The Yale University endowment is the world's second-largest university endowment and has a reputation as one of the best-performing investment portfolios in American higher education . The endowment was established at Yale University , then Yale College, in 1718 from an initial fund of £562 provided by Elihu Yale and has grown to more than $ 40 billion in value over the ensuing 300 years. It is managed by the Yale Investments Office.
160-671: Yale University was founded as "the Collegiate School" in 1701. In 1718, Elihu Yale sold a portion of his collection of gems and furniture to provide an initial fund of £562 for the establishment of the school's endowment. From 1985 until 2021, the Chief Investment Officer of Yale was alumnus David Swensen , who was replaced by alumnus Matthew Mendelsohn. As of 2013, the chairman of the Yale Investment Committee, which provides oversight of
320-644: A Bengal tiger at the fort, among other things. Those who were taxed the most were the owners of the 128 houses within the fort, which half belonged to the Portuguese merchants. The company's chairman sent a letter to Yale, writing that "your elaborate arguments to persuade us not to impose a moderate duty upon the Portuguese and other inhabitants of our city of Madras, whom we do protect and exceedingly encourage in their several vocations, have no weight at all with us". Yale had received similar letters during
480-721: A British-American colonial administrator. Born in Boston , Massachusetts, Yale lived in America only as a child, and spent the rest of his life in England , Wales , and India . He became a clerk for the East India Company at Fort St. George , later Madras , and eventually rose to the Presidency of the settlement. He was later removed from the post under charges of corruption for self-dealing, and required to pay
640-605: A Harvard University graduate. He had no male heir, and no descendants of his have survived past his grandchildren. In the 21st century, Yale's connections to slavery in India began to be more closely explored, a process assisted by the digitalisation and online publication of the East India Company's records. In 2020, Peter Salovey , president of Yale University, launched the Yale and Slavery Research Project to explore
800-647: A Jesuit who wrote about it in 1698, long after the 1636 edict by Tokguawa Japan had expelled Portuguese people. The Dutch , too, largely dealt in slaves. They were mainly Abyssinian, known in India as Habshis. The mixed race of Sheedes in Kanara on the West coast has traces of these slaves. The Dutch Indian Ocean slave trade was primarily mediated by the Dutch East India Company, drawing captive labour from three commercially closely linked regions:
960-658: A Naqshbandi Sufi leader, owning over 500 slaves, forty of whom were specialists in pottery production while the others were engaged in agricultural work. High demand for skilled slaves, and India's larger and more advanced textile industry, agricultural production and tradition of architecture demonstrated to its neighbours that skilled-labour was abundant in the subcontinent leading to enslavement and export of large numbers of skilled labour as slaves, following their successful invasions. After sacking Delhi , Timur enslaved several thousand skilled artisans, presenting many of these slaves to his subordinate elite, although reserving
1120-589: A "passive acceptance" of cultural norms of the Brahmanical society midst them, or more "justifiably an active support" of these institutions. The Buddhist texts offer "no hint of protest or reform" to such institutions, according to Schopen. Kautilya 's Arthashastra dedicates the thirteenth chapter on dasas , in his third book on law. This Sanskrit document from the Maurya Empire period (4th century BCE) has been translated by several authors, each in
1280-547: A collared African child, was donated to the Yale Center for British Art in 1970 and regularly displayed at the university. In 2020 the artist Titus Kaphar produced a version of the painting, entitled "Enough About You" , in which the main sitters are distorted beyond recognition and the image of the uncollared boy is set within a gold frame. Yale arrived in England with Indian artworks, and used his new wealth to build
1440-492: A community of monks may accept dasa for repairs and other routine chores. Later, the same Buddhist text states that the Buddha approved the use of kalpikara and the kapyari for labor in the monasteries and approved building separate quarters for them. Schopen interprets the term dasa as servants, while he interprets the kalpikara and kapyari as bondmen and slave respectively because they can be owned and given by laity to
1600-520: A crime thereby differing with Kangle's interpretation. According to Kangle, the Arthasastra forbids enslavement of minors and Arya from all four varnas and this inclusion of shudras stands different from the Vedic literature. Kangle suggests that the context and rights granted to dasa by Kautilya implies that the word had a different meaning than the modern word slave, as well as the meaning of
1760-421: A day is a false story that was propagated by privateer Alexander Hamilton . The events were as follow: In August 1689, two soldiers of Fort St. George stole guns , horses, and other items, and left Madras as fugitives with a group of five confederates to join the enemy's army during war time. One was named George Isaac, and the other was named Charles Cross, the latter being not only a soldier but also one of
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#17328018758251920-567: A different manner. Shamasastry's translation of 1915 maps dasa as slave, while Kangle leaves the words as dasa and karmakara . According to Kangle's interpretation, the verse 13.65.3–4 of Arthasastra forbids any slavery of "an Arya in any circumstances whatsoever", but allows the mlecchas to "sell an offspring or keep it as pledge". Patrick Olivelle agrees with this interpretation. He adds that an Arya or Arya family could pledge itself during times of distress into bondage, and these bonded individuals could be converted to slave if they committed
2080-670: A family gallery. He then became a member of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel , and met there the Bishop of London, John Robinson , and the Lt. Gov. of New England, Francis Nicholson . From Nicholson's influence, and with Jeremiah Dummer as intermediary, Yale would answer a donation request for Connecticut College through Harvard graduate Cotton Mather . While his initial plan
2240-477: A few months, and procured three elephants from King Narai of Siam , to be sent to the Sultan of Gingee as war elephants . In peace time, they were used with a Howdah as status symbols, while at war, they were the prototypes of the modern tank . Yale then obtained a house and garden at St. Thomas Mount for the sickly and their convalesce. Thereafter, he received 3 princes from Sumatra, Indonesia , bringing
2400-432: A fine. In 1699, he returned to Britain with a considerable fortune, around £200,000 (equivalent to £35.3 million in 2023), mostly made by selling diamonds, and spent his time and wealth in philanthropy and art collecting. He was the primary benefactor of Yale College , now Yale University , which was named in his honor, following a donation of books, portraits, and textiles at the request of Rev. Cotton Mather ,
2560-537: A fortune of about £200,000 (equivalent to £45.4 million in 2023), and married his daughter to the son of the 1st Duke of Beaufort at Badminton House . During the same year, Yale welcomed the Armenian merchants to establish themselves at Fort St. George following their persecution in Europe. In July, he sent diplomats for the arrival of Dutch Gov. Johannes Camphuys , and on September 29, 1688, he inaugurated
2720-560: A large European art collection of 10,000 items, including 7,000 paintings, which would become, after his death, the first art auction in Britain. During this era, the English country houses started to include goods from India and China, brought over the continent by the East India Company . As about 75% of all Indian exports were long-lasting and colorful textiles, it gave rise to the 1700–1750 Western fashion period , which included
2880-520: A lay follower should not engage in." Late classical Hindu Dharmaśāstra , would specify who can be enslaved, the treatment of enslaved, and acceptable forms of Vishti ( corvee labour), by varna; a theme later medieval commentaries, of the like of Devaṇabhaṭṭa's Smṛticandrikā, would refine. Slavery was an important feature of the Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent . André Wink summarizes
3040-478: A legacy of the PIE root "*dens-", and the word "saka" may have evolved from "dasa", states Parpola. According to Micheline Ishay – a professor of human rights studies and sociology, the term "dasa" can be "translated as slave". The institution represented unfree labor with fewer rights, but "the supposed slavery in [ancient] India was of mild character and limited extent" like Babylonian and Hebrew slavery, in contrast to
3200-426: A letter from Sultanah Inayat Syah , Queen of Acheen , resulting in a trade agreement. About this time, King Charles II of England died, with James II ascending to the throne. The change was well welcomed by the company, as the chairman, Sir Josiah Child , had spent a fortune on James's ascension. Yale then organized the official ceremony at Fort St. George , with Gov. Gyfford resuming his office, and received
3360-588: A lifelong friend. In 1679, Yale's duties now involved receiving and invoicing textiles worth about 100,000 pagodas , consisting of neckcloths, chintz, and longcloth of various grades. With the death of Joseph Hynmers, second-in-command, Yale was made Assistant to the Warehouse Keeper, and started courting his widow. They married at St. Mary's Church , the oldest Anglican Church in India, on November 4, 1680, with Sir Henry Oxenden , Governor of Bombay , as brideman. With his wife's capital, Yale learned
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#17328018758253520-529: A member of Gov. Gyfford 's council, he became a cofounder of the Madras Bank , the oldest in India. On February 12, the second-in-command was dismissed for his "language that was too independent and not sufficiently subservient in his letters". The Councilmen rose in rank, with Yale becoming Warehouse Keeper. When Gov. Gyfford was sent to inspect factories in the Bay of Bengal , Yale became acting governor for
3680-708: A monk or nun, but accepted them as workers to serve the monastery. The Indian texts discuss dasa and bonded labor along with their rights, as well as a monastic community's obligations to feed, clothe and provide medical aid to them in exchange for their work. This description of rights and duties in Buddhist Vinaya texts, says Schopen, parallel those found in Hindu Dharmaśāstra and Dharmasutra texts. The Buddhist attitude to servitude or slavery as reflected in Buddhist texts, states Schopen, may reflect
3840-438: A new building. In 1717, Isaac Newton gave the college a copy of his book Principia , on Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation , and in 1718, Yale sent Mather 417 books, a portrait of King George I of Britain , and nine bales of goods. These last were sold by the school for £800. In gratitude, officials named the new building Yale; eventually the entire institution became Yale College . Yale
4000-621: A new map of the Netherlands dedicated to him by John Senex , royal geographer of Queen Anne . Thereafter, his American godson David Yale entered Pembroke College at the University of Cambridge . Yale leased Latimer House from his son-in-law, Lord James Cavendish , son of the 1st Duke of Devonshire , to accommodate his daughter Ursula. He was elected High Sheriff of Denbighshire in Wales, gave money to Wrexham Church , and built
4160-399: A pious devotee. The Buddhist Vanijja Sutta , AN 5:177 listing slave trading to be one of the five wrong livelihood a layperson should not engage in the "Monks, a lay follower should not engage in five types of business. Which five? Business in weapons, business in human beings , business in meat, business in intoxicants, and business in poison. These are the five types of business that
4320-487: A secret society at Yale University, Alexandra Robbins alleges that Yale's headstone was stolen years ago from its proper setting in Wrexham . She further alleges that the tombstone is now displayed in a glass case in a room with purple walls. In the 21st century Yale University's historic associations with the slave trade have been re-evaluated. In 2017, the university determined to rename Calhoun College, which honoured
4480-616: A sit-in at the Yale Investment Office to protest Yale’s holdings in the fossil fuel industry and Puerto Rican debt. That same quarter Yale sold 99 percent of its direct investment holdings in Antero Resource Corporation, a natural gas and oil company, according to Yale’s 2018 filing with the Securities and Exchange Commission. Elihu Yale Elihu Yale (5 April 1649 – 8 July 1721) was
4640-468: A slave had rights to their property and could pass their property to their kin, states Ishay. The term dasa appears in early Buddhist texts, a term scholars variously interpret as servant or slave. Buddhist manuscripts also mention kapyari , which scholars have translated as a legally bonded servant (slave). According to Gregory Schopen , in the Mahaviharin Vinaya , the Buddha says that
4800-705: A son named Charles. Following the English Revolution of 1688 , William of Orange , a Dutch, ascended to the throne of England, replacing James II , which was a fatal blow for Sir Josiah Child who had bet on the wrong side. The past wars between the Dutch and English merchants in Madras were now settled, and both started to form alliances through marriage. From then on, the directors' letters to Yale changed in tone. Sir Langhorne started complimenting him on his private trade in diamonds, as they now saw it as
4960-622: A strong cavalry arm and in particular to amass a corps of mounted archers. This was a proprietary way to build their military capacity, by taking advantage of a unique skillset. Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji and Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq were both frontier military commanders. When they tried to capitalize on their achievements, and take over the Delhi Sultanate they were not given support because of their un-noble origins. When looking at
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5120-595: A way to expand the company to new markets without having to bear the risks themselves. Yale tried to build routes at Mindanao , the second largest island of the Philippines , getting from them Clove and Ironwood . He was then put on a secret committee with Sir John Child , governor of Bombay , and Nathaniel Higginson , mayor of Madras, to plan the establishment of a new fort near the South Seas , to engage in trade with China . On March 17, 1689, Yale received
5280-459: Is inconclusive; the historian Steven Pincus suggests that he did not, while, in a 2016 article in the Journal of Global History , Elizabeth Kuebler-Wolf stated that he enslaved one or two people as household servants, citing explorer Hiram Bingham 's 1939 book Elihu Yale . Historian Joseph Yannielli writes that although Yale "probably did not own any of these people – the majority were held as
5440-441: Is reported to have returned to with such a large number of slaves that their value was reduced to only two to ten dirhams each. This unusually low price made, according to Al-Utbi, "merchants came from distant cities to purchase them, so that the countries of Central Asia , Iraq and Khurasan were swelled with them, and the fair and the dark, the rich and the poor, mingled in one common slavery". Warfare and tax revenue policies
5600-668: Is similarly reported to have legalised the enslavement of those who defaulted on their revenue payments. This policy continued during the Mughal era. An even greater number of people were enslaved as a part of the efforts of the Delhi Sultans to finance their expansion into new territories. For example, while he himself was still a military slave of the Ghurid Sultan Muizz u-Din, Qutb-ud-din Aybak (r. 1206–10 as
5760-592: Is sparse, a letter suggests that David Yale remained a successful merchant and settled his family in the Hanseatic merchant district " Steelyard Court". In 1662, at the age of thirteen, Elihu Yale entered the private school of William Dugard , but Dugard died a few months after Elihu Yale enrolled. Yale likely lived through the Great Plague of London and the Great Fire of London . In 1670, Yale joined
5920-601: Is the College That Bears His Name." At his death, with no proper will, his heirs-at-law inherited the Plas Grono estate and sold it to Sir George Wynne . In 1718, Cotton Mather contacted Yale and asked for his help. Mather represented a small institution of learning that had been founded in 1701 in Old Saybrook, Connecticut, as the Collegiate School of Connecticut, which needed money for
6080-522: The Rigveda , the dasa and dasyu are human and non-human beings who are enemies of Arya. These according to the Rigveda , state Jamison and Brereton, are destroyed by the Vedic deity Indra . The interpretation of " dasas as slaves" in the Vedic era is contradicted by hymns such as 2.12 and 8.46 that describe "wealthy dasas" who charitably give away their wealth. Similarly, state Jamison and Brereton,
6240-460: The 1st Duke of Devonshire of Hardwick Hall , and Lady Mary Butler, the Duke of Ormond's daughter at Kilkenny Castle . Lord Cavendish was also a nephew of Earl John Cecil of Burghley House , and a grandson of Countess Elizabeth Cecil of Hatfield House . Ursula Yale, who never married, died in 1721 at Latimer House , a house rented by Yale from his son-in-law - who is buried in the church on
6400-467: The Anglo-Siamese War , with Yale acting on behalf of King James II of England , which resulted in number of casualties for the company, as cities were now being robbed by Siameses. Some English merchants at Siam sided with the enemy, and became involved in acts of piracy , which had Yale send warships in retaliation against Englishmen who changed sides. No peace treaty was ever signed, but
6560-702: The British East India Company , starting as a clerk at East India House in London . Among the board was the Earl of Berkeley , Sir Samuel Barnardiston , Vice-Admiral John Robinson , and Chairman Sir Andrew Riccard . Yale's uncle, Connecticut Gov. Edward Hopkins , was also one of the shareholders. It is possible that Yale had business training in his father's merchant counting house beforehand. He then sailed to India in December 1671 on one of
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6720-645: The Buddha and perhaps even as far back as the Vedic period", however he elaborates that the association of the Vedic dasa with 'slaves' is "problematic and likely to have been a later development". Upinder Singh states that the Rig Veda is familiar with slavery, referring to enslavement in course of war or as a result of debt. She states that the use of dasa (Sanskrit: दास) and dasi in later times were used as terms for male and female slaves. In contrast, Suvira Jaiswal states that dasa tribes were integrated in
6880-559: The Chhatrapati of the Marathas , for the acquisition of a fort at Devanampatnam on behalf of the company, which was sold for 40,000 pagodas . They renamed the place Fort St. David in honor of a Welsh saint . On December 28, they supplied ammunition to general Zulfiqar Khan , son of Grand Vizier Asad Khan , from which they obtained the firman for the territories of Vizagapatam , Gingee and Golconda. During this year, Yale
7040-572: The Company 's activities in Madras. Gov. Yale was now under the overlordship of the Islamic Mughal Empire . He sent diplomats to pay Emperor Aurangzeb , one of which was his friend Daniel Chardin, diamond merchant and brother of Sir Jean Chardin , Yale's partner in England. He also sent letters to Mughal general Mahabat Khan , and complied with the ceremonies of prince Muhammad Bakhs and prime minister Asad Khan . The situation
7200-495: The Coromandel Coast to find investment opportunities for the sale of longcloth . During his mission, a great storm struck the coast, and 14,000 persons died. He made assessments of harbor facilities and fortifications, and was welcomed with coconuts as gifts of diplomacy. Yale then negotiated with Sikandar Shah , the Sultan of Bijapur , and obtained permission for the gold trade in his territory. In 1683, as
7360-729: The Deccan where it persisted until the seventeenth century. It remained present to a minor extent in the Mughal provinces throughout the seventeenth century and had a notable revival under the Afghans in North India again in the eighteenth century. Unlike other parts of the medieval Muslim world, slavery was not widespread in Kashmir. Except for the Sultans, there is no evidence the elite kept slaves. The Kashmiris despised slavery. Concubinage
7520-683: The East India Company . Her father was wealthy Levant merchant Walter Elford, son of Turkey merchant Walter Sr., the step-nephew of Admiral Sir Francis Drake of Buckland Abbey , the explorer, and the half-brother of Sir Francis Drake , the MP. Walter Elford Sr. was among the pioneers of the English Coffee Houses on Exchange Alley , next to the Royal Exchange , owning the Great Coffee House (Turk's Head) until
7680-476: The East India Company's headquarters were thousands of miles away, the board implemented policies that were not well adapted to the conditions in Madras. Letters took 6 months to be received, sometimes over a year, making communications difficult. One of these policies was the creation of a new tax upon Madras inhabitants that Yale had now to carry out, which caused a local rebellion . During this time, they accused him of not cutting expenses down, such as keeping
7840-537: The East Indiamen , on a voyage that would take six months, with the eminent dangers of pirates , storms and diseases. He landed in Madras on June 23, 1672, at Fort St. George , where Portuguese, English and Hindu lived. He then learned the rules of Gov. William Langhorne , some of which being the interdiction to start a duel , to desert the fort, or to blaspheme, and met with Father Ephrem de Nevers . At
8000-621: The Fatawa-i-Hindiya and Fatawa-i Hindiyya ) was sponsored by Aurangzeb in the late 17th century. It compiled the law for the Mughal Empire, and involved years of effort by 500 Muslim scholars from South Asia, Iraq and Saudi Arabia. The thirty volumes on Hanafi -based sharia law for the Empire was influential during and after Auruangzeb's rule, and it included many chapters and laws on slavery and slaves in India. Some of
8160-576: The Gilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance, and Abolition , and published its findings in 2024. Blight identified "Yale's key leadership role in the business of human trafficking " and confirmed that part of Yale's fortune unquestionably derived from "the purchase and sale of human beings [...] much of his growing wealth derived from the lucrative trade in cloth, silks, precious jewels, and other commodities, yet this commerce
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#17328018758258320-429: The Golconda mines and Kollur mines in Southern India. In relation to GDP , his fortune amounted to 1/4 % of UK's GDP at the time, which translates to nearly 6 billion British pounds in 2021 money. Famous diamonds extracted from these mines over time have included the Orlov Diamond , belonging to Catherine the Great , the Hope Diamond , belonging to Louis XIV , the Wittelsbach-Graff Diamond , belonging to
8480-404: The Great Fire of London , and was featured in Samuel Pepys 's diaries. Catherine Elford's maternal grandfather was merchant Richard Chambers, Alderman and Sheriff of the City of London , family of Sir Amyas Bampfylde of Poltimore House and Barrington Court . Their wedding took place at St Mary's Church , at Fort St George, where Yale was a vestryman and treasurer . The marriage
8640-477: The Habsburgs , among others. Yale acquired rough stones from the Mughal Emperors of Golconda in exchange for a royalty, and were sent to Fort St. George, India , under the protection of 50 trained men. Thereafter, Yale would send the diamonds to Amsterdam to be faceted and polished, until ready to be shipped to London. The process took on average 3 years and needed large amounts of capital to endure setbacks, such as wars and political instability. During
8800-409: The Horn of Africa were also imported into the Indian subcontinent to serve in the households of the powerful or the Muslim armies of the Deccan Sultanates and the Mughal Empire. The Portuguese imported African slaves into their Indian colonies on the Konkan coast between about 1530 and 1740. Under European colonialism, slavery in India continued through the 18th and 19th centuries. During
8960-431: The Indian subcontinent is contested because it depends on the translations of terms such as dasa and dasyu . Greek writer Megasthenes , in his 4th century BCE work Indika or Indica, states that slavery was banned within the Maurya Empire , while the multilingual, mid 3rd Century BCE, Edicts of Ashoka independently identify obligations to slaves (Greek: δούλοις ) and hired workers (Greek: μισθωτοῖς ), within
9120-411: The Madras Corporation , where Nathaniel Higginson was elected its first mayor, with Amsterdam merchant Jacques de Paiva and others, elected on its board. Initially founded to restrain Yale's powers as governor, it became the oldest corporation in India, and the second oldest municipal body in the world after the City of London . Paiva's widow, Hieronima, would become Yale's mistress and bear him
9280-425: The Moghul , who received royalties, while Yale used his expertise and capital to hold on these stones until they were faceted and polished in Amsterdam , on their way to London. The process took on average 3 years before getting a return on investment, and Yale had 50 trained men to protect the goods from robbers during transportation. By 1688, Sir Josiah Child , the Company 's largest shareholder, retired with
9440-502: The Mughal Emperor , but having not followed the directors's order to tax the natives for it, he was fined 3484 pagodas with interest by the Company . Goldsborough then sent a group of musketeers to Mrs. Nicks 's house, Yale's friend, to investigate fraud charges regarding cloths , where she would be fined for her husband's mistakes. Not having enough money to pay the taxes to bring her children home to England, she would be forced to sail without them. For Yale's trial, William Fraser
9600-465: The Pitt Diamond , became Yale's partner, as the Company had now removed all restrictions on private trade. In 1699, after a 30 years career in India, Yale decided to sail home, and was granted the usual privilege of past governors to bring back five tons of goods, which he filled with diamonds , rubies , sapphires , Chinawares , Persian carpets , nutmegs , and other items. He decided to have Gov Pitt 's ship as his vessel, and brought back with him
9760-454: The Qutb Shahi dynasty . Aurangzeb was a member of Tamerlane's dynasty , and his parents , founders of the Taj Mahal , were direct descendants of Genghis Khan . As Yale expected the Mughal's revenge for the Anglo-Mughal War started by the directors in Bengal , he prepared for war and raised a Portuguese militia, but as the Mughal had thousands of war elephants , he and the council had no choice but to pay him 50,000 pagodas to keep
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#17328018758259920-399: The Rigveda , has been also been translated as an enemy, but overall the identity of this term remains unclear and disputed among scholars. According to Scott Levi, it was likely an established institution in Ancient India by the start of the common era based on texts such as the Arthashastra , the Manusmriti and the Mahabharata . Slavery was "likely widespread by the lifetime of
10080-430: The Umayyad conquest of Sindh was that of Surya Devi and her sister. In the early 11th century Tarikh al-Yamini, the Arab historian Al-Utbi recorded that in 1001 the armies of Mahmud of Ghazni conquered Peshawar and Waihand (capital of Gandhara) after Battle of Peshawar (1001), "in the midst of the land of Hindustan ", and enslaved thousands. Later, following his twelfth expedition into India in 1018–19, Mahmud
10240-527: The War of the Spanish Succession , shipments would get stolen by pirates on their way to Europe, and once there, the Europeans princes and nobility would lack the funds to acquire them, forcing some merchants into bankruptcy. Demand followed the Coronations of monarchs , royal court events, war victories and other ceremonies. It became the most important branch of private trade of East India employees between Madras and London. Along with Sir Jean Chardin and Jean-Baptiste Tavernier , Yale became one of
10400-406: The board in London . According to Madras historian Arthur Pringle, the official records are full of invented circumstantial charges of injustice and fraud. Yale was then promoted to the office of Mintmaster , and was given a seat on the council, occupying the fifth position on a board of six, as the directors were "pleased with Elihu's behavior and ability". In 1682, he was sent to Porto Novo on
10560-409: The colonial era , Indians were taken into different parts of the world as slaves by various European merchant companies as part of the Indian Ocean slave trade . Slavery was prohibited in the possessions of the East India Company by the Indian Slavery Act, 1843 , in French India in 1848, British India in 1861, and Portuguese India in 1876. The abolition of European chattel slavery in
10720-443: The grooms of the fort's stables. They were captured by the Polligars on their way to the Mughal and surrendered to Madras on condition of showing them mercy, which was initially agreed, but once arrived, Gov. Yale and the Council decided to have them sentenced for treason and desertion . One was executed before the stables , the other was shot in front of the fort's gate. Thirty-eight years later, Capt. Hamilton wrote about
10880-445: The marshal to temporarily release them to their private homes, and reversed other sentences made by the Mayor's Court. Yale wrote in his letter that "he would have been unfaithful to his trust had he permitted an innocent man to starve to death in prison". On October 1, 1692, letters arrived from London with accusations against Yale, making Nathaniel Higginson the new President of Madras . According to Madras historian Fanny Penny,
11040-440: The white supremacist and pro-slavery leader John C. Calhoun . In respect of Elihu Yale, the process was assisted by the availability online of the relevant East India Company records. In 2020 Yale's president, Peter Salovey , launched the Yale and Slavery Research Project to explore the university's links with slavery and colonialism, including Elihu Yale's central role. The project was led by David W. Blight , director of
11200-591: The "racial distinctions" are not justified by the evidence. According to the Indologist Thomas Trautmann , the relationship between the Arya and Dasa appears only in two verses of the Rigveda , is vague and unexpected since the dasa were "in some ways more economically advanced" than the Arya according to the textual evidence. According to Asko Parpola , the term dasa in ancient Indian texts has proto- Saka roots, where dasa or daha simply means "man". Both "dasa" and "dasyu" are uncommon in Indo-Iranian languages (including Sanskrit and Pali), and these words may be
11360-401: The 16th century. "Most of the Portuguese," says Albert. D. Mandelslo, a German itinerant writer, "have many slaves of both sexes, whom they employ not only on and about their persons, but also upon the business they are capable of, for what they get comes with the master." Japanese slave girls were still owned by India based Portuguese (Lusitanian) families according to Francisco De Sousa ,
11520-574: The 1830s led to the emergence of a system of indentured Indian labor. Over a century, more than a million Indians, known as girmitiyas, were recruited to serve fixed-term labor contracts (often five years) in European colonies across Africa, the Indian Ocean, Asia, and the Americas, primarily on the previously slave labour dependent plantations and mines . While distinct from chattel slavery,
11680-589: The Bengal estuaries were conducted by joint forces of Magh pirates, and Portuguese traders (chatins) operating from Chittagong outside the jurisdiction and patronage of the Estado da India, using armed vessels (galias). These raids occurred with the active connivance of the Taung-ngu (Toungoo) rulers of Arakan. The eastward expansion of the Mughal Empire, however, completed with the conquest of Chittagong in 1666, cut off
11840-577: The Buddhist monastic community. According to Schopen, since these passages are not found in Indian versions of the manuscripts, but found in a Sri Lankan version, these sections may have been later interpolations that reflect a Sri Lankan tradition, rather than early Indian. The discussion of servants and bonded labor is also found in manuscripts found in Tibet, though the details vary. The discussion of servant, bonded labor and slaves, states Scopen, differs significantly in different manuscripts discovered for
12000-557: The Central Asian slave markets was largely a product of the state building efforts of the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire in South Asia". The revenue system of the Delhi Sultanate produced a considerable proportion of the Indian slave population as these rulers, and their subordinate shiqadars, ordered their armies to abduct large numbers of locals as a means of extracting revenue. While those communities that were loyal to
12160-660: The Garden House, which was used for those who were resting outside the city, having a place to eat. Yale didn't follow this order and kept Gov. Gyfford there as his health was fragile. During August 1687, Yale is then recorded corresponding with the Ambassador of Shah Suleiman of Persia , regarding his arrival with a Koran to try to convert the Siamese king to Mohammedanism , which the latter refused. Being bankrupt after his failed mission, Yale loaned him money, which
12320-520: The Great Famine under Gov. Gyfford , where they had refused to collect taxes, with the directors replying that "you are still fencing against our creating revenue at the Fort, with slight, insignificant arguments, wherein the worst is that you should have so mean an opinion of us, as to think such sophistical reasons will make any impressions on our judgment". The directors also gave the order to close
12480-468: The Hellenic world. The "unfree labor" could be of two types in ancient India: the underadsatva and the ahitaka , states Ishay. A person in distress could pledge themselves for work leading to underadsatava , while under ahitaka a person's "unfree labor" was pledged or mortgaged against a debt or ransom when captured during a war. These forms of slavery limited the duration of "unfree labor" and such
12640-660: The Indian subcontinent, Arakan/Bengal, Malabar, and Coromandel remained the most important source of forced labour until the 1660s. Between 1626 and 1662, the Dutch exported on an average 150–400 slaves annually from the Arakan-Bengal coast. During the first thirty years of Batavia's existence, Indian and Arakanese slaves provided the main labour force of the company's Asian headquarters. Of the 211 manumitted slaves in Batavia between 1646 and 1649, 126 (59.71%) came from South Asia, including 86 (40.76%) from Bengal. Slave raids into
12800-473: The Indian subcontinent, Coromandel remained the centre of a sporadic slave trade throughout the seventeenth century. In various short-lived expansions accompanying natural and human-induced calamities, the Dutch exported thousands of slaves from the east coast of India. A prolonged period of drought followed by famine conditions in 1618–20 saw the first large-scale export of slaves from the Coromandel coast in
12960-600: The King of England, William of Orange , ordered on March 15, 1695, the liberation of Elihu Yale, so that he could come back to England whenever he chose, with the additional order of giving him the Great Cabin in the Company ship of his choosing when he would be ready to sail home. When the letter reached Madras ten months later on January 8, 1696, Yale was immediately offered a ship for Britain, but having already served
13120-417: The King's Privy Council on February 14 at Kensington Palace , contesting the accusations. The Privy Council ordered a reply from the East India Company but were not impressed by their statements against Yale's activities, therefore they ordered, on behalf of the king, to stop all the company's ships that were ready to sail for Fort St. George in India. Yale's case was given to Sir Thomas Rawlinson , and
13280-649: The Netherlands. This new class of merchants who made their fortune in the East Indies would become known as the Nabobs in Britain. During the Georgian era under King George I , Yale and other merchants would meet at London coffee houses as centres of social life. He kept his title of governor, and after the failures of his bankers, he opened a bank account in the newly created Bank of England , with deposits at C. Hoare & Co of Sir Richard Hoare , now
13440-660: The Siameses nobles during the Siamese revolution of 1688 . On August 11, 1687, Yale approved the recall of several Englishmen to Madras detained by Prussian Wolf Henrik von Kalnein , governor of Tranquebar under the Danish East India Co. . About a month later, on September 22, 1687, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb conquered the nearby Kingdom of Golconda , defeating Sultan Abul Shah at the Siege of Golconda , ending
13600-633: The Sultan and regularly paid their taxes were often excused from this practice, taxes were commonly extracted from other, less loyal groups in the form of slaves. Thus, according to Barani, the Shamsi "slave-king" Balban (r. 1266–87) ordered his shiqadars in Awadh to enslave those peoples resistant to his authority, implying those who refused to supply him with tax revenue. Sultan Alauddin Khalji (r. 1296–1316)
13760-541: The Sultanate regime from Mongol marauders led to the delineation of a frontier that needed to be defended. To guard the Punjab marches, there was increasingly more and more slaves that were being bought. Their allegiance was not along ethnic lines, and their dedicated patronage allowed them to incorporate themselves into the military hierarchy as trusted officers and commanders. The Sultanate bought Turks in order to develop
13920-544: The abundant availability of low-priced Indian slaves abound. Many of these Indian slaves were used by Muslim nobility in the subcontinent, but others were exported to satisfy the demand in international markets. Many slaves were forcibly converted to Islam. Children fathered by Muslim masters on non-Muslim slaves would be raised Muslim. Non-Muslim women, who Muslim soldiers and elites had slept with, would convert to Islam to avoid rejection by their own communities. Scott Levi states that "Movement of considerable numbers of Hindus to
14080-523: The accusations were the same as with past governors, being the "old story of private trade, jealousy on the part of his fellow-merchants, and suspicion and distrust at home as his wealth accumulated". By then, Yale's fortune was at £205,000 (equivalent to £40.5 million in 2023), which was the same as the Company 's former chairman and largest shareholder, Sir Josiah Child . On November 23, Sir John Goldsborough and judge John Dolben arrived in Madras for Yale's investigation. The Councillors took
14240-483: The actions of the just Smell sweet and blossom in the silent dust. In Boston, Massachusetts , a tablet to Yale was erected in 1927 at Scollay Square , near the site of Yale's birth. Yale president Arthur Twining Hadley penned the inscription, which reads: "On Pemberton Hill, 255 Feet North of This Spot, Was Born on April Fifth 1649 Elihu Yale, Governor of Madras, Whose Permanent Memorial in His Native Land
14400-474: The ambassadors of Persia and Siam. In July 1687, Yale was appointed President of Madras and Governor of Fort St. George , replacing William Gyfford . A difficulty of the office was to deal with the native rulers through firmans , as Madras was surrounded by the Mughal Empire , with rulers always asking for bribes. When their demands were refused, they would seized the food supplies, half starving
14560-493: The arrival of Commander Job Charnock , with his staff and four companies of soldiers. He arrived from a failed mission that consisted of blocking and seizing the ships of Mughal Aurangzeb , who had attacked the company's ships in the Bay of Bengal , and taken control of Chittagong during the Anglo-Mughal War . Charnock stayed in Madras for a few months under Gov. Yale's protection, which caused dissensions in
14720-466: The books are at Yale Library . Yale's will included donations to the poor of Wrexham in Wales, to Christ's Hospital in London, St Bartholomew's Hospital , St Thomas' Hospital , various workhouse and poorhouses , and to Connecticut College, later known as Yale . In 1680 Yale married Catherine Elford, widow of Joseph Hynmers, second-in-command of Fort St George, India as Deputy Governor for
14880-670: The capital appeared like an Indian city, no soldier of the camp being without wealth, or without many slaves", and during the expedition of the Ghaznavid ruler Sultan Ibrahim to the Multan area of northwestern India 100,000 captives were brought back to Central Asia, and the Ghaznavids were said to have captured "five hundred thousand slaves, beautiful men and women". During the Delhi Sultanate period (1206–1555), references to
15040-429: The children of Mrs. Nicks . Over time, the old accusations against the company's officers enriching themselves at their expense appeared less frequently, as the directors learned that their employees could grow wealthy while advancing their commercial interests. Yale arrived in Britain in 1699 with a fortune that amounted to £200,000 (equivalent to £35.3 million in 2023), mostly made from his diamond business in
15200-436: The college that became Yale University was successful largely because of the generosity of a man named Jeremiah Dummer , but that the trustees of the school did not want it known by the name "Dummer College". Of Yale's donation to the college, totalling just under £1,162, Gordon suggested that "never has so much immortality been purchased for so paltry a [...] sum." In her article for The Atlantic about Skull and Bones ,
15360-555: The company for over 20 years, he decided to stay as Fraser was still on his case. Fraser then suggested to Sir Josiah Child that Yale had poisoned four members of the Council over the years. Fraser's case relied on statements made by two Indian natives that were not sworn, where they said that they had heard someone, who is now dead, say that somebody else, who has now left Madras, that two of Yale's enemies were still alive, and that they would be dead soon. Based on native gossips ,
15520-569: The company's servants with a blockade . In terms of size, Madras consisted of about 300,000 people, or around 6% of England 's population at the time. Yale had previously been popular with both the Europeans and native Indians, and reverted to the former practice of living and dining in the Fort House with merchants, writers and factors. With Yale's nomination, Sir Josiah Child hoped that Madras would be less critical of London . As
15680-495: The council for fear of the Mughal's revenge. The Council eventually outvoted Yale, and Charnock was forced to leave, where he would found the city of Calcutta . In July, 1690, news of the war between William of Orange and Louis XIV of France arrived in Madras , and Yale prepared Fort St. George once more for war. On August 15, the French sent seven warships to attack the Madras roads, along with one fireship . The fort
15840-507: The council, coming from Thomas Gray, Sir Josiah Child 's servant, and lawyer William Fraser , a man known for his violent temper. They accused Yale of trying to get military power into his own hands. In 1691, Yale then received several Indian merchants and citizens who came to complain about Fraser's behaviour as new Mayor of Madras . Fraser had imprisoned four of their friends for refusing to sign an arbitration proceeding , and were stuck without food adapted to their religion. Yale ordered
16000-473: The directors dismissed the case. Thereafter, president Higginson was told by his servant of seven years that Fraser had threatened him twice, to which he replied that he had beaten him because he didn't like his Salams . Fraser was then charged and banned from the council. With Fraser removed, Yale stayed at Fort St. George for some years, and over time, cleared his name of all scandal and developed his diamond business. Gov. Thomas Pitt , who would find
16160-647: The endowment accounted for $ 1.2 billion of the university's operating budget in 2017 and $ 1.5 billion in 2021. The university aims to spend approximately 5.25 percent of the endowment on its annual operating budget. The endowment has become known for seeking out "unconventional assets" and for investments in emerging businesses. In the 1990s it invested in Google and Amazon and was later an early investor in Facebook , LinkedIn , and Airbnb . As of 2016, its venture capital investments had averaged 93-percent returns over
16320-827: The endowment's managers. In 2015, Swensen earned $ 4.5 million, making him the highest-paid employee at the university, surpassing the compensation of even university president Peter Salovey . Others have said the salaries of endowment managers are justifiable, asserting that they are less than what could be earned in the private sector and pay for themselves with the endowment's high rates of return. Yale's endowment has been widely criticized for its investments in fossil fuel companies, Puerto Rican debt, private prisons, companies which provide services to Immigration and Customs Enforcement, subprime mortgage lending companies, and for other controversial holdings. In December 2018, after years of criticism from campus fossil fuel divestment groups, Yale University arrested 48 student activists for staging
16480-410: The endowment, was Douglas A. Warner III . As of June 30, 2022, the endowment was valued at $ 41.383 billion. Since the early 1990s, the endowment has generated annual returns for the university of approximately 11.3 percent, with a portion of the annual return forming part of the university's operating budget and the remainder reinvested to grow the size of the endowment. Spending from revenue earned off
16640-417: The enslavement of non-Muslims who defaulted on their revenue payments. The slave trade continued to exist in the Mughal Empire . One Dutch merchant in the 17th century writes about Abd Allah Khan Firuz Jang, an Uzbek noble at the Mughal court during the 1620s and 1630s, who was appointed to the position of governor of the regions of Kalpi and Kher and, in the process of subjugating the local rebels, beheaded
16800-552: The estate. In 1687, after the death of Jacques de Paiva , a Portuguese Jewish diamond merchant and mines owner, Yale formed a relationship with his widow Hieronima de Paiva and brought her to live with him, causing a scandal within Madras's colonial society. They had a son who died, along with his mother, in South Africa . Yale died on 8 July 1721 in London . No descendants of his have survived past his grandchildren. His body
16960-411: The event in his memoirs, from a "weal and treacherous memory". As a past employee who became a Privateer , he never forgave the taxes the Company forced upon him during his private travels, and his depiction of the time, always critical of his past employer, are not considered faithful about the period. The later years of Yale's governance was marked by serious conflicts between his Presidency and
17120-491: The first of the Shamsi slave-kings ) invaded Gujarat in 1197 and placed some 20,000 people in bondage. Roughly six years later, he enslaved an additional 50,000 people during his conquest of Kalinjar . Later in the 13th century, Balban's campaign in Ranthambore , reportedly defeated the Indian army and yielded "captives beyond computation". Levi states that the forcible enslavement of non-Muslims during Delhi Sultanate
17280-463: The grueling conditions and restricted freedoms experienced by many girmitiyas have led some historians to classify their system of labor as akin to slavery. The earliest surviving South Asian epigraphy, the mid 3rd Century BCE, Edicts of Ashoka , in Greek and Aramaic, independently identify obligations to slaves (Greek: δούλοις , Aramaic: עבד) and hired workers (Greek: μισθωτοῖς ), later prohibiting
17440-525: The health of the royal families of England and France. But around August 1687, disputes regarding Siam's strategic importance emerged among European powers , and Gov. Yale was charged by King Narai 's agents regarding the sale of jewels, which they estimated having overpaid by 25%. The man behind the charges was a Greek named Constantine Phaulkon , who wanted to lower English's influence over King Narai, and get him closer to Louis XIV of France through Chevalier de Chaumont . This trading dispute started
17600-491: The high level of military success, advancement and capacity that the Turkic slaves added, it is disproportionate to popular sentiment regarding their Turkic origins. Alauddin also fixed the prices for slaves and animals. Barani gives the following prices for slaves: Barani states that very few slaves were sold for 100-200 tankas : if an expensive slave, whose normal price would be 1,000-2,000 after Alauddin's death, appeared in
17760-527: The judges of the choultry before being transported. Transportation of young children, in particular, was made unlawful. During his tenure as President of Madras , Yale ordered a minimum of 10 slaves sent on every ship going to Europe, and on a month in 1687, Fort St George exported at least 665 slaves. In his judicial capacity he also on several occasions sentenced so-called "black criminals" to whipping and enslavement. Evidence as to whether Yale personally owned slaves, or participated directly in their sale
17920-488: The largest European diamond traders in the world, as nearly all diamonds came from India during that period. Chardin, the past jewel merchant of the Shah of Persia , was also one his partners. He kept doing business with his friends Gov. Thomas Pitt , grandfather of prime minister William Pitt , and Sir Charles Cotterell , during the era where London became the international trading centre of diamonds, dislodging Portugal and
18080-469: The law into their own hands, and had the Yale brothers imprisoned, and fearing of being poisoned, Yale wrote a letter to be delivered to the King of England by his brother, who will leave Madras on February 20, 1694. The investigators then inspected the fortifications around Black Town, the Indian natives's neighborhood. Yale had built the walls with the company's fund to protect the town against invasions of
18240-462: The leaders and enslaved their women, daughters and children, who were more than 200,000 in number . When Shah Shuja was appointed as governor of Kabul, he carried out a war in Indian territory beyond the Indus . Most of the women burnt themselves to death to save their honour. Those captured were "distributed" among Muslim mansabdars . The Augustinian missionary Fray Sebastian Manrique, who
18400-433: The lineage system of Vedic traditions, wherein dasi putras could rise to the status of priests, warriors and chiefs as shown by the examples of Kaksivant Ausija, Balbutha, Taruksa, Divodasa and others. Some scholars contest the earlier interpretations of the term dasa as "slave", with or without "racial distinctions". According to Indologists Stephanie W. Jamison and Joel P. Brereton, known for their recent translation of
18560-521: The manumission or sale of slaves in the Majmua-i-wathaiq reveals that slaves of Indian origin ( Hindi al-asal ) accounted for over fifty-eight percent of those slaves whose region of origin is mentioned. The Khutut-i-mamhura bemahr-i qadat-i Bukhara , a smaller collection of judicial documents from early-eighteenth-century Bukhara , includes several letters of manumission, with over half of these letters referring to slaves "of Indian origin". In
18720-475: The market, nobody would buy it because of the fear of Alauddin's spies. During the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526), Hindus were enslaved in such large quantities for export to the Central Asian slave market that Indian slaves became low price slaves, available and affordable, and increased their demand in international markets. Aside for war captives enslaved during The Delhi Sultanate were provided with large numbers of Hindu slaves via their revenue system, in which
18880-676: The masons for use in the construction of the Bibi-Khanym Mosque in Samarkand . Young female slaves fetched higher market price than skilled construction slaves, sometimes by 150%, as they could be kept as sex slaves. During the Chola Rule of Sri Lanka, Chola Empire destroyed Anuradhapura kingdom of Sri Lanka. Many Sinhalese were enslaved and transported to South India. Slavery existed in Portuguese India after
19040-591: The model of a legal letter of manumission written by the chief qazi for his assistant to follow, the example used is of a slave "of Indian origin". Indian slaves continued to be sold in the Central Asian slave markets, such as the Bukhara slave market , well into the nineteenth century. The export of slaves from India was limited to debt defaulters and rebels against the Mughal Empire. The Ghakkars of Punjab acted as intermediaries for such slave for trade to Central Asian buyers. The Fatawa-e-Alamgiri (also known as
19200-566: The oldest bank in Britain. He lived most of his remaining years at the Plas Grono estate in Wales, next to Erddig Hall , inherited from the line of his great-grandfather, Chancellor David Yale , and at his London house in Queen Square . His neighbors included the Duke of Powis at Powis House , Lord Chancellor Bathurst , Queen Anne and her son Prince William , and artists Charles Burney and Jonathan Richardson . In London society, Yale
19360-417: The period as follows, Slavery and empire-formation tied in particularly well with iqta and it is within this context of Islamic expansion that elite slavery was later commonly found. It became the predominant system in North India in the thirteenth century and retained considerable importance in the fourteenth century. Slavery was still vigorous in fifteenth-century Bengal, while after that date it shifted to
19520-518: The preceding two decades. In 2016 the State of Connecticut considered taxing Yale's investment returns as a way of plugging a gap in the state budget. The university objected, in part, on the grounds that such a move would be a violation of the tax exemption guaranteed to the university by the Colony of Connecticut in 1745. Beginning in the early 2000s, some criticized the size of compensation given to
19680-586: The property of the East India Company – he certainly profited both directly and indirectly from their sale", while the Sterling Professor David W. Blight suggests that Yale's personal ownership is "not a key question [...] some portion of [his] considerable fortune derived from his myriad entanglements with the purchase and sale of human beings" through his "key leadership role in the business of human trafficking ". Gov. Yale's story of having hanged his groom for taking his favorite horse on
19840-886: The same Buddhist text in India, Nepal and Tibet, whether they are in Sanskrit or Pali language. These Buddhist manuscripts present a set of questions to ask a person who wants to become a monk or nun . These questions inquire if the person is a dasa and dasi , but also ask additional questions such as "are you ahrtaka " and "are you vikritaka ". The later questions have been interpreted in two ways. As "are you one who has been seized" ( ahrtaka ) and "are you one who has been sold" ( vikritaka ) respectively, these terms are interpreted as slaves. Alternatively, they have also been interpreted as "are you doubtless" and "are you blameworthy" respectively, which does not mean slave. Further, according to these texts, Buddhist monasteries refused all servants, bonded labor and slaves an opportunity to become
20000-551: The same Empire. Slavery in India escalated during the Muslim domination of northern India after the 11th century. It became a social institution with the enslavement of Hindus, along with the use of slaves in armies, a practice within Muslim kingdoms of the time. According to Muslim historians of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire era, after the invasions of Hindu kingdoms, other Indians were taken as slaves, with many exported to Central Asia and West Asia. Slaves from
20160-476: The seven founder members of the Harvard Corporation , the governing board and charter that incorporated the college in 1650. It was they, along with Elihu's uncle and aunt, Thomas Yale Jr. , and Anne Yale Jr., who brought the reconstituted Eaton/ Yale family to America, while other members of the family stayed in England. Their estates in Wales were Plas-yn-Yale and Plas Grono, and Elihu's brother
20320-526: The seventeenth century. Between 1622 and 1623, 1,900 slaves were shipped from central Coromandel ports, like Pulicat and Devanampattinam. Company officials on the coast declared that 2,000 more could have been bought if only they had the funds. The second expansion in the export of Coromandel slaves occurred during a famine following the revolt of the Nayaka Indian rulers of South India (Tanjavur, Senji, and Madurai) against Bijapur overlordship (1645) and
20480-534: The slavery-related law included in Fatawa-i Alamgiri were, Alongside Buddhist Oirats , Christian Russians, Afghans, and the predominantly Shia Iranians, Indian slaves were an important component of the highly active slave markets of medieval and early modern Central Asia. The all pervasive nature of slavery in this period in Central Asia is shown by the 17th century records of one Juybari Sheikh,
20640-443: The sphere of Islamic influence, to the company's Asian headquarters, the "Chinese colonial city" of Batavia ( Jakarta ), and its regional centre in coastal Sri Lanka. Other destinations included the important markets of Malacca ( Melaka ) and Makassar (Ujungpandang), along with the plantation economies of eastern Indonesia (Maluku, Ambon, and Banda Islands), and the agricultural estates of the southwestern Cape Colony (South Africa). On
20800-405: The subordinate iqta'dars ordered their armies to abduct Hindus in large numbers as a means of extracting revenue. Taxes were often extracted from communities less loyal to the Sultan in the form of slaves, and non-Muslims who were not able to pay taxes could be defined as resisting the authority of the Sultan and thus abducted as slaves in warfare; Sultan ' Ala al-Din Khalji (r. 1296–1316) legalized
20960-427: The time, the East India Company was already exporting to Europe spices , pepper , precious stones , Chinese porcelains , Japanese screens, and cotton cloth . In 1674, Yale was sent to negotiate the potential establishment of a new factory, and by February, was allowed to deal in private trade, which included pearls , diamonds , rubies , sapphires , neckcloths , cloves and nutmegs . By 1677, Gov. Langhorne
21120-509: The trade and became a specialist in diamonds and precious stones. In January 1681, he was promoted to the office of Provisional Customer. In the same year, Gov. Streynsham Master was replaced by William Gyfford , and Yale was sent as a diplomat to meet the VOC Governor of Pulicat . Despite Master's loyalty, the directors once again believed the charges of bad management, fueled by enemies, who brought complaints after complaints to
21280-533: The trading of slaves within the Empire. Dāsa are offered in examples of Pāṇini's , probably mid 4th century BCE, Sanskrit grammar, the Aṣṭādhyāyī , e.g. 2.3.69 " lusting for the slave ", 2.4.24 " the concourse of ladies and slaves ". The term dāsa and dāsyu in Vedic and other ancient Indian literature has been interpreted by as "servant" or "slave", but others have contested such meaning. The term dāsa in
21440-497: The traditional supplies from Arakan and Bengal. Until the Dutch seizure of the Portuguese settlements on the Malabar coast (1658–63), large numbers of slaves were also captured and sent from India's west coast to Batavia, Ceylon, and elsewhere. After 1663, however, the stream of forced labour from Cochin dried up to a trickle of about 50–100 and 80–120 slaves per year to Batavia and Ceylon, respectively. In contrast with other areas of
21600-511: The university's historical links with slavery and colonialism, including Elihu Yale's role. Yale was born in Boston , Massachusetts , to David Yale (1613–1690), a wealthy Boston merchant and attorney to Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick , and Ursula Knight; he was the grandson of Ann Yale (born Lloyd), daughter of Bishop George Lloyd . After the death of her first husband, Thomas Yale Sr. (1587–1619), son of Chancellor David Yale , Anne Yale married Theophilus Eaton , ambassador to Denmark. Eaton
21760-572: The use of tapestries . A new desire for collecting emerged among the English aristocracy under the Duke of Marlborough at Blenheim Palace , and the Duke of Devonshire at Chatsworth House . Yale followed their lead and became a famous collector in London, with artists visiting him at his Queen Square home to secure patronage , one of which would be Vanderbank , who worked at Kensington Palace and Castle Howard . Slavery in India The Early History of slavery in
21920-429: The war against the Company will eventually stop around 1688. In London, the directors investigated the accusations of the Siameses on Yale and cleared his name, declaring that "you can not be ignorant that Phaulkon himself in the King of Siam's name, began the war... upon a pretense that Mr. Yale injured the King of Siam in a bargain". Phaulkon 's alliance with France would later cost him his life, being assassinated by
22080-580: The western, or Southeast Africa , Madagascar , and the Mascarene Islands (Mauritius and Reunion); the middle, or Indian subcontinent (Malabar, Coromandel, and the Bengal/Arakan coast); and the eastern, or Malaysia , Indonesia , New Guinea (Irian Jaya), and the southern Philippines . The Dutch traded slaves from fragmented or weak small states and stateless societies in the East beyond
22240-488: The word slave in Greek or other ancient and medieval civilizations. According to Arthashastra, anyone who had been found guilty of nishpatitah (Sanskrit: निष्पातित, ruined, bankrupt, a minor crime) may mortgage oneself to become dasa for someone willing to pay his or her bail and employ the dasa for money and privileges. The term dasa in Indic literature when used as a suffix to a bhagavan (deity) name, refers to
22400-514: Was London merchant Thomas Yale, later ambassador to the King of Siam for the East India Company . Elihu's father, David Yale, would later come from London to New Haven Colony with his stepfather, Theophilus Eaton , in 1639. He moved to Boston in 1641 and met and married Elihu Yale's mother, Ursula, in 1643. In 1652, at the age of three, Elihu Yale left New England , as David Yale took his family back to London. While documentation of this period
22560-584: Was accused of corruption by competitors within the Company . The directors were always suspicious, and with huge fortune being made six months away from London, they easily mistrust their employees. He was then replaced by Gov. Streynsham Master , the son-in-law of Richard Legh of Lyme Hall . In April 1678, Yale was promoted to the rank of Factor , doubling his salary. In June arrived the Welsh chaplain John Evans , future Bishop of Meath , who would become
22720-529: Was also a vestryman and treasurer of St Mary's Church at Fort St George . On 6 October 1968, the 250th anniversary of the naming of Yale College for Yale, the classmates of Chester Bowles , then the American ambassador to India and a graduate of Yale (1924), donated money for lasting improvements to the church and erected a plaque to commemorate the occasion. In 1970, a portrait of him, later renamed Elihu Yale with Members of his Family and an Enslaved Child ,
22880-517: Was also instrumental to the development of the Government General Hospital for Madras soldiers. Records of the period indicate a flourishing slave trade in Madras. After English merchants began to kidnap young children and deport them to distant parts of the world, the administration of Fort St George stepped in and introduced laws to curb the practice. On 2 February 1688, Elihu Yale decreed that slaves should be examined by
23040-400: Was also not practised. Andre Wink summarizes the slavery in 8th and 9th century India as follows, (During the invasion of Muhammad al-Qasim), invariably numerous women and children were enslaved. The sources insist that now, in dutiful conformity to religious law, 'the one-fifth of the slaves and spoils' were set apart for the caliph's treasury and despatched to Iraq and Syria. The remainder
23200-656: Was associated with Sir Charles Cotterell , Master of the Ceremonies . He was then elected in December 1717 a Fellow of the Royal Society under Sir Isaac Newton . His candidature was introduced by Sir Hans Sloan , founder of the British Museum and compeer of Voltaire and Benjamin Franklin . In the same year, Yale was asked by Newton to deal with the donations of Dr. Thomas Paget, and later received
23360-523: Was attended by the King of England, William of Orange , Prince George of Denmark , Archbishop Thomas Tenison and the principal ministers. They ordered that the Attorney General examine the charter granted to the whole Company , and to examine their powers in matters of judicature . Their investigation was brought to Parliament , where they discovered briberies made by Sir Josiah Child and Sir Thomas Cook to Tory members. Thereafter,
23520-507: Was buried in the churchyard of the parish church of St Giles' Church, Wrexham , Wales . His tomb bears an inscription: Born in America, in Europe bred In Africa travell'd and in Asia wed Where long he liv'd and thriv'd; In London dead Much good, some ill, he did; so hope all's even And that his soul thro' mercy's gone to Heaven You that survive and read this tale, take care For this most certain exit to prepare Where blest in peace,
23680-553: Was delicate as the Dutch and Louis XIV at Versailles were also trying to get the Mughal in their favor, and the directors would hold Yale responsible if anything went wrong, including failing to keep the Golconda diamonds trade from the Kollur Mines . At the time, India was the world producer of diamonds, with Golconda producing 60% of its total output. Most of Yale's private fortune will be obtained from this trade with
23840-522: Was donated to the Yale Center for British Art from Chatsworth House . A portrait, painted during the 18th century, was also given to Yale University by U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower . On 5 April 1999, Yale University recognised the 350th anniversary of Yale's birthday. An article that year in American Heritage magazine by John Steele Gordon described Yale as the "most overrated philanthropist " in American history, arguing that
24000-562: Was first put on the court, but Yale had him temporarily displaced after Fraser had imprisoned a Portuguese merchant for four years upon suspicion alone. By July, Sir John Goldsborough concluded his investigation, and left the countercharges to Fraser, not finding any evidence that Yale had defrauded the East India Company . His fines were based for the most part on technicalities, where he had not followed orders or made errors of judgment. Ten months later, while still in prison, Yale's brother arrived in London in 1695, and reached directly to
24160-476: Was in Bengal in 1629–30 and again in 1640, remarked on the ability of the shiqdār —a Mughal officer responsible for executive matters in the pargana , the smallest territorial unit of imperial administration to collect the revenue demand, by force if necessary, and even to enslave peasants should they default in their payments. A survey of a relatively small, restricted sample of seventy-seven letters regarding
24320-526: Was inseparable from the slave trade". In his foreword to the report, Salovey wrote of the importance of the study as providing a "deeper, more honest understanding of who we are" and of helping in "coming to terms with injustices of the past and in confronting current wrongs". A linked re-evaluation considered the artworks donated by, and related to, Elihu Yale, in particular, the painting Elihu Yale with Members of his Family and an Enslaved Child . The picture, which shows Yale and his relations being served by
24480-538: Was motivated by the desire for war booty and military expansion. This gained momentum under the Khalji and Tughluq dynasties, as being supported by available figures. Zia uddin Barani suggested that Sultan Alauddin Khalji owned 50,000 slave-boys, in addition to 70,000 construction slaves. Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq is said to have owned 180,000 slaves, roughly 12,000 of whom were skilled artisans. The need to secure
24640-460: Was never repaid. For many years, merchants of Madras and Siam were trading partners in the Andaman Sea , trading in rhinoceros horns , elephant tusks , copper and other commodities. Yale's brother, Thomas Yale, became ambassador to King Narai of Siam , and during this time, Elihu would entertain at his house the French ambassador and musketeer , Count Claude de Forbin , drinking to
24800-414: Was protected by a garrison of 700 soldiers under Gov. Yale, with the help of a Dutch fleet. Combat lasted a few hours, and the French were repulsed by the fort's guns, after which they didn't return. Yale then negotiated the release of Englishmen, dealing with Moghul general Shaista Khan , along with Daniel Chardin, who was sent to the King of Kandy . In 1690, Yale's brother negotiated with Rama Raja ,
24960-431: Was scattered among the army of Islam. At Rūr, a random 60,000 captives reduced to slavery. At Brahamanabad 30,000 slaves were allegedly taken. At Multan 6,000. Slave raids continued to be made throughout the late Umayyad period in Sindh, but also much further into Hind, as far as Ujjain and Malwa . The Abbasid governors raided Punjab, where many prisoners and slaves were taken. One of the more known cases of slavery during
25120-549: Was the cause of enslavement of Indians for the Central Asian slave market already during the Umayyad conquest of Sindh of the 8th-century, when the armies of the Umayyad commander Muhammad bin Qasim enslaved tens of thousands of Indian civilians and well as soldiers. During the Ghaznavid campaigns in India of the 11th-century, hundreds of thousands of Indians were captured and sold on the Central Asian slave markets; in 1014 "the army of Islam brought to Ghazna about 200,000 captives (qarib do sit hazar banda), and much wealth, so that
25280-435: Was the co-founder of two of the Thirteen British Colonies , which are represented on the Flag of the United States , mainly through the Massachusetts Bay Colony and the New Haven Colony , and was the brother of Nathaniel Eaton , Harvard 's first Headmaster and President designate , at the founding of Harvard in 1636. His son, Samuel Eaton, the uncle of Elihu, was also involved in the foundation of Harvard, being one of
25440-508: Was the first registered at the church. They had 4 children together. David Yale died young in 1687. Katherine Yale (died 1715), married to Dudley North of Glenham Hall , a cousin of Lord North , the prime minister who later lost the American War of Independence . Their daughter would marry Nicholas Herbert , son of Thomas Herbert, 8th Earl of Pembroke , and lived at Wilton House and Highclere Castle . Anne Yale (died 1734) married to Lord James Cavendish of Chatsworth House , son of
25600-430: Was to bestow a charity at Oxford , he sent them books, along with Sir Isaac Newton . He also sent a newly painted portrait of King George I by artist Sir Godfrey Kneller , principal painter of the king at the time, and the institution changed its name to Yale College . The total sum gifted was about the same as John Harvard 's to Harvard College . The painting is now at Yale University Gallery , while about 214 of
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