Yasak or yasaq , sometimes iasak , ( Russian : ясак ; akin to Yassa ) is a Turkic word for "tribute" that was used in Imperial Russia to designate fur tribute exacted from the indigenous peoples of Siberia .
117-664: The origins of yasak can be traced to a tax collected from native, primarily non-Turkic populations in the Golden Horde . The word yasaq is a Russian variation of the Qazaq/Turk word 'Zhasaq', which has two meanings: The exact time when the concept of yasak was introduced in Muscovy is uncertain. It appears likely, however, that the tax was inherited by Muscovy from the Volga khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan - two fragments of
234-609: A certain Mongolian admixture prior to migration in the 7th century. The Yakuts originally lived around Olkhon and the region of Lake Baikal . Beginning in the 13th century they migrated to the basins of the Middle Lena , the Aldan and Vilyuy rivers under the pressure of the rising Mongols . The northern Yakuts were largely hunters, fishermen and reindeer herders, while the southern Yakuts raised cattle and horses . In
351-620: A historian of Khwarazm , called the left wing the Blue Horde, and since he was familiar with the oral traditions of the khanate empire, it seems likely that the Russian chroniclers were correct, and that the khanate itself called its left wing the Blue Horde. The khanate apparently used the term White Horde to refer to its right wing, which was situated in Batu's home base in Sarai and controlled
468-613: A large Jochid delegation to participate in Hulagu 's expedition in the Middle East in 1256–1257. One of the Jochid princes who joined Hulagu's army was accused of witchcraft and sorcery against Hulagu. After receiving permission from Berke, Hulagu executed him. After that two more Jochid princes died suspiciously. According to some Muslim sources, Hulagu refused to share his war booty with Berke in accordance with Genghis Khan's wish. Berke
585-803: A national revival occurred in the early 20th century. The last conflict of the Russian Civil War , known as the Yakut Revolt , occurred here when Cornet Mikhail Korobeinikov , a White Russian officer, led an uprising and a last stand against the Red Army . In 1922, the new Soviet government named the area the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic . In the late 1920s through the late 1930s, Yakut people were systematically persecuted, when Joseph Stalin launched his collectivization campaign. It
702-452: A punitive expedition led by his brother, Dyuden , to punish those stubborn subjects, leading to the sacking of a number of cities in 1293, including Vladimir and Moscow, finally forcing Dmitry to abdicate. Only the city of Tver offered stiff resistance to the Mongol invaders, leading to another Mongol army being sent to attack the city. Nogai did not choose to intervene in Russian affairs but
819-640: A severe punitive expedition. But after Alexander Nevsky begged Berke not to punish his people, and the cities of Vladimir-Suzdal agreed to pay a large indemnity, Berke relented. Alexander died on his trip back in Gorodets on the Volga. He was well loved by the people and called the "sun of Suzdal". When the former Seljuk Sultan Kaykaus II was arrested in the Byzantine Empire , his younger brother Kayqubad II appealed to Berke. An Egyptian envoy
936-592: A state-sponsored feast and distribution of royal gifts to the natives. This compensation included tobacco , flints , knives , axes , and other useful tools . Some native populations, especially in the Far East , favored multi-colored crystal beads. The local voyevoda could also provide the yasak -payers ("ясачные люди") with supplies of provisions such as fish oil . When the Tsar failed to deliver due compensation or his presents were deemed insufficient or too cheap,
1053-468: A vassal of Nogai. Daniel , Alexander Nevsky's youngest son, failed to appear at the court of Toqta. The division of the authority of the Golden Horde led to the creation of two rival groups of Russian princes. Toqta attempted to reassert his authority over northern Russia ; he confirmed Andrey as the grand prince and authorized him to depose Dmitry, who refused to surrender his throne. Toqta sent
1170-873: Is a traditional fish salad. This cuisine is only used in Yakutia . According to the 2010 census, some 87% of the Yakuts in the Sakha Republic are fluent in the Yakut (or Sakha) language , while 90% are fluent in Russian. The Sakha/Yakut language belongs to the Northern branch of the Siberian Turkic languages . It is most closely related to the Dolgan language , and also to a lesser extent related to Tuvan and Shor . The primary Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup for
1287-593: Is now Xinjiang , at about the age of 42. Although some modern historians believe that he died of natural causes because of deteriorating health, he may have succumbed to the combined effects of alcoholism and gout , or he may have been poisoned. William of Rubruck and a Muslim chronicler state that Batu killed the imperial envoy, and one of his brothers murdered the Great Khan Güyük, but these claims are not completely corroborated by other major sources. Güyük's widow Oghul Qaimish took over as regent, but she
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#17327768121251404-487: Is possible that hunger and malnutrition during this period resulted in a decline in the Yakut total population from 240,500 in 1926 to 236,700 in 1959. By 1972, the population began to recover. Currently, Yakuts form a large plurality of the total population within the vast Republic of Sakha . According to the 2010 Russian census, there were a total of 466,492 Yakuts residing in the Sakha Republic during that year, or 49.9% of
1521-509: Is said to have been inspired by the golden color of the tents the Mongols lived in during wartime, or an actual golden tent used by Batu Khan or by Özbeg Khan , or to have been bestowed by the Slavic tributaries to describe the great wealth of the khan. It was not until the 16th century that Russian chroniclers begin explicitly using the term to refer to this particular successor khanate of
1638-617: The Buryat yaqud , which is the plural form of the Buryat name for the Yakuts, yaqa . The Yakuts call themselves Sakha , or Urangai Sakha (Yakut: Уран Саха , Uran Sakha ) in some old chronicles. All of these are derived from a word related to Turkish yaka (geographical edge, collar) referring to the Yakuts' remote position in Siberia. An early work on the Yakut ethnogenesis
1755-689: The Carpathian Mountains . Talabuga's soldiers were angered and sacked Galicia and Volhynia instead. In 1286, Talabuga and Nogai attacked Poland and ravaged the country. After returning, Talabuga overthrew Töde Möngke, who was left to live in peace. Talabuga's army made unsuccessful attempts to invade the Ilkhanate in 1288 and 1290. During a punitive expedition against the Circassians , Talabuga became resentful of Nogai, whom he believed did not provide him with adequate support during
1872-738: The Caucasus Mountains and the territories of the Mongol dynasty known as the Ilkhanate . The khanate experienced violent internal political disorder known as the Great Troubles (1359–1381), before it briefly reunited under Tokhtamysh (1381–1395). However, soon after the 1396 invasion of Timur , the founder of the Timurid Empire , the Golden Horde broke into smaller Tatar khanates which declined steadily in power. At
1989-462: The Kazakh Khanate , the last remnants of the Golden Horde, survived until 1783 and 1847 respectively, when they were conquered by the expanding Russian state. The name Golden Horde is a partial calque of Russian Золотая Орда ( Zolotáya Ordá ), itself supposedly a partial calque of Turkic Altan Orda . Золотая ( Zolotáya ) was translated to 'Golden', while Орда ( Ordá )
2106-682: The Krasnoyarsk Krai . They speak Yakut , which belongs to the Siberian branch of the Turkic languages . According to Alexey Kulakovsky, the Russian word yakut was taken from the Evenki екэ , yekə̄ , while Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer claims the Russian word is actually a corruption from the Tungusic form. According to ethnographer Dávid Somfai , the Russian yakut derives from
2223-655: The Mongols , which included what is today southern Russia and Kazakhstan , were given to Jochi's eldest sons, Batu Khan , who eventually became ruler of the Blue Horde , and Orda Khan , who became the leader of the White Horde . In 1235, Batu with the great general Subutai began an invasion westwards, first conquering the Bashkirs and then moving on to Volga Bulgaria in 1236. From there he conquered some of
2340-611: The Nogai Horde . Toqta established the Byzantine-Mongol alliance by Maria, an illegitimate daughter of Andronikos II Palaiologos . A report reached Western Europe that Toqta was highly favourable to the Christians. According to Muslim observers, however, Toqta remained an idol-worshiper ( Buddhism and Tengerism ) and showed favour to religious men of all faiths, though he preferred Muslims. He demanded that
2457-470: The kurultai and instead stayed at the Volga River . Although Batu excused himself by saying he was suffering from old age and illness, it seems that he did not support the election of Güyük Khan. Güyük and Büri , a grandson of Chagatai Khan , had quarreled violently with Batu at a victory banquet during the Mongol occupation of Eastern Europe. He sent his brothers to the kurultai, and the new Khagan of
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#17327768121252574-445: The yasak -payers would voice their discontent. According to one 17th-century report, not only the yasak-gatherers were beaten, but the natives proceeded to: "...throw the sovereign's presents, and tie them onto dog's necks, and throw them into the fire, and they pay yasak with no courtesy, they kick it with their feet and throw it to the ground and they call us, your servants, bad people." On several occasions, such conflicts prompted
2691-531: The 1620s, the Tsardom of Muscovy began to move into their territory and annexed or settled down on it, imposed a fur tax and managed to suppress several Yakut rebellions between 1634 and 1642. The tsarist brutality in collection of the pelt tax ( yasak ) sparked a rebellion and aggression among the Yakuts and also Tungusic -speaking tribes along the River Lena in 1642. The voivode Peter Golovin, leader of
2808-678: The 17th century for the Evenks on the upper Angara and for Evens residing on the lower Kolyma in the early 19th century. Additionally there are many similarities between the clothing of the Tumats and Altaic cultures. Archeological work on Pazyryk culture sites have turned up both hats dyed red and tail-coats made of sables. While the "tails" were not dyed red, they were sewn with red dyed thread. Stylistic and design choices are also comparable to traditional Khakas and Kumandin clothing. Some peaceable interactions including intermarriage did occur with
2925-631: The 1820 census, five Sakha men lived in the fort with 260 people, working for the Russian-American Company , a fur-trading business. This fort became a melting pot of different cultures, including Russians, Native Alaskans and local Native American tribes, such as the Kashaya Pomo. The Sakha were part of the diverse workforce that supported the fort operations in areas, such as hunting, trapping, farming and construction. By 1860, there were at least 20 Sakhas living at Fort Ross before
3042-534: The Byzantine Empire and Egypt in an attempt to curb the authority of Nogai. Following the death of Constantine of Bulgaria in 1277, Michael VIII and Nogai supported different candidates to the throne, leading to relations to deteriorate. This led to an intervention by Mengu-Timur in Balkan affairs, in which Mengu-Timur and Metropolitan Kirill sent Bishop Theognost as their joint envoy to Michael VIII and
3159-644: The Crimean Cumans survived in the Crimean mountains , and they would, in time, mix with other groups in the Crimea (including Greeks, Goths, and Mongols) to form the Crimean Tatar population. Moving north, Batu began the Mongol invasion of Rus' and spent three years subjugating the principalities, whilst his cousins Möngke , Kadan , and Güyük moved southwards into Alania . Using the migration of
3276-642: The Cumans as their casus belli , the Mongols continued west, raiding Poland and Hungary, which culminated in Mongol victories at the battles of Legnica and Mohi . In 1241, however, Ögedei Khan died in the Mongolian homeland. Batu turned back from his siege of Vienna but did not return to Mongolia, rather opting to stay at the Volga River . His brother Orda returned to take part in the succession. The Mongol armies would never again travel so far west. In 1242, after retreating through Hungary, destroying Pest in
3393-612: The Golden Horde as some of Toqta's coins carried 'Phags-pa script in addition to Mongolian script and Persian characters. Toqta arrested the Italian residents of Sarai and besieged Caffa in 1307. The cause was apparently Toqta's displeasure at the Genoese slave trade of his subjects, who were mostly sold as soldiers to Egypt. In 1308, Caffa was plundered by the Mongols. During the late reign of Toqta, tensions between princes of Tver and Moscow became violent. Daniel of Moscow seized
3510-682: The Golden Horde that were subjugated by Ivan IV in the 1550s. These territories were settled by a range of non-Christian peoples who were expected to pay yasak either in kind or cash. The late French scholar of Eurasian history, Renee Grousset, traces "yasaq" (Regulations) back still further in his classic work, The Empire of the Steppes , to the moral code imposed by Genghis Khan on his original horde. The Yasaq continued to be practiced by Mongol hordes until they came under Vajrayana Buddhist influences (in Mongolia and China) and Islamic influences (among
3627-700: The Golden Horde, in Persia, and in Central Asia) during successive centuries. The earliest mention of the tax is found in a letter sent by Ismail (a ruler of the Nogai Horde and ancestor of the Yusupov family) to Tsar Ivan IV in 1559, three years after Ivan's conquest of the Volga Delta and Astrakhan . The border between the two polities was not yet established, and Ismail complained that Ivan's governor of Astrakhan demanded yasak from those inhabitants of
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3744-547: The Golden Horde. Backed by him, some princes, such as Dmitry of Pereslavl , refused to visit the court of Töde Möngke in Sarai, while Dmitry's brother Andrey of Gorodets sought assistance from Töde Möngke. Nogai vowed to support Dmitry in his struggle for the grand princely throne. On hearing about this, Andrey renounced his claims to Vladimir and Novgorod and returned to Gorodets. He returned with Mongol troops sent by Töde Möngke and seized Vladimir from Dmitry. Dmitry retaliated with
3861-590: The Ilkhan Ghazan and his successor Oljeitu give Azerbaijan back but was refused. Then he sought assistance from Egypt against the Ilkhanate. Toqta made his man ruler in Ghazna , but he was expelled by its people. Toqta dispatched a peace mission to the Ilkhan Gaykhatu in 1294, and peace was maintained mostly uninterrupted until 1318. In 1304, ambassadors from the Mongol rulers of Central Asia and
3978-726: The Kagamlik, near the Dnieper . Toqta had his son stationed troops in Saqchi and along the Danube as far as the Iron Gate. Nogai's son Chaka of Bulgaria , first escaped to the Alans, and then Bulgaria where he briefly ruled as emperor before he was murdered by Theodore Svetoslav on the orders of Toqta. After Mengu-Timur died, rulers of the Golden Horde withdrew their support from Kaidu ,
4095-552: The Lena River. Several additional Altai-Sayan region tribes later arrived on the Lena to flee from the Mongols. The subsequent cultural melding that occurred between these incoming migrants eventually created the Yakuts. The Sagay Khakas of Abakan River were presented as the origin of the ethnonym Sakha by Evers and Gornovsky. In the mid-19th century Nikolai S. Schukin wrote "A Trip to Yakutsk” based on his experiences visiting
4212-758: The Mongol Empire. The first known use of the term, in 1565, in a Russian chronicle called History of Kazan , applied it to the Ulus of Batu, centered on Sarai . In contemporary Persian, Armenian and Muslim writings, and in the records of the 13th and early 14th centuries such as the Yuanshi and the Jami' al-tawarikh , the khanate was called the Ulus of Jochi ('realm of Jochi' in Mongolian ), Dasht-i-Qipchaq ( Persian : دشت قپچاق , 'Qipchaq Steppe') or Khanate of
4329-437: The Mongols and ousted their troops in northern Podolia . In 1257, he repelled Mongol assaults led by the prince Kuremsa on Ponyzia and Volhynia and dispatched an expedition with the aim of taking Kiev. Despite initial successes, in 1259 a Mongol force under Boroldai entered Galicia and Volhynia and offered an ultimatum: Daniel was to destroy his fortifications or Boroldai would assault the towns. Daniel complied and pulled down
4446-419: The Mongols was elected in 1246. All the senior princes of Rus', including Yaroslav II of Vladimir , Daniel of Galicia , and Sviatoslav III of Vladimir , acknowledged Batu's supremacy. Originally Batu ordered Daniel to turn the administration of Galicia over to the Mongols, but Daniel personally visited Batu in 1245 and pledged allegiance to him. After returning from his trip, Daniel was visibly influenced by
4563-503: The Mongols, and equipped his army in the Mongol fashion, his horsemen with Mongol-style cuirasses, and their mounts armoured with shoulder, chest, and head pieces. Michael of Chernigov , who had killed a Mongol envoy in 1240, refused to show obeisance and was executed in 1246. When Güyük called Batu to pay him homage several times, Batu sent Yaroslav II , Andrey II of Vladimir and Alexander Nevsky to Karakorum in Mongolia in 1247. Yaroslav II never returned and died in Mongolia. He
4680-480: The Mongols. In 1261, Berke approved the establishment of a church in Sarai. After Möngke Khan died in 1259, the Toluid Civil War broke out between Kublai Khan and Ariq Böke . While Hulagu Khan of the Ilkhanate supported Kublai, Berke sided with Ariq Böke. There is evidence that Berke minted coins in Ariq Böke's name, but he remained militarily neutral. After the defeat of Ariq Böke in 1264, he freely acceded to Kublai's enthronement. However, some elites of
4797-416: The Paleoasians of the Siberian Coast like the Chukchi, Itelmen, and Koryaks all share reverence for the Raven. Many researchers have concluded that the Yakut ethnogenesis was an admixture of Turks migrating from Lake-Baikal and native Yukaghir and Tungusitic peoples residing around the Lena River. Okladnikov detailed this conceived admixture process as the following: "...the Turkic-speaking ancestors of
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4914-404: The Qaghan (Great Khan), they sent them to Mengu-Timur. One of them, Nomoghan, favorite of Kublai, was located in the Crimea. Mengu-Timur might have briefly struggled with Hulagu's successor Abagha , but the Great Khan Kublai forced them to sign a peace treaty. He was allowed to take his share in Persia. Independently from the Khan, Nogai expressed his desire to ally with Baibars in 1271. Despite
5031-421: The Qipchaq and Comania or Cumania . The eastern or left wing (or "left hand" in official Mongolian-sponsored Persian sources) was referred to as the Blue Horde in Russian chronicles and as the White Horde in Timurid sources (e.g. Zafar-Nameh). Western scholars have tended to follow the Timurid sources' nomenclature and call the left wing the White Horde. But Ötemish Hajji ( fl. 1550 ),
5148-421: The Raven, who was alternatively referred to as “Our ancestor”, "Our deity", and “Our grandfather" by the Khorolors. This reverence arises from the Raven enabling a struggling human (either the first Khoro man or his mother) to survive by giving a flint and tinder box. Their mythos is similar to cultures from both sides of the Bering Sea. The Haida, Tlingit, Tshisham of the North American Pacific Northwest Coast and
5265-465: The Sakha (i.e. Yakuts) are the least russified ethnic group in Russia and that the knowledge of the native language is widespread, particularly (as is often said) due to the cold and freezing nature of their geographical habitat, and Russians’ general avoidance of colonizing those lands. Certain rock formations named Kigilyakh , as well as places such as Ynnakh Mountain , are held in high esteem by Yakuts. The cuisine of Sakha prominently features
5382-634: The Sakha population. This genetic bottleneck has been dated approximately to 1300 CE ± 200 ybp and speculated to have been caused by high mortality rates in warfare and later relocation to the Middle Lena River. The primary mitochondrial DNA haplogroups are various East Asian lineages, making up 92% of the total: haplogroup C at 36% to 45.7% and haplogroup D at 25.7% to 32.9% of the Yakut. Minor Eastern Eurasian mtDNA haplogroups include: 5.2% G , 4.49% F , 3.55% M13a1b , 1.89% A , 1.18% Y1a , 1.18% B , 0.95% Z3 , and 0.71% M7 . According to Fedorova, besides East Asian maternal lineages, "the mtDNA pool of
5499-464: The Samoyedic peoples. The Tumat stand out in Yakut tradition as a numerous and powerful society, with constant conflict once happening with them on the Vilyuy River . Their households were semi-subterranean with sod roofing and are comparable to traditional Samoyed dwellings. The term Doubo ( Chinese : 都播 ) was used in medieval Chinese historical works in reference to the Sayano-Altai forest peoples. Vasily Radlov concluded that Doubo referred to
5616-480: The Samoyedic peoples. Doubo is additionally seen as the origin of the ethnonym "Tumat" by L. P. Potapov. The Yakuts called the Tumat people "Dyirikinei" or "chipmunk people" (Yakut: Sдьирикинэй), arising from the Tumatian "tail-coat." Bundles of deer fur were dyed with red ocher and sewn into Tumatian jackets as adornments. Tumat hats were likewise dyed red. This style was likely spread by the Tumatians to some Tungusic peoples. Similar clothing has been reported during
5733-489: The Tumats. One such example is the life of Džaardaakh ( Russian : Джаардаах ), a Tumatian woman. She was renowned for her physical strength and martial repute as an archer. However Džaardaakh eventually married a Yakut man and is considered a notable ancestor of the local Vilyuy Yakut. The origin of her name has been linked to a Yukaghir word for ice (Yukaghir: йархан). The ancestors of Yakuts were Kurykans who migrated from Yenisey river to Lake Baikal and were subject to
5850-494: The White Horde and son of Orda Khan, also made peace with the Yuan dynasty and the Ilkhanate . According to Mamluk historians, Töde Möngke sent the Mamluks a letter proposing to fight against their common enemy, the unbelieving Ilkhanate. This indicates that he might have had an interest in Azerbaijan and Georgia , which were both ruled by the Ilkhans. In the 1270s, Nogai had raided Bulgaria, as well as Lithuania. He blockaded Michael Asen II inside Drăstăr in 1279, executed
5967-410: The White Horde joined Ariq Böke's resistance. Möngke ordered the Jochid and Chagatayid families to join Hulagu's expedition to Iran. Berke 's persuasion might have forced his brother Batu to postpone Hulagu's operation, little suspecting that it would result in eliminating the Jochid predominance there for several years. During the reign of Batu or his first two successors, the Golden Horde dispatched
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#17327768121256084-470: The Yakut is N-M231 . While found in around 89% of the general population, in northern Yakutia it is closer to 82%. N-M231 is shared with various other Eastern Siberian populations. The remaining haplogroups are approximately: 4% C-M217 (including subclades C-M48 and C-M407), 3.5% R1a-M17 (including subclade R1a-M458), and 2.1% N-P43 , with sporadic instances of I-M253 , R1b-M269 , J2 , and Q . According to Adamov, haplogroup N1c1 makes up 94% of
6201-409: The Yakut people regarding agriculture. The discovery of gold and, later, the building of the Trans-Siberian Railway , brought ever-increasing numbers of Russians into the region. By the 1820s almost all the Yakuts claimed to have converted to the Russian Orthodox church, but they retained (and still retain) a number of shamanist practices. Yakut literature began to rise in the late 19th century, and
6318-409: The Yakuts not only pushed out the aborigines but also subjected them to their influence by peaceful means; they assimilated and absorbed them into their mass... With this, the local tribes lost the former ethnic name and a proper ethnic consciousness, no longer separating themselves from the mass of Yakuts, and [were] not opposed to them... Consequently, as a result of the mixing with Northern aborigines,
6435-421: The Yakuts", there was no compelling evidence connecting them with the Khori Buryat. A more recent argument by Zoriktuev proposes that the Khorolors were originally Paleo-Asians from the Lower Amur River. In contrast to their Yakut relatives, Khoro folklore focuses largely on the Raven, with some tales about the Eagle as well. In the mid 18th century Lindenau noted the Khorolors focused their religious devotion on
6552-452: The Yakuts. They are mentioned as 7th-century tributaries of the Tang dynasty , reportedly living on the Angara and around Lake Baikal. Radlov hypothesized they were a mixture of Tungusic and Uyghur peoples and the forebears of the Yakut. The Khoro (Khorin, Khorolors,Khori) Yakut maintain their progenitor was Uluu Khoro, rather than Omogoy or Ellei. Scholarship has not definitively established their ancestral ethnic affiliations. Their homeland
6669-462: The Yenisey origin hypothesis was written by Nikolai N. Kozmin in 1928. He concluded that some Khakas moved from the Yenisey to the Angara River due to difficulties in the regional economy. In the 12th century Buryats arrived at Lake Baikal and through military force pushed the Khakas to the Lena. In 1893, Turkologist scholar Vasily Radlov connected the Kurykans or Gǔlìgān ( Chinese : 骨利干 ) Tiele people from Chinese historical accounts with
6786-419: The Yuan court was unable to send quick military support. From 1300 to 1302, a severe drought occurred in the areas surrounding the Black Sea . However, the troubles were soon overcome and conditions in the Golden Horde rapidly improved under Toqta's reign. After the defeat of Nogai Khan , his followers either fled to Podolia or remained under the service of Toqta, to become what would eventually be known as
6903-418: The Yuan dynasty announced to Toqta their general peace proposal. Toqta immediately accepted the supremacy of Yuan emperor Temür Öljeytü , and all yams (postal relays) and commercial networks across the Mongol khanates reopened. Toqta introduced the general peace among the Mongol khanates to the Russian princes at the assembly in Pereyaslavl (Pereslavl-Zalessky). The Yuan influence seemed to have increased in
7020-438: The area. He presented a somewhat different origin of the Yakuts based upon local oral histories. Groups of Khakas inhabiting the southern Yenisey watershed migrated north to the Nizhnyaya Tunguska River to the Lena Plateau and finally onward to the Lena River. Schukin is credited as introducing the concept of Yenisey Khakas as the ancestors of the Yakut into Russian historiography. The most authoritative account in support of
7137-422: The census took place in all cities, including Smolensk and Vitebsk . In 1277, Mengu-Timur launched a campaign against the Alans north of the Caucasus . Along with the Mongol army were also some of the princes who were ordered to join him in his expedition, where they took the fortified stronghold of the Alans, Dadakov , in 1278. After his Ossetian expedition, Mengu-Timur turned his attention to affairs with
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#17327768121257254-401: The city walls. In 1259 Berke launched savage attacks on Lithuania and Poland, and demanded the submission of Béla IV , the Hungarian monarch, and the French King Louis IX in 1259 and 1260. His assault on Prussia in 1259–1260 inflicted heavy losses on the Teutonic Order . The Lithuanians were probably tributary in the 1260s, when reports reached the Curia that they were in league with
7371-402: The court of Batu, few Mongol texts written in the territory of the Golden Horde have survived, perhaps because of the prevalent general illiteracy. According to Grigor'ev, yarliq , or decrees of the Khans, were written in Mongol, then translated into the Cuman language . The existence of Arabic-Mongol and Persian-Mongol dictionaries dating from the middle of the 14th century and prepared for
7488-399: The delta that Ismail considered his subjects: "in grain from those who farm and in fish from those who fish" Yasak was gradually introduced in North Asia in the 17th century as a consequence of Russia's conquest of Siberia . The Tsar's relationship with natives was based on a quid pro quo principle. The annual delivery of yasak by the native representatives was normally accompanied by
7605-421: The fact that he was proposing a joint attack on the Ilkhanate with the Mamluks of Egypt , Mengu-Timur congratulated Abagha when Baraq was defeated by the Ilkhan in 1270. In 1267, Mengu-Timur issued a diploma ( jarliq ) to exempt Russian clergy from any taxation, and gave to the Genoese and Venice exclusive trading rights in Caffa and Azov . Some of Mengu-Timur's relatives converted to Christianity at
7722-539: The far northwest was not counted until winter of 1258–1259. There was an uprising in Novgorod against the Mongol census, but Alexander Nevsky forced the city to submit to the census and taxation. With the new powers afforded to Batu by Möngke, he now had direct control over the princes of Rus'. However, Andrey II refused to submit to Batu. Batu sent a punitive expedition under Nevruy, who defeated Andrey and forced him to flee to Novgorod, then Pskov , and finally to Sweden . The Mongols overran Vladimir and harshly punished
7839-403: The formation of the modern Yakuts. The consistency of related artistic embellishments on the traditional clothing of the Buryat, Samoyed, and Yakut led one scholar to conclude they are related. Toponymic data of Yakutia indicates there was once a presence of Paleoasian and Samoyed habitation in the region. Vilyui Tumats reportedly practiced anthropophagy and seen as an "ethnocultural marker" of
7956-473: The grand prince of Vladimir to allow German merchants free travel through his lands. The gramota says: Mengu-Timur's word to Prince Yaroslav: give the German merchants way into your lands. From Prince Yaroslav to the people of Riga , to the great and the young, and to all: your way is clear through my lands; and who comes to fight, with them I do as I know; but for the merchant the way is clear. This decree also allowed Novgorod's merchants to travel throughout
8073-427: The head of the House of Ögedei . Kaidu tried to restore his influence in the Golden Horde by sponsoring his own candidate Kobeleg against Bayan ( r. 1299–1304 ), Khan of the White Horde. After taking military support from Toqta, Bayan asked help from the Yuan dynasty and the Ilkhanate to organize a unified attack on the Chagatai Khanate under the leadership of Kaidu and his second-in-command Duwa . However,
8190-413: The intrigues of Nogai instigated a partial civil war in the late 1290s. The Horde's military power peaked during the reign of Uzbeg Khan (1312–1341), who adopted Islam. The territory of the Golden Horde at its peak extended from Siberia and Central Asia to parts of Eastern Europe from the Urals to the Danube in the west, and from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea in the south, while bordering
8307-488: The invasions of Hungary and Poland . Talabuga challenged Nogai, but was defeated in a coup and replaced with Toqta in 1291. Andrey, accompanied by a number of Rostov princes and the bishop of Rostov, went to Toqta to renew his patent and complain about Dmitry. Mikhail Yaroslavich was summoned to appear before Nogai in Sarai, where he chose to side with Nogai and went to him instead for confirmation of his throne, while Dmitry refused to appear, considering himself to be
8424-760: The lands of Suzdal without restraint. Mengu Timur honored his vow: when the Danes and the Livonian Knights attacked the Novgorod Republic in 1269, the Khan's great basqaq (darughachi) , Amraghan, and many Mongols assisted the army assembled by the grand prince Yaroslav. The Germans and the Danes were so cowed that they sent gifts to the Mongols and abandoned the region of Narva . The Mongol Khan's authority extended to all principalities, and in 1274–1275
8541-573: The local ruler and his nobles was, in fact, the only way to secure the natives' cooperation." In the basin of the Volga, yasak was replaced by a regular tax in the 1720s, and most of Siberia followed suit in 1822. A largely symbolic form of yasak continued to be levied from the nomadic peoples of Eastern Siberia ( Yakuts , Evenks , Chukchi ) until the Russian Revolution of 1917 . Yasak collection procedures were not strictly regulated and varied considerably from ulus to ulus. A census
8658-527: The native populations of Sakha contains a small (8%), but diverse set of western Eurasian mtDNA haplogroups, mostly present among Yakuts and Evenks", the most common being H and J. The Sakha American Cultural Association, a non-profit organization established in Seattle, Washington in 2024 " The Sakha people had made a temporary footprint in the U.S. in 1820 at Fort Ross in Jenner, California. According to
8775-517: The natives to rise in rebellion against the Muscovite government. Against this volatile background, the Tsar's officials worked to transform yasak from an exchange of items (the centuries-old concept inherited from the Khanate of Siberia and Golden Horde) into a fixed and regular levy, but this process took centuries to complete. In many frontier areas: "...the regular supply of... presents to
8892-721: The next year while on campaign in Tiflis , causing his troops to retreat. Ariq Böke had earlier placed Chagatai's grandson Alghu as Chagatayid Khan , ruling Central Asia. He took control of Samarkand and Bukhara . When the Muslim elites and the Jochid retainers in Bukhara declared their loyalty to Berke, Alghu smashed the Golden Horde appanages in Khorazm. Alghu insisted Hulagu attack the Golden Horde; he accused Berke of purging his family in 1252. In Bukhara, he and Hulagu slaughtered all
9009-659: The northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire . With the division of the Mongol Empire after 1259, it became a functionally separate khanate. It is also known as the Kipchak Khanate or the Ulus of Jochi , and replaced the earlier, less organized Cuman–Kipchak confederation . After the death of Batu Khan (the founder of the Golden Horde) in 1255, his dynasty flourished for a full century, until 1359, though
9126-595: The number of cattle in each household, while the Bashkir people paid yasak on the basis of a land census. Yasak was payable in sables , red foxes , beavers , martens ; cattle was also allowed as payment in some circumstances. Yasak payments formed the basis for Russia's fur trade with Western Europe . The Siberian Prikaz was responsible for yasak collection in Muscovite Russia . In 1727, an ukase decreed that yasak could be paid in cash, but this measure
9243-419: The patriarch of Constantinople with their respective gifts and letters. Mengu-Timur was succeeded in 1281 by his brother Töde Möngke , who was a Muslim. However, Nogai Khan was now strong enough to establish himself as an independent ruler. The Golden Horde was thus ruled by two khans. Töde Möngke made peace with Kublai, returned his sons to him, and acknowledged his supremacy. Nogai and Köchü , Khan of
9360-468: The place and went further east instead. In 1248, Güyük demanded Batu come east to meet him, a move that some contemporaries regarded as a pretext for Batu's arrest. In compliance with the order, Batu approached, bringing a large army. When Güyük moved westwards, Tolui 's widow and a sister of Batu's stepmother Sorghaghtani warned Batu that the Jochids might be his target. Güyük died on the way, in what
9477-503: The principality. The Livonian Knights stopped their advance to Novgorod and Pskov. Thanks to his friendship with Sartaq Khan , Batu's son, who was a Christian , Alexander was installed as the grand prince of Vladimir by Batu in 1252. After Batu died in 1256, his son Sartaq Khan was appointed by Möngke Khan . As soon as he returned from the court of the Great Khan in Mongolia, Sartaq died. The infant Ulaghchi succeeded him under
9594-575: The process, and subjugating Bulgaria , Batu established his capital at Sarai, commanding the lower stretch of the Volga River , on the site of the Khazar capital of Atil . Shortly before that, the younger brother of Batu and Orda, Shiban , was given his own enormous ulus east of the Ural Mountains along the Ob and Irtysh Rivers . While the Mongolian language was undoubtedly in general use at
9711-463: The rebel emperor Ivailo in 1280, and forced George Terter I to seek refuge in the Byzantine Empire in 1292. In 1284, Saqchi came under the Mongol rule during the major invasion of Bulgaria, and coins were struck in the Khan's name. Smilets was installed by Nogai as emperor of Bulgaria. Accordingly, the reign of Smilets has been considered the height of Mongol overlordship in Bulgaria. When he
9828-480: The regency of Boragchin Khatun . The khatun summoned all the princes of Rus' to Sarai to renew their patents. In 1256, Andrey traveled to Sarai to ask for pardon. He was once again reappointed as the grand prince of Vladimir . Ulaghchi died soon after and Batu Khan's younger brother Berke , who had been converted to Islam , was enthroned as khan of the Golden Horde in 1258. In 1256, Daniel of Galicia openly defied
9945-493: The region due to rising pressure from the incoming Yakuts. While some remained and intermarried with the newcomer, most went to the northern tundra. The Ymyyakhtakh are an ancient people of the Lena River. A burial ground was excavated and anthropologists I.I. Gokhman and L.F. Tomtosova studied the human remains and published their results in 1992. They concluded that some of the Late Neolithic population took part in
10062-546: The retainers of the Golden Horde and reduced their families into slavery, sparing only the Great Khan Kublai's men. After Berke gave his allegiance to Kublai, Alghu declared war on Berke, seizing Otrar and Khorazm . While the left bank of Khorazm would eventually be retaken, Berke had lost control over Transoxiana. In 1264 Berke marched past Tiflis to fight against Hulagu's successor Abaqa , but he died en route. Berke left no sons, so Batu's grandson Mengu-Timur
10179-679: The same time and settled in Russia; one of them was a prince who settled in Rostov and became known as Tsarevich Peter of the Horde (Peter Ordynsky). Even though Nogai invaded the Orthodox Christian Byzantine Empire in 1271, the Khan sent his envoys to maintain friendly relationship with Michael VIII Palaiologos, who sued for peace and married one of his daughters, Euphrosyne Palaiologina , to Nogai. Mengu-Timur ordered
10296-637: The southern ancestors of the Yakuts supplemented their culture and language with new features distinguishing them from other steppe tribes." Traditional Yakut histories contain stories of the aboriginal peoples of Yakutia. From the subarctic Bulunsky and Verkhoyansky Districts accounts state that the Black Yukaghir (Yakut: хара дъукаагырдар) descended from migrants pushed north from the Lena River. Related stories recorded in Ust'-Aldanskiy Ulus and Megino-Kangalassky District mention certain tribes leaving
10413-526: The southern steppes of present-day Ukraine in 1237, forcing many of the local Cumans to retreat westward. The Mongol campaign against the Kypchaks and Cumans had already started under Jochi and Subutai in 1216–1218 when the Merkits took shelter among them. By 1239 a large portion of Cumans were driven out of the Crimean peninsula , and it became one of the appanages of the Mongol Empire. The remnants of
10530-545: The start of the 15th century, the Horde began to fall apart. By 1466, it was being referred to simply as the " Great Horde ". Within its territories there emerged numerous predominantly Turkic khanates. These internal struggles allowed Moscow to formally rid itself of the "Tatar yoke" at the Great Stand on the Ugra River in 1480, which traditionally marks the end of Mongol rule over Russia. The Crimean Khanate and
10647-452: The support of Mongol troops from Nogai and retook his holdings. In 1285, Andrey again led a Mongol army under a Borjigin prince to Vladimir, but Dmitry expelled them. In 1283, Mengu-Timur converted to Islam and abandoned state affairs. Rumors spread that the khan was mentally ill and only cared for clerics and sheikhs. In 1285, Talabuga and Nogai invaded Hungary . While Nogai was successful in subduing Slovakia , Talabuga stalled north of
10764-700: The total population of the Republic. The Yakuts engage in animal husbandry, traditionally having focused on rearing horses , mainly the Yakutian horse , reindeer and the Sakha Ynagha ('Yakutian cow'), a hardy kind of cattle known as Yakutian cattle which is well adapted to the harsh local weather. There is a widespread notion among other ethnic minorities in Russia based on their experience (for example, among geographically close Mongolic Buryats ) that
10881-487: The town of Kolomna from Ryazan , which turned to the local basqaq for protection. However, this did not deter Daniel, who defeated the Ryazan and Mongol troops in 1301, and then seized Mozhaysk in 1303 and then Pereslavl-Zalessky, which threw off the already weak balance of interprincely relations. Daniel may have been motivated to round out his appanage, which in terms of the modern administrative divisions of Russia,
10998-400: The traditional drink kumis , dairy products of cow, mare, and reindeer milk, sliced frozen salted fish stroganina ( строганина ), loaf meat dishes ( oyogos ), venison , frozen fish, thick pancakes, and salamat —a millet porridge with butter and horse fat. Kuerchekh ( Куэрчэх ) or kierchekh , a popular dessert, is made of cow milk or cream with various berries . Indigirka
11115-536: The tsarist forces, responded with a reign of terror: native settlements were torched and hundreds of people were killed. The Yakut population alone is estimated to have fallen by 70 percent between 1642 and 1682, mainly because of smallpox and other infectious diseases . In the 18th century the Russians reduced the pressure, gave Yakut chiefs some privileges, granted freedom for all habitants, gave them all their lands, sent Eastern Orthodox missions, and educated
11232-500: The ulus. The designations Golden Horde, Blue Horde, and White Horde have not been encountered in the sources of the Mongol period. 2nd invasion (1259–60) 3rd invasion (1287–88) At his death in 1227, Genghis Khan divided the Mongol Empire amongst his four sons as appanages , but the Empire remained united under the supreme khan. Jochi was the eldest, but he died six months before Genghis. The westernmost lands occupied by
11349-405: The unity of the realm. Batu, Möngke, and other princely lines shared rule over the area from Afghanistan to Turkey . Batu allowed Möngke's census-takers to operate freely in his realm. Local censuses took place in the 1240s, including the areas of Russia and Turkey. In 1251–1259, Möngke conducted the first empire-wide census of the Mongol Empire; while North China was completed in 1252, Novgorod in
11466-631: The use of the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate suggests that there was a practical need for such works in the chancelleries handling correspondence with the Golden Horde. It is thus reasonable to conclude that letters received by the Mamluks – if not also written by them – must have been in Mongol. When the Great Khatun Töregene invited Batu to elect the next Emperor of the Mongol Empire in 1242, he declined to attend
11583-474: The word Khoro as arising from the Tibetan word hor ( Standard Tibetan : ཧོར ). For example, according to G. N. Runyanstev, during the 6th through 10th centuries CE the inhabitants of Lake Baikal were called Chor. Okladnikov guessed that Khoro sire was near China and adjacent to the X . This premise is not universally accepted and has been challenged by some researchers. George de Roerich has argued that
11700-546: The word is based on the Chinese word hu ( Chinese : 胡 ), a term used as general reference by the Chinese to refer to various Iranian or Turkic peoples of Central Asia. In contemporary Tibetan hor is used to describe any pastoralist "nomad of mixed origin" regardless of their ethnonym. After researching their origins, Ksenofontov concluded that while the Khorolors were "formed from parts of some alien tribe that mixed with
11817-526: The young prince Nogai to invade the Ilkhanate but Hulagu forced him back in 1262. The Ilkhanid army then crossed the Terek River , capturing an empty Jochid encampment, only to be routed in a surprise attack by Nogai's forces. Many of them were drowned as the ice broke on the frozen Terek River. The outbreak of conflict was made more annoying to Berke by the rebellion of Suzdal at the same time, killing Mongol darughachis and tax-collectors. Berke planned
11934-415: Was transliterated to 'Horde'. The Turkic word orda means 'palace', 'camp' or 'headquarters', in this case the headquarters of the khan, being the capital of the khanate, metonymically extended to the khanate itself. The English word horde , in the sense of a large (and often threatening) group, emerged later, metaphorically extended from the reputation of the Mongol hordes. The appellation Golden
12051-538: Was a devoted Muslim who had had a close relationship with the Abbasid Caliph Al-Musta'sim , who had been killed by Hulagu in 1258. The Jochids believed that Hulagu's state eliminated their presence in the Transcaucasus . Those events increased the anger of Berke and the war between the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate soon broke out in 1262. The increasing tension between Berke and Hulagu
12168-674: Was a warning to the Golden Horde contingents in Hulagu's army to flee. One contingent reached the Kipchak Steppe, another traversed Khorasan , and a third body took refuge in Mamluk ruled Syria where they were well received by Sultan Baybars (1260–1277). Hulagu harshly punished the rest of the Golden Horde army in Iran. Berke sought a joint attack with Baybars and forged an alliance with the Mamluks against Hulagu. The Golden Horde dispatched
12285-600: Was also detained there. With the assistance of the Kingdom of Bulgaria (Berke's vassal), Nogai invaded the Empire in 1265. By the next year, the Mongol-Bulgarian army was within reach of Constantinople . Nogai forced Michael VIII Palaiologos to release Kaykaus and pay tribute to the Horde. Berke gave Kaykaus Crimea as an appanage and had him marry a Mongol woman. Hulagu died in February 1265 and Berke followed
12402-406: Was concerned by Toqta's actions; he found it necessary to remind Toqta that he still held supreme power in the affairs of the Golden Horde and consequently sent his senior wife to Toqta in 1293, where she was received with due honor. In the same year, Nogai sent an army to Serbia and forced the king to acknowledge himself as a vassal. Nogai's daughter married a son of Kublai's niece, Kelmish, who
12519-677: Was drafted by the Russian Collegiate Assessors I. Evers and S. Gornovsky in the late 18th century. At an unspecified time in the past certain tribes resided around the western shore of the Aral Sea . These peoples later migrated eastward and settled near the Tunka Goltsy mountains of modern Buryatia . Pressure from the expansionist Mongolian Empire later made many of those around the Tunka Goltsy relocate to
12636-475: Was entrusted to two principal yasak commissions, one for Eastern Siberia and another for Western Siberia, whose activities were regulated by a special statute. Golden Horde The Golden Horde , self-designated as Ulug Ulus ( lit. ' Great State ' in Kipchak Turkic ), was originally a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as
12753-465: Was expelled by a local boyars c. 1295 , the Mongols launched another invasion to protect their protege. Nogai compelled Serbian king Stefan Milutin to accept Mongol supremacy and received his son, Stefan Dečanski , as hostage in 1287. Under his rule, the Vlachs , Slavs, Alans , and Turco-Mongols lived in modern-day Moldavia . At the same time, the influence of Nogai greatly increased in
12870-511: Was found to be less than profitable for the imperial treasury and, twelve years later, it was revoked. The Cabinet of Ministers then decreed that yasak be paid in sables, or, in the absence thereof, in other furs. Catherine the Great undertook a reform of yasak collection by instituting a number of "yasak commissions", with the head office located in Tobolsk . In 1827 the task of yasak collection
12987-526: Was nominated by Kublai and succeeded his uncle Berke. However, Mengu-Timur secretly supported the Ögedeid prince Kaidu against Kublai and the Ilkhanate. After the defeat of Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq , a peace treaty was concluded in 1267 granting one-third of Transoxiana to Kaidu and Mengu-Timur. In 1268, when a group of princes operating in Central Asia on Kublai's behalf mutinied and arrested two sons of
13104-538: Was not larger than Moskovsky Uyezd before 1917. His tenacity laid the pattern for his successors to become the rulers of all of Russia proper. Yakut people The Yakuts or Sakha ( Yakut : саха , saxa ; plural: сахалар , saxalar ) are a Turkic ethnic group native to North Siberia, primarily the Republic of Sakha in the Russian Federation . They also inhabit some districts of
13221-447: Was probably poisoned by Töregene Khatun , who probably did it to spite Batu and even her own son Güyük, because he did not approve of her regency. Güyük appointed Andrey as the grand prince of Vladimir and Alexander was given the princely title of Kiev . However, when they returned, Andrey went to Vladimir while Alexander went to Novgorod instead. A bishop by the name of Cyril went to Kiev and found it so devastated that he abandoned
13338-415: Was required to determine the numbers of yasak-payers, with results recorded in a list of yasak-payers, or "yasak-book", of which more than 1,700 survive from the 17th century alone. Each male yasak-payer between the ages of 18 and 50 was expected to take a shert , or an oath of allegiance to the Tsar. Most peoples of Siberia paid tribute on a house-to-house basis, but the Yakut people delivered it based on
13455-607: Was somewhere in the south and called Khoro sire. When the Khorolors arrived in the Middle Lena remains uncertain, with scholars estimating from the first millennium to the 16th century AD. Among scholars a commonly accepted hypothesis is that the Khoro Yakut originate from the Khori Buryat of Lake Baikal, and therefore spoke a Turko-Mongolic language. This is largely based on their similar ethnonyms. Proponents see
13572-452: Was unable to keep the succession within her branch of the family. With the assistance of Batu, Möngke succeeded as Great Khan in 1251. Utilizing the discovery of a plot designed to remove him, Möngke as the new Great Khan began a purge of his opponents. Estimates of the deaths of aristocrats, officials, and Mongol commanders range from 77 to 300. Batu became the most influential person in the Mongol Empire as his friendship with Möngke ensured
13689-553: Was wife of a Qongirat general of the Golden Horde. Nogai was angry with Kelmish's family because her Buddhist son despised his Muslim daughter. For this reason, he demanded Toqta send Kelmish's husband to him. Nogai's independent actions relating to Russian affairs and foreign merchants had already irritated Toqta. Toqta thus refused and declared war on Nogai. Toqta was defeated in their first battle. Nogai's army turned their attention to Caffa and Soldaia , looting both cities. Within two years, Toqta returned and killed Nogai in 1299 at
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