Misplaced Pages

#403596

58-771: The place of the iron forge of Jiudian (simplified Chinese: 酒店冶铁遗址 ; traditional Chinese: 酒店冶鐵遺址 ; pinyin: Jiǔdiàn yětiě yízhǐ ) from the Warring States period until the Jin dynasty and the pagoda of the Baoyan temple ( 宝严寺塔 ; 寶嚴寺塔 ; Bǎoyán sì tǎ ) from the Tang dynasty are listed in the list of Monuments of the People's Republic of China . It administers 3 sub-district offices, 6 towns, 9 townships, 1 ethnic township and 2 others. This Henan location article

116-438: A 'horizontal' or east–west alliance called lianheng ( 連橫{ ), in which a state would ally with Qin to participate in its ascendancy. There were some initial successes in hezong , though mutual suspicions between allied states led to the breakdown of such alliances. Qin repeatedly exploited the horizontal alliance strategy to defeat the states one by one. During this period, many philosophers and tacticians travelled around

174-467: A calming effect on Qi's own population, which experienced great domestic tranquility during Wei's reign. By the end of King Wei's reign, Qi had become the strongest of the states and proclaimed itself "king"; establishing independence from the Zhou dynasty (see below). King Hui of Wei (370–319 BC) set about restoring the state. In 362–359 BC he exchanged territories with Han and Zhao in order to make

232-554: A covenant and started planning an attack on Zhao. Central Plain (China) Zhongyuan ( Chinese : 中原 ; pinyin : Zhōngyuán ), the Central Plain(s) , also known as Zhongtu ( Chinese : 中土 ; pinyin : Zhōngtǔ , lit. 'central land') and Zhongzhou ( Chinese : 中州 ; pinyin : Zhōngzhōu , lit. 'central region'), commonly refers to the part of the North China Plain surrounding

290-552: A few states gaining power at the expense of many others, the latter no longer able to depend on central authority for legitimacy or protection. During the Warring States period, many rulers claimed the Mandate of Heaven to justify their conquest of other states and spread their influence. The struggle for hegemony eventually created a state system dominated by several large states, such as Jin , Chu, Qin, Yan, and Qi, while

348-456: A good relationship with his Qi counterpart, with both promising to recognize the other as "king". Early in the Warring States period, Chu was one of the strongest states in China. The state rose to a new level of power around 389 BC when King Dao of Chu ( 楚悼王 ) named the famous reformer Wu Qi as his chancellor. Chu rose to its peak in 334 BC, when it conquered Yue to its east on

406-413: A great defeat at the hands of Qin. King Kao of Zhou had enfeoffed his younger brother as Duke Huan of Henan. Three generations later, this cadet branch of the royal house began calling themselves "dukes of East Zhou". Upon the ascension of King Nan in 314, East Zhou became an independent state. The king came to reside in what became known as West Zhou. Towards the end of the Warring States period,

464-652: A historical and cultural concept that represents the dominance of the Han ethnicity. The history of Zhongyuan can be dated back to prehistoric times. There were traces of human activities in Zhongyuan about half a million years ago. Archaeological studies have shown that as far back as 80,000 to 100,000 years ago, the ancient people of Zhongyuan were using stone tools. The excavation of painted pottery and stone tools found from relics of Yangshao culture (5000 to 3000 BC) and Longshan culture (3000 to 1900 BC) prove that Zhongyuan

522-459: A period of shifting alliances and wars on several fronts. In 376 BC, the states of Han, Wei and Zhao deposed Duke Jing of Jin and divided the last remaining Jin territory between themselves, which marked the final end of the Jin state. In 370 BC, Marquess Wu of Wei died without naming a successor, which led to a war of succession. After three years of civil war, Zhao from the north and Han from

580-523: A son of King Hui by a concubine (i.e. a younger half-brother of King Wu) could be established as King Zhao , who in stark contrast to his predecessor went on to rule for an unprecedented 53 years. After the failure of the first vertical alliance, Su Qin eventually came to live in Qi, where he was favored by King Xuan and drew the envy of the ministers. An assassination attempt in 300 BC left Su mortally wounded but not dead. Sensing death approaching, he advised

638-519: A succession struggle in 307, yielded to the new coalition and appointed Lord Mengchang its chief minister. The alliance between Qin and Qi was sealed by a Qin princess marrying King Min. This horizontal or east–west alliance might have secured peace except that it excluded the State of Zhao . Around 299 BC, the ruler of Zhao became the last of the seven major states to proclaim himself "king". In 298 BC, Zhao offered Qin an alliance and Lord Mengchang

SECTION 10

#1732787608404

696-399: A young age and passed tax laws to encourage raising multiple children. He also enacted policies to free convicts who worked in opening wastelands for agriculture. Shang abolished primogeniture and created a double tax on households that had more than one son living in the household, to break up large clans into nuclear families. Shang also moved the capital to reduce the influence of nobles on

754-506: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Warring States period The Warring States period in Chinese history ( c.  475  – 221 BC) comprises the final centuries of the Zhou dynasty ( c.  1046  – 256 BC), which were characterized by warfare, bureaucratic and military reform, and political consolidation. It followed

812-588: Is mainly used in Henan, Shandong, Anhui, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Gansu, and Hebei. The population of native Central Plains Mandarin speakers is approximately 124 million. In terms of tone, the key characteristics of modern Central Plains Mandarin are: The neutral and aspirated voiced initial consonants of entering tone in Early Mandarin are now pronounced as the first tone (high tone), and voiced initial consonants of entering tone in Early Mandarin are now pronounced as

870-566: Is remembered in the second of the Thirty-Six Stratagems , "besiege Wei, save Zhao"—meaning to attack a vulnerable spot to relieve pressure at another point. Domestically, King Hui patronized philosophy and the arts, and is perhaps best remembered for hosting the Confucian philosopher Mencius at his court; their conversations form the first two chapters of the book which bears Meng Zi's name . The title of king ( wang , 王 )

928-584: The Battle of Maling . After the battle all three of the Jin successor states appeared before King Xuan of Qi , pledging their loyalty. In the following year Qin attacked the weakened Wei. Wei was devastatingly defeated and ceded a large part of its territory in return for truce. With Wei severely weakened, Qi and Qin became the dominant states in China. Wei came to rely on Qi for protection, with King Hui of Wei meeting King Xuan of Qi on two occasions. After Hui's death, his successor King Xiang also established

986-631: The Han ethnicity, lived along the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River. The term 'Zhongguo' (Central State) was used to distinguish themselves from the Siyi tribes that were perceived as 'barbaric'. For a large part of Chinese history , Zhongyuan had been the political, economic, and cultural center of the Chinese civilization, as over 20 dynasties had located their capitals in this region. In

1044-607: The Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the wars of conquest that saw the state of Qin annex each of the other contender states by 221 BC and found the Qin dynasty , the first imperial dynastic state in East Asian history. While scholars have identified several different dates as marking the beginning of the Warring States period, Sima Qian 's choice of 475 BC is the most often cited. The era largely corresponds to

1102-590: The Taihang Mountains from the northwestern side, Funiu and Xionger Mountains to the west. The central and eastern areas of Zhongyuan form part of the North China Plain . The Yellow River flows through the region from west to east. The Huai River and Hai River , as well as Tributaries of the Yangtze River, also pass through Zhongyuan. Since ancient times, Zhongyuan has been a strategically important site of China, regarded as 'The center and hub of

1160-454: The state of Qin became disproportionately powerful compared with the other six states. As a result, the policies of the six states became overwhelmingly oriented towards dealing with the Qin threat, with two opposing schools of thought. One school advocated a 'vertical' or north–south alliance called hezong ( 合縱 ) in which the states would ally with each other to repel Qin. The other advocated

1218-518: The Pacific coast. The series of events leading up to this began when Yue prepared to attack Qi to its north. The King of Qi sent an emissary who persuaded the King of Yue to attack Chu instead. Yue initiated a large-scale attack at Chu but was defeated by Chu's counter-attack. Chu then proceeded to conquer Yue. King Xian of Zhou had attempted to use what little royal prerogative he had left by appointing

SECTION 20

#1732787608404

1276-508: The Spring and Autumn period. As a result, there is some controversy as to the beginning of the era. Proposed starting points include: The Eastern Zhou dynasty began its fall around 5th century BC. As their influence waned, they had to rely on armies in allied states rather than their own military force. Hundreds of smaller polities coalesced into seven major states which included: Chu, Han, Qin, Wei, Yan, Qi and Zhao. However, there eventually

1334-630: The Yuan dynasty in Dadu (Khanbaliq, now Beijing). Later, Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty moved the capital at his power base in Beijing. Central Plains Mandarin (or Zhongyuan Mandarin) is the major language and native tongue spoken in the Zhongyuan region. It is a variety of Mandarin Chinese , formed and developed gradually based on the standard pronunciations of Mandarin and its predecessor, Yayan . In

1392-667: The Yuan dynasty, the rime book Zhongyuan Yinyun (Rhymes of the Central Plains) written by Zhou Deqing reflected the standard pronunciation of Early Mandarin. Some linguists argue that the Early Mandarin recorded in Zhongyuan Yinyun was based on the pronunciation standards derived from the Luoyang and Bianliang dialects of Zhongyuan, which had been prevalent in the Song dynasty. In modern China, Central Plains Mandarin

1450-429: The Zhou court. This marked a major turning point: unlike those in the Spring and Autumn period , the new generation of rulers ascending the thrones in the Warring States period would not entertain even the pretence of being vassals of the Zhou dynasty, instead proclaiming themselves fully independent kingdoms. During the early Warring States period Qin generally avoided conflicts with the other states. This changed during

1508-552: The administration. The rise of Qin was recognized by the royal court, and in 343 BC the king conferred the title of Count (伯 Bó) on Duke Xiao. As was customary, a conference was hosted which the feudal lords attended, and during which the Son of Heaven bestowed the title. After the reforms Qin became much more aggressive. In 340 Qin took land from Wèi after it had been defeated by Qi. In 316 Qin conquered Shu and Ba in Sichuan to

1566-452: The alliance. In 383 BC it moved its capital to Handan and attacked the small state of Wey . Wey appealed to Wei which attacked Zhao on the western side. Being in danger, Zhao called in Chu. As usual, Chu used this as a pretext to annex territory to its north, but the diversion allowed Zhao to occupy a part of Wei. This conflict marked the end of the power of the united Jins and the beginning

1624-522: The boundaries of the three states more rational. In 364 BC, Wei was defeated by Qin at the Battle of Shimen and was only saved by the intervention of Zhao. Qin won another victory in 362 BC. In 361 BC the Wei capital was moved east to Daliang to be out of the reach of Qin. In 354 BC, King Hui of Wei started a large-scale attack on Zhao. By 353 BC, Zhao was losing badly and its capital, Handan ,

1682-687: The central region. From the rise of the Xia dynasty (c. 2070–c. 1600 BC) to the fall of the Song dynasty (960–1279), most of the legitimate dynasties established their capitals within the Zhongyuan area, except for Eastern Jin and the Southern Song . It was not until the Yuan (1271–1368) and Ming dynasties (1368–1644) that the political center of China re-located, as the Mongol Empire established

1740-484: The diplomat Su Qin spent years visiting the courts of Yan, Zhao, Han, Wei, Qi and Chu and persuaded them to form a united front against Qin. In 318 BC all states except Qi launched a joint attack on Qin, which was not successful. King Hui of Qin died in 311 BC, followed by prime minister Zhang Yi one year later. The new monarch, King Wu , reigned only four years before dying without legitimate heirs. Some damaging turbulence ensued throughout 307 BC before

1798-401: The dukes Xian (384–362 BC), Xiao (361–338 BC) and Hui (338–311 BC) of Qin as hegemons, thereby in theory making Qin the chief ally of the court. However, in 325 the confidence of Duke Hui grew so great that he proclaimed himself "king" of Qin; adopting the same title as the king of Zhou and thereby effectively proclaiming independence from the Zhou dynasty. King Hui of Qin

Xiping County - Misplaced Pages Continue

1856-465: The end of Jiang rule, and now openly assumed power. The new ruler set about reclaiming territories that had been lost to other states. He launched a successful campaign against Zhao, Wey and Wei, once again extending Qi territory to the Great Wall. Sima Qian writes that the other states were so awestruck that nobody dared attack Qi for more than 20 years. The demonstrated military prowess also had

1914-549: The era was dominated by the Seven Warring States , namely: Besides these seven major states other smaller states survived into the period. They include: The eastward flight of the Zhou court in 771 BC marks the start of the Spring and Autumn period . No one single incident or starting point inaugurated the Warring States era. The political situation of the period represented a culmination of historical trends of conquest and annexation which also characterised

1972-481: The establishment of four major families, the Han, Zhao, Wei and Zhi. The Battle of Jinyang saw the allied Han, Zhao and Wei destroy the Zhi family (453 BC) and their lands were distributed among them. With this, they became the de facto rulers of most of Jin's territory, though this situation would not be officially recognised until half a century later. The Jin division created a political vacuum that enabled during

2030-411: The first 50 years expansion of Chu and Yue northward and Qi southward. Qin increased its control of the local tribes and began its expansion southwest to Sichuan . In 403 BC, the court of King Weilie of Zhou officially recognized Zhao, Wei and Han as immediate vassals, thereby raising them to the same rank as the other warring states. From before 405 until 383 BC the three Jins were united under

2088-531: The leadership of Wei and expanded in all directions. The most important figure was Marquess Wen of Wei (445–396 BC). In 408–406 BC he conquered the State of Zhongshan to the northeast on the other side of Zhao. At the same time he pushed west across the Yellow River to the Luo River taking the area of Xihe (literally 'west of the [Yellow] river'). The growing power of Wei caused Zhao to back away from

2146-611: The lower and middle reaches of the Yellow River , centered on the region between Luoyang and Kaifeng . It has been perceived as the birthplace of the Chinese civilization . Historically, the Huaxia people viewed Zhongyuan as 'the center of the world '. Human activities in the Zhongyuan region can be traced back to the Palaeolithic period. In prehistoric times, Huaxia, a confederation of tribes that later developed into

2204-572: The modern concept, the term 'Central Plains Region' is used to define the Zhongyuan area. In a narrow sense, it refers to the present-day Henan Province in the central part of China. A broader interpretation of the Central Plains' measure would also include Henan's neighborhood province, Shaanxi , Hebei , Shanxi , and Shandong , as well as the northern part of Anhui and the northwestern part of Jiangsu . The north, west, and south sides of Zhongyuan are encircled by mountains, predominantly

2262-442: The newly crowned King Min have him publicly executed to draw out the assassins. King Min complied with Su's request and killed him, putting an end to the first generation of Vertical alliance thinkers. King Min of Qi came to be highly influenced by Lord Mengchang , a grandson of the former King Wei of Qi . Lord Mengchang made a westward alliance with the states of Wei and Han . In the far west, Qin, which had been weakened by

2320-415: The reign of Duke Xiao , when prime minister Shang Yang made centralizing and authoritarian reforms in accordance with his Legalist philosophy between the years 356 and 338 BC. Shang introduced land reforms, privatized land, rewarded farmers who exceeded harvest quotas, enslaved farmers who failed to meet quotas, and used enslaved subjects as rewards for those who met government policies. As manpower

2378-597: The second half of the Eastern Zhou period, where the king of Zhou formally ruled as Chinese sovereign , but had lost political power and functioned in practice as a figurehead. This dynamic served as the backdrop for the machinations of the eponymous Warring States. The label "Warring States period" derives from the Record of the Warring States , a work of history compiled during the early Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). The political geography of

Xiping County - Misplaced Pages Continue

2436-471: The smaller states of the Central Plain tended to be their satellites and tributaries. Other major states also existed, such as Wu and Yue in the southeast. The last decades of the Spring and Autumn era were marked by increased stability, as the result of peace negotiations between Jin and Chu which established their respective spheres of influence. This situation ended with the partition of Jin, whereby

2494-456: The south invaded Wei. On the verge of conquering Wei, the leaders of Zhao and Han fell into disagreement about what to do with Wei, and both armies abruptly retreated. As a result, King Hui of Wei (still a Marquess at the time) was able to ascend the throne of Wei. Zhao extended from the Shanxi plateau across the plain to the borders of Qi. Wei reached east to Qi, Lu , and Song . To the south,

2552-447: The southwest. Development of this area took a long time but slowly added greatly to Qin's wealth and power. In 341 BC, Wei attacked Han. Qi allowed Han to be nearly defeated and then intervened. The generals from the Battle of Guiling met again ( Sun Bin and Tian Ji versus Pang Juan ), using the same tactic, attacking Wei's capital. Sun Bin feigned a retreat and then turned on the overconfident Wei troops and decisively defeated them at

2610-489: The state was divided between the houses of Han, Zhao and Wei, leading to the seven major warring states. The rulers of Jin had steadily lost political powers since the middle of the 6th century BC to their nominally subordinate nobles and military commanders, a situation arising from the traditions of the Jin which forbade the enfeoffment of relatives of the ducal house. This allowed other clans to gain fiefs and military authority, and decades of internecine struggle led to

2668-487: The states, recommending that the rulers put their respective ideas into use. These "lobbyists", such as Su Qin , who advocated vertical alliances, and Zhang Yi , who advocated horizontal alliances, were famous for their tact and intellect, and were collectively known as the School of Diplomacy , whose Chinese name ( 縱橫家 'the school of the vertical and horizontal') was derived from the two opposing ideas. Beginning in 334 BC

2726-461: The term 'Zhongyuan' were widely accepted as a geographical concept. The geographical view of Zhongyuan may depict different regions. It usually refers to the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, but sometimes also encompasses the reaches along the Yangtze and Huai River , and even the whole North China Plain. Apart from being a geographical location, the term 'Zhongyuan' is also used as

2784-423: The weaker state of Han held the east–west part of the Yellow River valley, surrounded the Zhou royal domain at Luoyang and held an area north of Luoyang called Shangdang . Duke Kang of Qi died in 379 BC with no heir from the house of Jiang, which had ruled Qi since the state's founding. The throne instead passed to the future King Wei , from the house of Tian. The Tian had been very influential at court towards

2842-528: The winter. The concept of Zhongyuan had often been changing in different historical periods, under different contexts. The term Zhongyuan first appeared in the Classic of Poetry not specifying any exact geographic locations. It was during the Spring and Autumn period (770–476 BC) that the word came to denote the Central Plains region. Only until the Northern and Southern dynasties (420–589 AD) onward,

2900-469: The world'. The alluvial deposits of the Yellow River formed the vast plains of Zhongyuan in the Palaeozoic period. The region has sufficient water resources for plant growth, making it the center of the Chinese agrarian civilization, known as the 'Breadbasket of China'. Zhongyuan has a temperate monsoon climate with distinct seasons. It is usually hot and humid during the summer, cold and dry in

2958-512: Was a shift in alliances because each state's ruler wanted independence. This caused hundreds of wars between 535 and 286 BC. The victorious state would have overall rule and control in China. The system of feudal states created by the Western Zhou dynasty underwent enormous changes after 771 BC with the flight of the Zhou court to modern-day Luoyang and the diminution of its relevance and power. The Spring and Autumn period led to

SECTION 50

#1732787608404

3016-459: Was driven out of Qin. The remaining three allies, Qi, Wei and Han, attacked Qin, driving up the Yellow River below Shanxi to the Hangu Pass . After 3 years of fighting they took the pass and forced Qin to return territory to Han and Wei. They next inflicted major defeats on Yan and Chu. During the 5-year administration of Lord Mengchang, Qi was the major power in China. In 294, Lord Mengchang

3074-477: Was guided by his prime minister Zhang Yi , a prominent representative of the School of Diplomacy . He was followed in 323 BC by King Xuanhui of Han and King Yi of Yan , as well as King Cuo of the minor state Zhongshan. In 318 BC even the ruler of Song , a relatively minor state, declared himself king. Uniquely, while King Wuling of Zhao had joined the other kings in declaring himself king, he retracted this order in 318 BC, after Zhao suffered

3132-437: Was held by figurehead rulers of the Zhou dynasty, while the rulers of most states held the title of duke ( gong , 公 ) or marquess ( hou , 侯 ). A major exception was Chu, whose rulers were called kings since King Wu of Chu started using the title c.  703 BC . In 344 BC the rulers of Qi and Wei mutually recognized each other as kings: King Wei of Qi and King Hui of Wei , in effect declaring their independence from

3190-507: Was implicated in a coup d'état and fled to Wei. His alliance system collapsed. Qi and Qin made a truce and pursued their own interests. Qi moved south against the state of Song whilst the Qin General Bai Qi pushed back eastward against a Han/Wei alliance, gaining victory at the Battle of Yique . In 288, King Zhao of Qin and King Min of Qi took the title di ( 帝 'emperor'), of the west and east respectively. They swore

3248-533: Was in the forefront of Chinese civilization throughout the Stone Age . After the rise of Erlitou culture (1900 to 1500 BC), Zhongyuan entered the Bronze Age. The emergence of private ownership and social classes led to the formation of the first dynasty in Chinese history, the Xia dynasty . The Xia dynasty established its regime centered on Zhongyuan, setting the tone for later dynasties to make Zhongyuan

3306-404: Was short in Qin relative to the other states at the time, Shang enacted policies to increase its manpower. As Qin peasants were recruited into the military, he encouraged active immigration of peasants from other states into Qin as a replacement workforce; this policy simultaneously increased the manpower of Qin and weakened the manpower of Qin's rivals. Shang made laws forcing citizens to marry at

3364-461: Was under siege. The state of Qi intervened. The famous Qi strategist, Sun Bin the great-great-great-grandson of Sun Tzu , the author of the Art of War , proposed to attack the Wei capital while the Wei army was tied up besieging Zhao. The strategy was a success; the Wei army hastily moved south to protect its capital, was caught on the road and decisively defeated at the Battle of Guiling . The battle

#403596