) nucleus. The correspondence between the orthography and pronunciation is complicated. For example, the offglide /j/ is usually written as i ; however, it may also be represented with y . In addition, in
595-448: A paper published in 1856. Later, in 1920, French-Polish linguist Jean Przyluski found that Mường is more closely related to Vietnamese than other Mon–Khmer languages, and a Viet–Muong subgrouping was established, also including Thavung , Chut , Cuoi , etc. The term "Vietic" was proposed by Hayes (1992), who proposed to redefine Viet–Muong as referring to a subbranch of Vietic containing only Vietnamese and Mường . The term " Vietic "
680-546: A process of tonogenesis , in which distinctions formerly expressed by final consonants became phonemic tonal distinctions when those consonants disappeared. These characteristics have become part of many of the genetically unrelated languages of Southeast Asia; for example, Tsat (a member of the Malayo-Polynesian group within Austronesian ), and Vietnamese each developed tones as a phonemic feature. After
765-642: A representative on the Government Council for Nationalities, an advisory body of the Czech Government for matters of policy towards national minorities and their members. It also grants the community the right to use Vietnamese with public authorities and in courts anywhere in the country. Vietnamese is taught in schools and institutions outside of Vietnam, a large part contributed by its diaspora . In countries with Vietnamese-speaking communities Vietnamese language education largely serves as
850-540: A role to link descendants of Vietnamese immigrants to their ancestral culture. In neighboring countries and vicinities near Vietnam such as Southern China, Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand, Vietnamese as a foreign language is largely due to trade, as well as recovery and growth of the Vietnamese economy. Since the 1980s, Vietnamese language schools ( trường Việt ngữ/ trường ngôn ngữ Tiếng Việt ) have been established for youth in many Vietnamese-speaking communities around
935-519: A stage commonly termed Middle Vietnamese ( tiếng Việt trung đại ). The pronunciation of the "rime" of the syllable, i.e. all parts other than the initial consonant (optional /w/ glide, vowel nucleus, tone and final consonant), appears nearly identical between Middle Vietnamese and modern Hanoi pronunciation. On the other hand, the Middle Vietnamese pronunciation of the initial consonant differs greatly from all modern dialects, and in fact
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#17327654558711020-522: A substantial amount of disciples. He was thought to have founded Trúc Lâm , the only indigenous Zen Buddhist sect in Vietnam . In addition, he travelled across the nation to teach Zen practices to monks and encourage his subjects to follow the Ten Good Acts theory ( Daśakuśalakarmāṇi ). In 1301, he visited Champa , and lived for nine months at Jaya Sinhavarman III 's court. In 1306, he gave his daughter, Princess Huyen Tran , in marriage to
1105-552: A third of the Vietnamese lexicon in all realms, and may account for as much as 60% of the vocabulary used in formal texts. Vietic languages were confined to the northern third of modern Vietnam until the "southward advance" ( Nam tiến ) from the late 15th century. The conquest of the ancient nation of Champa and the conquest of the Mekong Delta led to an expansion of the Vietnamese people and language, with distinctive local variations emerging. After France invaded Vietnam in
1190-625: A version of Vietnamese Buddhist history that "was self-consciously constructed with the composition of the Thiền uyển in medieval Vietnam." Cuong Tu Nguyen notes that the kind of Buddhism which was practiced in Vietnam during the Chinese occupation period and before the writing of the Thiền uyển was "a mixture of thaumaturgy , asceticism , and ritualism" which was "very worldly engaged." Buddhist culture, literature, arts and architecture thrived during
1275-475: A view which receives endorsement from the state, motivated, as are many lay Buddhists, to attach itself to an authentic national tradition that is not sullied by the taint of superstition....Today, the Communist Party seeks to boost its legitimacy by endorsing Zen a version of Buddhism promoted by a transnational movement, as an authentic national tradition. Thiền draws its texts and practices mainly from
1360-519: Is a transliteration of the Sanskrit word dhyāna (" meditation "). Chinese Chan Buddhism was introduced during the early Chinese domination of Vietnam , 111 BCE to 939 CE, which also accommodated local animism and Cham influences. According to traditional accounts, in 580, an Indian monk named Vinītaruci ( Vietnamese : Tì-ni-đa-lưu-chi ) who is considered the founder of Thiền, traveled to Vietnam after completing his studies with Sengcan ,
1445-642: Is also a very widespread practice, as in all schools of Zen. Due to the presence of Theravada Buddhism in Vietnam , Thiên has also been influenced by Theravada practices. The intra-religious dialogue between Vietnamese Theravada and Mahayana following the formation of the Unified Buddhist Church also led to a more inclusive attitude in the Vietnamese Buddhist community. An example is the widely influential figure of Thích Nhất Hạnh , who, as John Chapman notes, though being part of
1530-527: Is also spoken by the Jing people traditionally residing on three islands (now joined to the mainland) off Dongxing in southern Guangxi Province , China . A large number of Vietnamese speakers also reside in neighboring countries of Cambodia and Laos . In the United States, Vietnamese is the sixth most spoken language , with over 1.5 million speakers, who are concentrated in a handful of states. It
1615-469: Is an Austroasiatic language spoken primarily in Vietnam where it is the official language . Vietnamese is spoken natively by around 85 million people, several times as many as the rest of the Austroasiatic family combined. It is the native language of ethnic Vietnamese (Kinh), as well as the second or first language for other ethnicities of Vietnam , and used by Vietnamese diaspora in
1700-415: Is notated i or y (with the difference between the two often indicating differences in the quality or length of the preceding vowel), and after /ð/ and /β/ , where it is notated ĕ . This ĕ , and the /j/ it notated, have disappeared from the modern language. Note that b [ɓ] and p [p] never contrast in any position, suggesting that they are allophones. The language also has three clusters at
1785-479: Is often mistaken for a tilde in modern reproductions of early Vietnamese writing. As a result of emigration , Vietnamese speakers are also found in other parts of Southeast Asia , East Asia , North America , Europe , and Australia . Vietnamese has also been officially recognized as a minority language in the Czech Republic . As the national language, Vietnamese is the lingua franca in Vietnam. It
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#17327654558711870-565: Is pronounced with one of six inherent tones , centered on the main vowel or group of vowels. Tones differ in: Tone is indicated by diacritics written above or below the vowel (most of the tone diacritics appear above the vowel; except the nặng tone dot diacritic goes below the vowel). The six tones in the northern varieties (including Hanoi), with their self-referential Vietnamese names, are: Tr%E1%BA%A7n Nh%C3%A2n T%C3%B4ng Trần Nhân Tông (7 December 1258–16 December 1308), personal name Trần Khâm , temple name Nhân Tông ,
1955-410: Is significantly closer to the modern Saigon dialect than the modern Hanoi dialect. The following diagram shows the orthography and pronunciation of Middle Vietnamese: ^1 [p] occurs only at the end of a syllable. ^2 This letter, ⟨ ꞗ ⟩ , is no longer used. ^3 [j] does not occur at the beginning of a syllable, but can occur at the end of a syllable, where it
2040-542: Is synthetic and unified rather than divided and sectarian. At present the popular method of practice is meditation during recitation and recitation during meditation - meditation and recitation being one and the same for Vietnamese Buddhists. This practice is known as the "union of Zen and Pure-Land recitation". The chanting of sutras, such as the Lotus sutra , the Vimalakirti , Surangama Samadhi and Mahaparinirvana sutra
2125-408: Is the first language of the majority of the Vietnamese population, as well as a first or second language for the country's ethnic minority groups . In the Czech Republic , Vietnamese has been recognized as one of 14 minority languages, on the basis of communities that have resided in the country either traditionally or on a long-term basis. This status grants the Vietnamese community in the country
2210-653: Is the third-most spoken language in Texas and Washington; fourth-most in Georgia, Louisiana, and Virginia; and fifth-most in Arkansas and California. Vietnamese is the third most spoken language in Australia other than English, after Mandarin and Arabic. In France, it is the most spoken Asian language and the eighth most spoken immigrant language at home. Vietnamese is the sole official and national language of Vietnam. It
2295-413: Is used, among others, by Gérard Diffloth , with a slightly different proposal on subclassification, within which the term "Viet–Muong" refers to a lower subgrouping (within an eastern Vietic branch) consisting of Vietnamese dialects, Mường dialects, and Nguồn (of Quảng Bình Province ). Austroasiatic is believed to have dispersed around 2000 BC. The arrival of the agricultural Phùng Nguyên culture in
2380-446: Is written with two Chinese characters or in a composite character made of two different characters. This conveys the transformation of the Vietnamese lexicon from sesquisyllabic to fully monosyllabic under the pressure of Chinese linguistic influence, characterized by linguistic phenomena such as the reduction of minor syllables; loss of affixal morphology drifting towards analytical grammar; simplification of major syllable segments, and
2465-988: The Mon–Khmer branch of the Austroasiatic language family (which also includes the Khmer language spoken in Cambodia , as well as various smaller and/or regional languages , such as the Munda and Khasi languages spoken in eastern India, and others in Laos , southern China and parts of Thailand). In 1850, British lawyer James Richardson Logan detected striking similarities between the Korku language in Central India and Vietnamese. He suggested that Korku , Mon , and Vietnamese were part of what he termed "Mon–Annam languages" in
2550-542: The Red River Delta at that time may correspond to the Vietic branch. This ancestral Vietic was typologically very different from later Vietnamese. It was polysyllabic, or rather sesquisyllabic , with roots consisting of a reduced syllable followed by a full syllable, and featured many consonant clusters. Both of these features are found elsewhere in Austroasiatic and in modern conservative Vietic languages south of
2635-597: The Vietnamese orthography with the phonetic pronunciation to the right. Some consonant sounds are written with only one letter (like "p"), other consonant sounds are written with a digraph (like "ph"), and others are written with more than one letter or digraph (the velar stop is written variously as "c", "k", or "q"). In some cases, they are based on their Middle Vietnamese pronunciation; since that period, ph and kh (but not th ) have evolved from aspirated stops into fricatives (like Greek phi and chi ), while d and gi have collapsed and converged together (into /z/ in
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2720-552: The era name to Thiệu Bảo ( 紹 寶 , 1278–1285), during his reign, the emperor had one more era name which was Trùng Hưng ( 重 興 , 1285–1293). Although passing the throne to his son, Thánh Tông continued to co-rule the country with Nhân Tông from 1279 to his death in 1290. In 1279, the Yuan dynasty won a decisive victory over the Song dynasty in Battle of Yamen which marked
2805-488: The 1930s, a Buddhist reform movement led by intellectual clergy of " engaged Buddhism " focused on non-violent social and political activities such as peacemaking , promotion of human rights , environmental protection , rural development , combatting ethnic violence , opposition to warfare , and support of women's rights . The modernization movement also protested against popular devotion, arguing that Buddhism should be "purified from superstition". In 1963, in response to
2890-575: The Battle of Đà Mạc while defending the two emperors. In the southern border, Quang Khải had to retreat under pressure from Sogetu's navy and the defection of the governor of Nghệ An. The critical situation began to change with the dynasty's victory in the Battle of Hàm Tử in April 1285 where troops commanded by Trần Nhật Duật , Prince Chiêu Thành, Quốc Toản and Nguyễn Khoái were finally able to defeat Sogetu's fleet. On 10 May 1285, Quang Khải fought in
2975-536: The Chinese Chan tradition as well as other schools of Chinese Buddhism . According to Thích Thiên-Ân : Most Buddhist monks and laymen in Vietnam traditionally obey the disciplines of Hinayana , recite mantra , learn mudra , practice meditation , and chant the Buddha's name (V. niệm Phật , Ch. Nien-fo , J. Nembutsu ) without any conflict between the practices. We may say, in short, that Buddhism in Vietnam
3060-565: The French colonial era. The following diagram shows the phonology of Proto–Viet–Muong (the nearest ancestor of Vietnamese and the closely related Mường language ), along with the outcomes in the modern language: ^1 According to Ferlus, * /tʃ/ and * /ʄ/ are not accepted by all researchers. Ferlus 1992 also had additional phonemes * /dʒ/ and * /ɕ/ . ^2 The fricatives indicated above in parentheses developed as allophones of stop consonants occurring between vowels (i.e. when
3145-607: The Heavenly Kim Tiên). Prince Trần Khâm was entitled as Crown Prince of the Trần dynasty in December 1274, he had a younger brother, Prince Tá Thiên (also known as Trần Đức Việp) who was born in 1265 and an elder sister, Princess Thiên Thụy, who would die on the same day as her brother Nhân Tông. Always concerned with the education of his son, in 1274, Thánh Tông appointed the prominent mandarin and general Lê Phụ Trần in
3230-849: The Lam Te school, also included Theravada as part of his studies. Thích Nhất Hạnh also wrote commentaries on the Theravada Satipatthana sutta and the Anapanasati sutta. According to Chapman , Hạnh sought to "promote the idea of a humanistic, unified Buddhism." He founded the Order of Interbeing as a new modernist and humanistic form of Vietnamese Zen. McHale also notes that Vietnamese Buddhist practice has always been inclusive and accepting of popular beliefs and practices, including folk religion , Taoism and Confucianism . Vietnamese language Vietnamese ( tiếng Việt )
3315-727: The Red River Delta and into the adjacent uplands, possibly to escape Chinese encroachment. The oldest layer of loans from Chinese into northern Vietic (which would become the Viet–Muong subbranch) date from this period. The northern Vietic varieties thus became part of the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area , in which languages from genetically unrelated families converged toward characteristics such as isolating morphology and similar syllable structure. Many languages in this area, including Viet–Muong, underwent
3400-527: The Red River area. The language was non-tonal, but featured glottal stop and voiceless fricative codas. Borrowed vocabulary indicates early contact with speakers of Tai languages in the last millennium BC, which is consistent with genetic evidence from Dong Son culture sites. Extensive contact with Chinese began from the Han dynasty (2nd century BC). At this time, Vietic groups began to expand south from
3485-406: The Trần dynasty and passed the throne to him on 3 March 1293. Nhân Tông would then spend more time in seeking spiritual awakening. In 1295, he was ordained as Buddhist monk . In 1299, he came to the mountain of Yên Tử in modern-day Quảng Ninh, where he vowed to follow the ten ascetic practices as a Buddha 's student. He also established a monastery, teaching about Buddhist principles and receiving
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3570-540: The Trần dynasty by the name "Ả Trần" ("the woman named Trần") meaning that Trần Ích Tắc would be known as a "coward as a woman". The Retired Emperor Thánh Tông died on 25 May 1290 at the age of 50. As the sole ruler of Đại Việt, Nhân Tông ordered to relax the taxing policy, relieving the poor and postponing the military campaign against Ai Lao so that the country could recover after two fierce wars, several famines and natural disasters. On 3 February 1292, Nhân Tông entitled his first son Trần Thuyên as Crown Prince of
3655-477: The Trần dynasty defected to the Yuan, this included Thánh Tông's own brother, Prince Chiêu Quốc (also known as Trần Ích Tắc ) and Trần Kiện who was son of Prince Tĩnh Quốc (also known as Trần Quốc Khang ). For the safety of Thánh Tông and Nhân Tông's retreat, Princess An Tư was offered as a gift and diversion for prince Toghan while Marquis Bảo Nghĩa (also known as Trần Bình Trọng ) was captured and later killed in
3740-631: The West was Thích Thiên-Ân , who taught philosophy at University of California, Los Angeles and founded a meditation center in L.A. In recent years, the modernization of Thiền has taken a new global dimension, as Vietnamese Zen is becoming influenced by the teachings of influential overseas Vietnamese Buddhist leaders such as Thích Nhất Hạnh who have adopted Thiền to Western needs. As a result, Vietnamese Buddhists have also now begun to practice these modernized forms of Thiền. This modernist form of Thiền has become quite popular at home and abroad, in spite of
3825-520: The Yuan's military campaign. This invasion ended after only one year due to a disastrous defeat of the Yuan navy in the Battle of Bạch Đằng on 8 March 1288. Besides Quốc Tuấn, other notable generals of the Trần dynasty during this time were Prince Nhân Huệ (also known as Trần Khánh Dư ) who destroyed the logistics convoy of the Yuan navy in the Battle of Vân Đồn . Another was general Phạm Ngũ Lão who took charge of ambushing prince Toghan's retreating troops. In rewarding generals and mandarins after
3910-475: The beginning of syllables, which have since disappeared: Most of the unusual correspondences between spelling and modern pronunciation are explained by Middle Vietnamese. Note in particular: De Rhodes's orthography also made use of an apex diacritic, as in o᷄ and u᷄ , to indicate a final labial-velar nasal /ŋ͡m/ , an allophone of /ŋ/ that is peculiar to the Hanoi dialect to the present day. This diacritic
3995-498: The change of suprasegment instruments. For example, the modern Vietnamese word "trời" (heaven) was read as *plời in Old/Ancient Vietnamese and as blời in Middle Vietnamese. The writing system used for Vietnamese is based closely on the system developed by Alexandre de Rhodes for his 1651 Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum . It reflects the pronunciation of the Vietnamese of Hanoi at that time,
4080-466: The daughter languages from distinctions in the initial and final consonants. Vietnamese tones developed as follows: Glottal-ending syllables ended with a glottal stop /ʔ/ , while fricative-ending syllables ended with /s/ or /h/ . Both types of syllables could co-occur with a resonant (e.g. /m/ or /n/ ). At some point, a tone split occurred, as in many other mainland Southeast Asian languages . Essentially, an allophonic distinction developed in
4165-492: The decisive Battle of Chương Dương where Sogetu's navy was almost destroyed and the war turned in the favour of the Trần dynasty. Ten days after Sogetu was killed, Nhân Tông and Thánh Tông returned to the capital Thăng Long on 6 June 1285. In March 1287, the Yuan dynasty launched their third invasion of Đại Việt. Unlike the second attack, this time Quốc Tuấn affirmed with the Emperor that Đại Việt's army could easily break
4250-508: The decisive victory against the Yuan dynasty and would thenceforth establish a long period of peace and prosperity over the country. Trần Nhân Tông was born on 11 November 1258 as Trần Khâm, the first son of Emperor Trần Thánh Tông , who had ceded the throne by Trần Thái Tông for only eight months, and Empress Thiên Cảm Trần Thị Thiều. It was said that the newborn Trần Khâm was so becoming in appearance that his grandfather Thái Tông and father Thánh Tông named him as Kim Tiên đồng tử (Pupil of
4335-442: The diphthongs [āj] and [āːj] the letters y and i also indicate the pronunciation of the main vowel: ay = ă + /j/ , ai = a + /j/ . Thus, tay "hand" is [tāj] while tai "ear" is [tāːj] . Similarly, u and o indicate different pronunciations of the main vowel: au = ă + /w/ , ao = a + /w/ . Thus, thau "brass" is [tʰāw] while thao "raw silk" is [tʰāːw] . The consonants that occur in Vietnamese are listed below in
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#17327654558714420-466: The end of the Song dynasty and the total control of Kublai Khan over China. As a result, Kublai Khan began his conquest over the southern regions such as Đại Việt and Champa . Being aware of the situation, Thánh Tông and Nhân Tông began to prepare the country for the war while trying to keep a flexible policy with the Yuan dynasty. Prince Chiêu Văn (also known as Trần Nhật Duật ) was appointed to pacify
4505-461: The fact that there is still no complete freedom of religion in contemporary Vietnam. Commenting on the current situation in Vietnam, Philip Taylor writes: The flow of Buddhist practitioners, texts and ideas throughout Vietnam and across national boundaries sets the context for another recent development in Buddhism in Vietnam, the increasing prominence given in northern Vietnam to Zen (Thiền) as
4590-640: The following centuries after the Ming conquest (1413-1428) which led to a period of Confucian dominance. In the 17th century, a group of Chinese monks led by Nguyên Thiều established a vigorous new school, the Lâm Tế , based on the Linji school , which mixed Chan and Pure Land Buddhism . A more domesticated offshoot of Lâm Tế, the Liễu Quán , was founded in the 18th century by a monk by the name of Liễu Quán . Lâm Tế remains
4675-491: The imperial state. During the Lý and Trần dynasties, a "new" court Buddhism arose among the elites which was aligned with Chinese Chan and influenced by Chan literature. Some of the Trần rulers were quite involved in the development of Thiền Buddhism. Trần Thái Tông (1218–77) was known as the "Great Monk King" and wrote various important Buddhist works including Instructions on Emptiness (Khóa Hư Lục) , A Guide to Zen Buddhism and
4760-672: The largest monastic order in the country today. Beside the Linji school , the Caodong school was first introduced to Northern Vietnam through Thiền master Thông Giác Thủy Nguyệt (通覺水月, 1637-1704), who traveled to China and practiced under Chan master Yiju Zhijiao (一句智教, 30th generation of Caodong school) in Huzhou region , Zhejiang province , China . After three years of practice there, he achieved enlightenment and received inka from Master Zhijiao. He then returned to Vietnam and began to preach Buddhism . Thông Giác Thủy Nguyệt's successor
4845-446: The late 19th century, French gradually replaced Literary Chinese as the official language in education and government. Vietnamese adopted many French terms, such as đầm ('dame', from madame ), ga ('train station', from gare ), sơ mi ('shirt', from chemise ), and búp bê ('doll', from poupée ), resulting in a language that was Austroasiatic but with major Sino-influences and some minor French influences from
4930-427: The main syllable). When a minor syllable occurred, the main syllable's initial consonant was intervocalic and as a result suffered lenition , becoming a voiced fricative. The minor syllables were eventually lost, but not until the tone split had occurred. As a result, words in modern Vietnamese with voiced fricatives occur in all six tones, and the tonal register reflects the voicing of the minor-syllable prefix and not
5015-465: The majority of Vietnamese vocabulary are disyllabic and trisyllabic words. Vietnamese is written using the Vietnamese alphabet ( chữ Quốc ngữ ). The alphabet is based on the Latin script and was officially adopted in the early 20th century during French rule of Vietnam . It uses digraphs and diacritics to mark tones and some phonemes . Vietnamese was historically written using chữ Nôm ,
5100-537: The most prominent and influential Thiền masters of the 20th and early 21st century. He was a disciple of Master Thích Thiện Hoa . The most famous practitioner of modern Thiền Buddhism in the West was Thích Nhất Hạnh (1926–2022) who authored dozens of books and founded the Plum Village Monastery in France together with his colleague, Thiền Master bhikkhuni Chân Không . Another influential teacher in
5185-497: The north and /j/ in the south). Not all dialects of Vietnamese have the same consonant in a given word (although all dialects use the same spelling in the written language). See the language variation section for further elaboration. Syllable-final orthographic ch and nh in Vietnamese has had different analyses. One analysis has final ch , nh as being phonemes /c/, /ɲ/ contrasting with syllable-final t , c /t/, /k/ and n , ng /n/, /ŋ/ and identifies final ch with
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#17327654558715270-588: The oldest branch of Thiền. After a period of obscurity, the Vinītaruci School (Diệt Hỉ Thiền phái; 滅喜禪派) became one of the most influential Buddhist groups in Vietnam by the 10th century, particularly so under the patriarch Vạn Hạnh (died 1018). Other Thiền schools were founded during this time, such as the Pháp Vân Temple lineage. Other early Vietnamese Thiền schools included that of the Chinese monk Wu Yantong , called Vô Ngôn Thông in Vietnamese, which
5355-522: The period of peace and stability of the four Vietnamese dynasties of the Early Lê , Lý , Trần and the Later Lê (980-1400). During the early Lê and Lý periods, Buddhism became an influential force in court politics and the dynastic elites saw Buddhist clergy as useful assistants in their political agenda which they provided in return for patronage. They were eventually integrated into the structure of
5440-405: The plain-voiced stops became voiceless and the allotones became new phonemic tones. The implosive stops were unaffected, and in fact developed tonally as if they were unvoiced. (This behavior is common to all East Asian languages with implosive stops.) As noted above, Proto-Viet–Muong had sesquisyllabic words with an initial minor syllable (in addition to, and independent of, initial clusters in
5525-487: The position of the crown prince's professor with two famous scholars Nguyễn Sĩ Cố and Nguyễn Thánh Huấn as assistants. The Emperor himself also composed poems and a literary work named Di hậu lục to educate prince Trần Khâm. On 8 November 1278, Thánh Tông decided to cede the throne to the Crown Prince Trần Khâm, now Trần Nhân Tông, and held the title Emperor Emeritus. After the coronation, Nhân Tông changed
5610-406: The quintessential Vietnamese Buddhist tradition....Southern Vietnam's intense transnational connections have enabled the repatriation and the circulation to elsewhere in Vietnam of the markedly meditative form of Buddhism developed by Vietnamese emigre monks based in the United States and France...Ironically, this recently imported purified form of Buddhism has come to be taken as a national tradition,
5695-629: The revolt led by Trịnh Giác Mật in Đà Giang . He tried by diplomacy to keep the country stable before the war. With his knowledge of a minority people's language and culture, he successfully accomplished his task in 1278, so now the country was free to deal with the threat from the North. In October 1282, the Retired Emperor Thánh Tông and the Emperor Nhân Tông gathered all members of the royal family, and officials in
5780-596: The royal court in Bình Than to discuss the unavoidable war. Two prominent generals of Đại Việt's army were called Trần Khánh Dư , former commander of the army but was deprived of all titles and Trần Quốc Tuấn , who would later be called Prince Hưng Đạo. In 1283 Quốc Tuấn was appointed as commander-in-chief (Quốc công tiết chế) of the army while the Retired Emperor and the Emperor began to hold military exercises with their generals and troops. In December 1284,
5865-546: The same except that ơ [əː] is of normal length while â [ə] is short – the same applies to the vowels long a [aː] and short ă [a] . The centering diphthongs are formed with only the three high vowels (i, ư, u). They are generally spelled as ia, ưa, ua when they end a word and are spelled iê, ươ, uô, respectively, when they are followed by a consonant. In addition to single vowels (or monophthongs ) and centering diphthongs, Vietnamese has closing diphthongs and triphthongs . The closing diphthongs and triphthongs consist of
5950-473: The same time, according to the following pattern: ^3 In Middle Vietnamese , the outcome of these sounds was written with a hooked b (ꞗ), representing a /β/ that was still distinct from v (then pronounced /w/ ). See below. ^4 It is unclear what this sound was. According to Ferlus 1992, in the Archaic Vietnamese period (c. 10th century AD, when Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary
6035-656: The second Yuan's invasion of Đại Việt commenced under the command of Kublai Khan's prince Toghan . Đại Việt was attacked in two directions, Toghan himself conducted the infantry and invaded from the north while the Yuan navy (under general Sogetu ) advanced from the southern border through Champa 's territory. In the beginning of the war, Thánh Tông and Nhân Tông had to call for retreat when Prince Chiêu Minh (also known as Trần Quang Khải ) who commanded troops, were trying to stop Sogetu's fleet in Nghệ An Province . During this time, several high-ranking officials and members of
6120-487: The split from Muong around the end of the first millennium AD, the following stages of Vietnamese are commonly identified: After expelling the Chinese at the beginning of the 10th century, the Ngô dynasty adopted Classical Chinese as the formal medium of government, scholarship and literature. With the dominance of Chinese came wholesale importation of Chinese vocabulary. The resulting Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary makes up about
6205-505: The syllable-initial ch /c/ . The other analysis has final ch and nh as predictable allophonic variants of the velar phonemes /k/ and /ŋ/ that occur after the upper front vowels i /i/ and ê /e/ ; although they also occur after a , but in such cases are believed to have resulted from an earlier e /ɛ/ which diphthongized to ai (cf. ach from aic , anh from aing ). (See Vietnamese phonology: Analysis of final ch , nh for further details.) Each Vietnamese syllable
6290-485: The third Patriarch of Chan. However, Chan was already present in the country before his arrival. "Thiền Buddhism was already established in Vietnam before Vinītaruci's arrival, for Phap Hien studied under and was ... After Vinītaruci's death, Phap Hien built the Temple of Chung-thien at Mount Tu, about twenty miles northwest of Luy Lâu ." The sect that Vinītaruci and his lone Vietnamese disciple founded would become known as
6375-579: The tones, whereby the tones in syllables with voiced initials were pronounced differently from those with voiceless initials. (Approximately speaking, the voiced allotones were pronounced with additional breathy voice or creaky voice and with lowered pitch. The quality difference predominates in today's northern varieties, e.g. in Hanoi , while in the southern varieties the pitch difference predominates, as in Ho Chi Minh City .) Subsequent to this,
6460-405: The victory, Thánh Tông and Nhân Tông cautioned them of the northern border. As to the defectors during the war, the Emperor issued an order in which the family name of every defected member of the Trần clan was changed to Mai, for example Trần Kiện was renamed as Mai Kiện. The only defected prince of the Trần clan, Trần Ích Tắc, was exempted from this order but he was called in historical accounts of
6545-422: The voicing of the main-syllable stop in Proto-Viet–Muong that produced the fricative. For similar reasons, words beginning with /l/ and /ŋ/ occur in both registers. (Thompson 1976 reconstructed voiceless resonants to account for outcomes where resonants occur with a first-register tone, but this is no longer considered necessary, at least by Ferlus.) Old Vietnamese/Ancient Vietnamese was a Vietic language which
6630-452: The world such as in the United States , Germany and France . Vietnamese has a large number of vowels . Below is a vowel diagram of Vietnamese from Hanoi (including centering diphthongs ): Front and central vowels (i, ê, e, ư, â, ơ, ă, a) are unrounded , whereas the back vowels (u, ô, o) are rounded. The vowels â [ə] and ă [a] are pronounced very short, much shorter than the other vowels. Thus, ơ and â are basically pronounced
6715-604: The world. Like many languages in Southeast Asia and East Asia , Vietnamese is highly analytic and is tonal . It has head-initial directionality, with subject–verb–object order and modifiers following the words they modify. It also uses noun classifiers . Its vocabulary has had significant influence from Middle Chinese and loanwords from French . Although it is often mistakenly thought as being an monosyllabic language, Vietnamese words typically consist of from one to many as eight individual morphemes or syllables;
6800-677: Was Thiền master Chân Dung Tông Diễn (真融宗演, 1640–1711), who became famous for his piety and critical role in resolving the Buddhist problem during the Lê Trung Hưng dynasty . Similar to Chan Buddhism in the Ming and Qing dynasties, this lineage also focuses on both Zen and Pure Land practice, of which Zen practice is the major thread. The first supreme patriarch of the Vietnam Buddhist Sangha, Venerable Thích Đức Nhuận (1897-1993),
6885-682: Was a disciple of the school. The main temple is the Hòe Nhai pagoda (also called Hồng Phúc tự), located in Ba Đình district , Hanoi . Vietnamese Buddhism suffered from political oppression during the colonial era of French Indochina , both by pro-Confucian mandarins and French colonial policies. Modern Vietnamese Thiền was influenced by the Buddhist modernism of figures like Taixu and D. T. Suzuki , who saw Buddhism in terms of social and personal transformation, rather than in supernatural terms. During
6970-469: Was associated with the teaching of Mazu Daoyi . Information about these schools can be gleaned from a Chinese language hagiographical work entitled Thiền uyển tập anh ("Compendium of Outstanding figures of the Chan Garden" c. 1337). A careful study of the primary sources by Cuong Tu Nguyen however concludes that the legend of Vinītaruci and the accounts of Vô Ngôn Thông are probably fabrications,
7055-430: Was borrowed) it was * r̝ , distinct at that time from * r . The following initial clusters occurred, with outcomes indicated: A large number of words were borrowed from Middle Chinese , forming part of the Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary . These caused the original introduction of the retroflex sounds /ʂ/ and /ʈ/ (modern s , tr ) into the language. Proto-Viet–Muong did not have tones. Tones developed later in some of
7140-784: Was separated from Viet–Muong around the 9th century, and evolved into Middle Vietnamese by 16th century. The sources for the reconstruction of Old Vietnamese are Nom texts, such as the 12th-century/1486 Buddhist scripture Phật thuyết Đại báo phụ mẫu ân trọng kinh ("Sūtra explained by the Buddha on the Great Repayment of the Heavy Debt to Parents"), old inscriptions, and a late 13th-century (possibly 1293) Annan Jishi glossary by Chinese diplomat Chen Fu (c. 1259 – 1309). Old Vietnamese used Chinese characters phonetically where each word, monosyllabic in Modern Vietnamese,
7225-528: Was the third emperor of the Trần dynasty , reigning over Đại Việt from 1278 to 1293. After ceding the throne to his son Trần Anh Tông , Nhân Tông held the title Emperor Emeritus (Vietnamese: Thái thượng hoàng ) from 1294 to his death in 1308. During the second and third Mongol invasions of Đại Việt, the Emperor Nhân Tông and his father the Emperor Emeritus Thánh Tông were credited with
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