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141-709: The Yellow Peril (also the Yellow Terror , the Yellow Menace , and the Yellow Specter ) is a racist color metaphor that depicts the peoples of East and Southeast Asia as an existential danger to the Western world . The concept of the Yellow Peril derives from a "core imagery of apes, lesser men, primitives, children, madmen, and beings who possessed special powers", which developed during

282-502: A "second Tatar yoke" or a "Mongolian wave" following the lines of "Yellow Peril". Vladimir Solovyov combined Japan and China into supposed "Pan-Mongolians" who would conquer Russia and Europe. A similar idea and fear was expressed by Dmitry Merezhkovskii in Zheltolitsye pozitivisty ("Yellow-Faced Positivists") in 1895 and Griadushchii Kham ("The Coming Boor") in 1906. The works of explorer Vladimir K. Arsenev also illustrated

423-480: A Russophone obsessed with the coming rise of the East. Both called for Germany to join the "young nations" of Asia through the adoption of such supposedly Asiatic practices as collectivism, "inner barbarism", and despotic leadership. The identification of Russia with Asia would eventually overwhelm such sympathies, instead leading to a more-or-less straightforward association of Germany with the values of "The West", against

564-582: A cultural threat to Britain's patriarchal society. Witchard noted that stories of "working-class girls consorting with “Chinamen” in Limehouse" and "debutantes leading officers astray in Soho drinking dens" contributed to the anti-Chinese moral panic. Racism Racism is discrimination and prejudice against people based on their race or ethnicity . Racism can be present in social actions, practices, or political systems (e.g. apartheid ) that support

705-818: A fate "worse than death" in Western popular culture. In 1914, at the start of the First World War, the Defense of the Realm Act was amended to include the smoking of opium as proof of "moral depravity" that merited deportation, a legal pretext for deporting members of the Chinese community to China. This anti-Chinese moral panic derived in part from the social reality that British women were becoming more financially independent by way of war-production jobs, which allowed them (among other things) greater sexual freedom,

846-570: A given culture, including the language and traditions of that culture, are superior to those of other cultures. It shares a great deal with xenophobia , which is often characterized by fear of, or aggression toward, members of an outgroup by members of an ingroup . In that sense it is also similar to communalism as used in South Asia. Cultural racism exists when there is a widespread acceptance of stereotypes concerning diverse ethnic or population groups. Whereas racism can be characterised by

987-629: A guard at the Niederzwehren POW camp in Kassel. Knackfuss's role as an academic history painter and an illustrator of Prussian history was largely forgotten after 1945, especially since many of his paintings were destroyed during World War II . Even in Germany, he now mainly known as the author of numerous art monographs, including biographies on Michelangelo, Raphael, Titian, Velasquez, Murillo, Rubens, van Dyck, Rembrandt, Frans Hals, Holbein

1128-569: A historical, hierarchical power relationship between groups; second, a set of ideas (an ideology) about racial differences; and, third, discriminatory actions (practices). Though many countries around the globe have passed laws related to race and discrimination, the first significant international human rights instrument developed by the United Nations (UN) was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), which

1269-450: A majority or a dominant social group. So-called "white racism" focuses on societies in which white populations are the majority or the dominant social group. In studies of these majority white societies, the aggregate of material and cultural advantages is usually termed " white privilege ". Race and race relations are prominent areas of study in sociology and economics . Much of the sociological literature focuses on white racism. Some of

1410-409: A majority or dominant group in society. Furthermore, the meaning of the term racism is often conflated with the terms prejudice, bigotry , and discrimination. Racism is a complex concept that can involve each of those; but it cannot be equated with, nor is it synonymous, with these other terms. The term is often used in relation to what is seen as prejudice within a minority or subjugated group, as in

1551-687: A meeting about the Russo-Japanese War, King Edward VII heard the Kaiser complain that the Yellow Peril is "the greatest peril menacing   ... Christendom and European civilization. If the Russians went on giving ground, the yellow race would, in twenty years time, be in Moscow and Posen". The Kaiser criticized the British for siding with Japan against Russia, and said that "race treason" was

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1692-413: A more subtle form of prejudice in the late 20th century. This new form of racism is sometimes referred to as "modern racism" and it is characterized by outwardly acting unprejudiced while inwardly maintaining prejudiced attitudes, displaying subtle prejudiced behaviors such as actions informed by attributing qualities to others based on racial stereotypes, and evaluating the same behavior differently based on

1833-632: A multi-pronged effort to challenge and dismantle white supremacy in the US. According to dictionary definitions, racism is prejudice and discrimination based on race. Racism can also be said to describe a condition in society in which a dominant racial group benefits from the oppression of others, whether that group wants such benefits or not. Foucauldian scholar Ladelle McWhorter, in her 2009 book, Racism and Sexual Oppression in Anglo-America: A Genealogy , posits modern racism similarly, focusing on

1974-626: A myth rather than a reality. Academics commonly define racism not only in terms of individual prejudice, but also in terms of a power structure that protects the interests of the dominant culture and actively discriminates against ethnic minorities. From this perspective, while members of ethnic minorities may be prejudiced against members of the dominant culture, they lack the political and economic power to actively oppress them, and they are therefore not practicing "racism". The ideology underlying racism can manifest in many aspects of social life. Such aspects are described in this section, although

2115-437: A particular group by appeal to rules or stereotypes. People who behave in an aversively racial way may profess egalitarian beliefs, and will often deny their racially motivated behavior; nevertheless they change their behavior when dealing with a member of another race or ethnic group than the one they belong to. The motivation for the change is thought to be implicit or subconscious. Experiments have provided empirical support for

2256-507: A political ideology in which rights and privileges are differentially distributed based on racial categories. The term "racist" may be an adjective or a noun, the latter describing a person who holds those beliefs. The origin of the root word "race" is not clear. Linguists generally agree that it came to the English language from Middle French , but there is no such agreement on how it generally came into Latin-based languages. A recent proposal

2397-539: A racist man such as the Kaiser. Inverting the racist premise of Asian invasion, France showed that European imperialism in Asia and Africa indicated that the European White Peril was the true threat to the world. In his essay "The Bogey of the Yellow Peril" (1904), the British journalist Demetrius Charles Boulger said the Yellow Peril was racist hysteria for popular consumption. Asian geopolitical dominance of

2538-543: A restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a bathroom, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home. Segregation is generally outlawed, but may exist through social norms, even when there is no strong individual preference for it, as suggested by Thomas Schelling 's models of segregation and subsequent work. Centuries of European colonialism in the Americas, Africa and Asia were often justified by white supremacist attitudes. During

2679-583: A singular 'yellow peril', criticizing immigration to Russia and presenting the Ussuri region as a buffer against "onslaught". The Chinese head tax was a fixed fee charged to each Chinese person entering Canada . The head tax was first levied after the Canadian parliament passed the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 and was meant to discourage Chinese people from entering Canada after

2820-517: A sometimes pedantic-looking realism that focused on small details such as the historical accuracy of the costumes. From around 1890, his historical works developed a more impressionist style. In addition to his historical works, Knackfuss was also a sought-after portraitist of the Prussian nobility. In 1895, the German emperor Wilhelm II commissioned Knackfuss to create allegorical works on behalf of

2961-593: A squint! Fearful of harm to the public image of Imperial Germany, the Auswärtiges Amt (Foreign Office) published a redacted version of the Hun Speech that was expurgated of the exhortation to racist barbarism. Annoyed by Foreign Office censorship, the Kaiser published the unexpurgated Hun Speech, which "evoked images of a Crusade and considered the current crisis [the Boxer Rebellion] to amount to

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3102-459: A system of discrimination whereby the characteristics of a group are used to distinguish them as separate from the norm. Othering plays a fundamental role in the history and continuation of racism. To objectify a culture as something different, exotic or underdeveloped is to generalize that it is not like 'normal' society. Europe's colonial attitude towards the Orientals exemplifies this as it

3243-476: A transaction of mechanistic reproduction. To end what he perceived as the threat of the Yellow Peril to the Western world, von Ehrenfels proposed white racial unity among the nations of the West, in order to jointly prosecute a preemptive war of ethnic conflicts to conquer Asia, before it became militarily infeasible. Then establish a worldwide racial hierarchy organized as an hereditary caste system , headed by

3384-440: A war between Occident and Orient." However, that "elaborate accompanying music, and the new ideology of the Yellow Peril stood in no relation to the actual possibilities and results" of geopolitical policy based upon racist misperception. The Kaiser ordered the expedition-commander, Field Marshal Alfred von Waldersee , to behave barbarously because the Chinese were "by nature, cowardly, like a dog, but also deceitful". In that time,

3525-542: A wide agreement on a single definition of what racism is and what it is not. Today, some scholars of racism prefer to use the concept in the plural racisms , in order to emphasize its many different forms that do not easily fall under a single definition. They also argue that different forms of racism have characterized different historical periods and geographical areas. Garner (2009: p. 11) summarizes different existing definitions of racism and identifies three common elements contained in those definitions of racism. First,

3666-403: Is a misnomer, due to the lack of any actual science backing the claims. Most biologists , anthropologists , and sociologists reject a taxonomy of races in favor of more specific and/or empirically verifiable criteria, such as geography , ethnicity, or a history of endogamy . Human genome research indicates that race is not a meaningful genetic classification of humans. An entry in

3807-618: Is a prostitute of the basest order; the first words of English that they learn are terms of obscenity or profanity, and beyond this they care to learn no more. In 1870s California, despite the Burlingame Treaty (1868) allowing legal migration of unskilled laborers from China, the native white working-class demanded that the U.S. government cease the immigration of "filthy yellow hordes" of Chinese people who took jobs from native-born white-Americans, especially during an economic depression . In Los Angeles, Yellow Peril racism provoked

3948-440: Is characterized by more complex, ambivalent expressions and attitudes. Aversive racism is similar in implications to the concept of symbolic or modern racism (described below), which is also a form of implicit, unconscious, or covert attitude which results in unconscious forms of discrimination. The term was coined by Joel Kovel to describe the subtle racial behaviors of any ethnic or racial group who rationalize their aversion to

4089-643: Is frequently described as a relatively modern concept, evolving during the European age of imperialism , transformed by capitalism , and the Atlantic slave trade , of which it was a major driving force. It was also a major force behind racial segregation in the United States in the 19th and early 20th centuries, and of apartheid in South Africa ; 19th and 20th-century racism in Western culture

4230-448: Is held together by a sophisticated ideology of color/'race' supremacy. Racial centrality (the extent to which a culture recognizes individuals' racial identity) appears to affect the degree of discrimination African-American young adults perceive whereas racial ideology may buffer the detrimental emotional effects of that discrimination." Sellers and Shelton (2003) found that a relationship between racial discrimination and emotional distress

4371-765: Is particularly well documented and constitutes a reference point in studies and discourses about racism. Racism has played a role in genocides such as the Holocaust , the Armenian genocide , the Rwandan genocide , and the Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia , as well as colonial projects including the European colonization of the Americas , Africa , Asia , and the population transfer in

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4512-510: Is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, religions, or educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. Stokely Carmichael is credited for coining the phrase institutional racism in the late 1960s. He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin". Maulana Karenga argued that racism constituted

4653-399: Is racist, i.e. "reducing Nigeria to a nation of scammers and fraudulent princes, as some people still do online, is a stereotype that needs to be called out". Language , linguistics , and discourse are active areas of study in the humanities , along with literature and the arts. Discourse analysis seeks to reveal the meaning of race and the actions of racists through careful study of

4794-448: Is so associated with crime you're ready to pick out these crime objects." Such exposures influence our minds and they can cause subconscious racism in our behavior towards other people or even towards objects. Thus, racist thoughts and actions can arise from stereotypes and fears of which we are not aware. For example, scientists and activists have warned that the use of the stereotype "Nigerian Prince" for referring to advance-fee scammers

4935-411: Is still maintained subconsciously. This process has been studied extensively in social psychology as implicit associations and implicit attitudes , a component of implicit cognition . Implicit attitudes are evaluations that occur without conscious awareness towards an attitude object or the self. These evaluations are generally either favorable or unfavorable. They come about from various influences in

5076-640: Is that it derives from the Arabic ra's , which means "head, beginning, origin" or the Hebrew rosh , which has a similar meaning. Early race theorists generally held the view that some races were inferior to others and they consequently believed that the differential treatment of races was fully justified. These early theories guided pseudo-scientific research assumptions; the collective endeavors to adequately define and form hypotheses about racial differences are generally termed scientific racism , though this term

5217-602: The Oxford English Dictionary (2008) defines racialism as "[a]n earlier term than racism, but now largely superseded by it", and cites the term "racialism" in a 1902 quote. The revised Oxford English Dictionary cites the shorter term "racism" in a quote from the year 1903. It was defined by the Oxford English Dictionary (2nd edition 1989) as "[t]he theory that distinctive human characteristics and abilities are determined by race";

5358-578: The Völkisch movement intellectual Houston Stewart Chamberlain , the "Evangelist of Race", gave his racialist perspective of the cultural meaning of the Boer War (1899–1902) in relation to the cultural meaning of the Boxer Rebellion: "One thing I can clearly see, that is, that it is criminal for Englishmen and Dutchmen to go on murdering each other, for all sorts of sophisticated reasons, while

5499-489: The Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), which remained the effective immigration-law until 1943. The act was the first U.S. immigration law to target a specific ethnicity or nationality. Moreover, following the example of Kaiser Wilhelm II's use of the term in 1895, the popular press in the U.S. adopted the phrase "yellow peril" to identify Japan as a military threat, and to describe the many emigrants from Asia. In

5640-585: The Chinese massacre of 1871 , wherein 500 white men lynched 20 Chinese men in the Chinatown ghetto. Throughout the 1870s and 1880s, the leader of the Workingmen's Party of California , the demagogue Denis Kearney , successfully applied Yellow Peril ideology to his politics against the press, capitalists, politicians, and Chinese workers, and concluded his speeches with the epilogue: "and whatever happens,

5781-612: The Düsseldorf Academy between 1869 and 1874, where he was a student of Eduard Bendemann , Julius Roeting , and Eduard von Gebhardt . In 1870, he interrupted his studies to serve as a volunteer in the Franco-Prussian War . His illustrations of the war's progress during his service would appear in the magazine Die Gartenlaube . While studying at Düsseldorf, he won the state prize in 1874, which paid for his studies at Rome from 1875 to 1878. In 1880, Knackfuss

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5922-550: The Greater East Asia Conference . Article 1 of the 1945 UN Charter includes "promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race" as UN purpose. In 1950, UNESCO suggested in The Race Question —a statement signed by 21 scholars such as Ashley Montagu , Claude Lévi-Strauss , Gunnar Myrdal , Julian Huxley , etc.—to "drop

6063-861: The United Kingdom , the United States, and Imperial Japan, Imperial France, Imperial Russia, and Imperial Germany, Austria–Hungary and Italy formed the Eight-Nation Alliance and dispatched an international military expeditionary force to end the Siege of the International Legations in Beijing. The Russian press presented the Boxer Rebellion in racialist and religious terms as a cultural war between White Holy Russia and Yellow Pagan China. The press further supported

6204-581: The United Nations 's Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination , there is no distinction between the terms "racial" and "ethnic" discrimination. It further concludes that superiority based on racial differentiation is scientifically false , morally condemnable, socially unjust , and dangerous. The convention also declared that there is no justification for racial discrimination, anywhere, in theory or in practice. Racism

6345-482: The dehumanizing attitude toward indigenous Americans that the US was founded on." In an 1890 article about colonial expansion onto Native American land, author L. Frank Baum wrote: "The Whites, by law of conquest, by justice of civilization, are masters of the American continent, and the best safety of the frontier settlements will be secured by the total annihilation of the few remaining Indians." In his Notes on

6486-519: The mores ( social and sexual norms) of the Christian West. Eliminating monogamy as a hindrance to global white supremacy , for limiting a genetically superior White man to father children with only one woman; because polygamy gives the yellow race greater reproductive advantage, for permitting a genetically superior Asian man to father children with many women. Therefore, the state would control human sexuality through polygamy, to ensure

6627-408: The normative standard, whereas people of color are othered , and the racism these individuals experience may be minimized or erased. At an individual level, people with "color blind prejudice" reject racist ideology, but also reject systemic policies intended to fix institutional racism . Cultural racism manifests as societal beliefs and customs that promote the assumption that the products of

6768-566: The white race in each conquered country of Asia. That an oligarchy of the Aryan white people would form, populate, and lead the racial castes of the ruling class , the military forces, and the intelligentsia ; and that in each conquered country, the Yellow and the Black races would be slaves , the economic base of the worldwide racial hierarchy. The Aryan society that von Ehrenfels proposed in

6909-646: The " white savior narrative in film ", in which the heroes and heroines are white even though the story is about things that happen to black characters. Textual analysis of such writings can contrast sharply with black authors' descriptions of African Americans and their experiences in US society. African-American writers have sometimes been portrayed in African-American studies as retreating from racial issues when they write about " whiteness ", while others identify this as an African-American literary tradition called "the literature of white estrangement", part of

7050-586: The "Asiatic barbarism" of Russia. That was most obvious during the Nazi era [1933–1945], when virtually every piece of anti–Russian propaganda talked of the "Asiatic millions" or "Mongolian hordes", which threatened to over-run Europe, but the identification of the Russians as Asian, especially as Mongolian , continued well into the Cold War era [1917–1991]. As his cousin, Kaiser Wilhelm knew that Tsar Nicholas shared his anti-Asian racism and believed he could persuade

7191-420: The "Yellow Peril", and believed that Asian peoples were a deadly threat to European civilization. Ehrenfels wrote if nothing was done to stop the rise of China, that "if there is no change in current practice, this will lead to the annihilation of the white race by the yellow race". In response to this perceived threat, he wrote several radical proposals. The Yellow Peril racialism of von Ehrenfels proposed that

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7332-409: The "others" are over "there". Imagined differences serve to categorize people into groups and assign them characteristics that suit the imaginer's expectations. Racial discrimination refers to discrimination against someone on the basis of their race. Racial segregation is the separation of humans into socially-constructed racial groups in daily life. It may apply to activities such as eating in

7473-730: The 1954 U.S. Supreme Court desegregation decision in Brown v. Board of Education . Also, in 1950, the European Convention on Human Rights was adopted, which was widely used on racial discrimination issues. The United Nations use the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination , adopted in 1966: ... any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin that has

7614-426: The 1965 UN International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination , The term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction, or preference based on race, colour, descent , or national or ethnic origin that has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in

7755-472: The 19th century as Western imperialist expansion adduced East Asians as the Yellow Peril. In the late 19th century, the Russian sociologist Jacques Novikow coined the term in the essay "Le Péril Jaune" ("The Yellow Peril", 1897), which Kaiser Wilhelm II (r. 1888–1918) used to encourage the European empires to invade, conquer, and colonize China. To that end, using the Yellow Peril ideology, the Kaiser portrayed

7896-602: The 20th century. In 1854, as editor of the New-York Tribune , Horace Greeley published "Chinese Immigration to California" an editorial opinion supporting the popular demand for the exclusion of Chinese workers and people from California. Without using the term "yellow peril," Greeley compared the arriving coolies to the African slaves who survived the Middle Passage . He praised the few Christians among

8037-741: The Alliance captured Beijing. The British journalist George Lynch said that "there are things that I must not write, and that may not be printed in England, which would seem to show that this Western civilization of ours is merely a veneer over savagery". The expedition of German field marshal Waldersee arrived in China on 27 September 1900, after the military defeat of the Boxer Rebellion by the Eight-Nation Alliance, yet he launched 75 punitive raids into northern China to search for and destroy

8178-604: The Archangel Michael, gazing apprehensively towards a dark cloud of smoke in the East, in which rests an eerily calm Buddha, wreathed in flame   ... Combined with this was a sense of the slow sinking of the Abendland , the "Evening Land" of the West. This would be put most powerfully, by thinkers such as Oswald Spengler in The Decline of the West (1918) and the Prussian philosopher Moeller van den Bruck ,

8319-480: The British embassy and beat the diplomats. A diplomat remarked that the Boxers had used the same chant. On 27 July 1900, Kaiser Wilhelm II gave the racist Hunnenrede (Hun speech) exhorting his soldiers to barbarism and that Imperial German soldiers depart Europe for China and suppress the Boxer Rebellion by acting like "Huns" and committing atrocities against the Chinese (Boxer and civilian): When you come before

8460-513: The Chinese are virtuosi of sexual reproduction. The gist of von Ehrenfels's nihilistic racism was that Asian conquest of the West equaled white racial annihilation; Continental Europe subjugated by a genetically superior Sino–Japanese army consequent to a race war that the Western world would fail to thwart or win. To resolve the population imbalance between the Eastern and the West in favor of White people, von Ehrenfels proposed radical changes to

8601-580: The Chinese community (5,000 people) from Blagoveshchensk . From 4 to 8 July, the Tsarist police, Cossack cavalry, and local vigilantes killed thousands of Chinese people at the Amur River. In the Western world, news of Boxer atrocities against Westerners in China provoked Yellow Peril racism in Europe and North America, where the Chinese' rebellion was perceived as a race war between the yellow race and

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8742-446: The Chinese into an essentialist stereotype of physically listless and mindless Asians, von Ehrenfels's cultural cognitive dissonance allowed praising Japan as a first-rate imperial military power whose inevitable conquest of continental China would produce improved breeds of Chinese people. That the Japanese' selective breeding with "genetically superior" Chinese women would engender a race of "healthy, sly, cunning coolies", because

8883-431: The Chinese must go!" The Chinese people also were specifically subjected to moralistic panics about their use of opium, and how their use made opium popular among white people. As in the case of Irish-Catholic immigrants, the popular press misrepresented Asian peoples as culturally subversive, whose way of life would diminish republicanism in the U.S.; hence, racist political pressure compelled the U.S. government to legislate

9024-573: The Europeans; that geopolitical gambit became an underlying cause of the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05). The Kaiser justified the Triple Intervention to the Japanese empire with racialist calls-to-arms against nonexistent geopolitical dangers of the yellow race against the white race of Western Europe. To justify European cultural hegemony , the Kaiser used the allegorical lithograph Peoples of Europe, Guard Your Most Sacred Possessions (1895), by Hermann Knackfuss , to communicate his geopolitics to other European monarchs. The lithograph depicts Germany as

9165-404: The German force had arrived at the city. The eight-nation alliance sacked Beijing in vengeance for the Boxer Rebellion; the magnitude of the rape, pillaging and burning indicated "a sense that the Chinese were less than human" to the Western powers. About the sacking of the city, an Australian in China stated: "The future of the Chinese is a fearful problem. Look at the frightful sights one sees in

9306-404: The Great Yellow Danger overshadows us white men, and threatens destruction." In the book The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century (1899), Chamberlain provided the racist ideology for Pan-Germanism and the Völkisch movements of the early 20th century, which greatly influenced the racial policy of Nazi Germany . The Austrian philosopher Christian von Ehrenfels was fixated with the fear of

9447-469: The Great Yellow Race". In The Bloody White Baron (2009), the historian James Palmer explains the 19th-century socio-cultural background from which Yellow Peril ideology originated and flourished: The 1890s had spawned in the West the specter of the "Yellow Peril", the rise to world dominance of the Asian peoples. The evidence cited was Asian population growth, immigration to the West (America and Australia in particular), and increased Chinese settlement along

9588-406: The Home Office, warned of "a vast and convulsive Armageddon to determine who is to be the master of the world, the white or yellow man." After the First World War, cinemas, theater, novels, and newspapers broadcast visions of the "Yellow Peril" machinating to corrupt white society. In March 1929, the chargé d'affaires , at London's Chinese legation, complained that no fewer than five plays, showing in

9729-484: The Japanese and the Asian victory against the Russians in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) as an Asian racial threat to white Western Europe, and also exposes China and Japan as an alliance to conquer, subjugate, and enslave the Western world. The sinologist Wing-Fai Leung explained the origins of the term and the racialist ideology: "The phrase yellow peril (sometimes yellow terror or yellow specter )   ... blends Western anxieties about sex, racist fears of

9870-413: The Kaiser used the phrase die Gelbe Gefahr (The Yellow Peril) to specifically encourage Imperial German interests and justify European colonialism in China. In 1895, Germany, France, and Russia staged the Triple Intervention to the Treaty of Shimonoseki (17 April 1895), which concluded the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), in order to compel Imperial Japan to surrender their Chinese colonies to

10011-548: The Kaiser's best friend, Philipp, Prince of Eulenburg , wrote to another friend that the Kaiser wanted to raze Beijing and kill the populace to avenge the murder of Baron Clemens von Ketteler , Imperial Germany's minister to China. Only the Eight-Nation Alliance's refusal of barbarism to resolve the siege of the legations saved the Chinese populace of Beijing from the massacre recommended by Imperial Germany. In August 1900, an international military force of Russian, Japanese, British, French, and American soldiers captured Beijing before

10152-767: The Kaiser's true geopolitical target was Britain. Though Chinese civilization was admired in 18th century Britain , by the 19th century, the Opium Wars led to the creation of racialist stereotypes of the Chinese among the British public, who cast the Chinese "as a threatening, expansionist foe" and a corrupt and depraved people. Still, there were exceptions to popular racism of the Yellow Peril. In May 1890, William Ewart Gladstone criticized anti-Chinese immigration laws in Australia for penalizing their virtues of hard work (diligence, thrift and integrity), instead of penalizing their vices (gambling and opium smoking). In 1904, in

10293-545: The Righteous and Harmonious Fists (called the Boxers in the West) was an anticolonial martial arts organization who blamed the problems of China on the presence of Western colonies in China proper. The Boxers sought to save China by killing Westerners in China and Chinese Christians or Westernized people. In the early summer of 1900, Prince Zaiyi allowed the Boxers into Beijing to kill Westerners and Chinese Christians in siege to

10434-458: The Russian border. These demographic and political fears were accompanied by a vague and ominous dread of the mysterious powers supposedly possessed by the initiates of Eastern religions. There is a striking German picture of the 1890s, depicting the dream that inspired Kaiser Wilhelm II to coin the term "Yellow Peril", that shows the union of these ideas. It depicts the nations of Europe, personified as heroic, but vulnerable, female figures guarded by

10575-555: The Soviet Union including deportations of indigenous minorities. Indigenous peoples have been—and are—often subject to racist attitudes. In the 19th century, many scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population can be divided into races. The term racism is a noun describing the state of being racist, i.e., subscribing to the belief that the human population can or should be classified into races with differential abilities and dispositions, which in turn may motivate

10716-471: The State of Virginia , published in 1785, Thomas Jefferson wrote: "blacks, whether originally a distinct race, or made distinct by time or circumstances, are inferior to the whites in the endowments of both body and mind." Attitudes of black supremacy , Arab supremacy , and East Asian supremacy also exist. Some scholars argue that in the US, earlier violent and aggressive forms of racism have evolved into

10857-560: The Tsar to abrogate the Franco-Russian Alliance (1894) and then to form a German–Russian alliance against Britain. In manipulative pursuit of Imperial German Weltpolitik "Wilhelm II's deliberate use of the 'yellow peril' slogan was more than a personal idiosyncrasy, and fitted into the general pattern of German foreign policy under his reign, i.e. to encourage Russia's Far Eastern adventures, and later to sow discord, between

10998-465: The United States and Japan. Not the substance, but only the form, of Wilhelm II's 'yellow peril' propaganda disturbed the official policy of the Wilhelmstrasse." In the 19th century, the racial and cultural stereotypes of Yellow Peril ideology colored German perceptions of Russia as a nation more Asiatic than European. The European folk memory of the 13th-century Mongol invasion of Europe made

11139-656: The West End, depicted Chinese people in "a vicious and objectionable form". The Limehouse district in London (which had a large Chinese element) was portrayed in the British popular imagination as a center of moral depravity and vice, i.e. sexual prostitution, opium smoking, and gambling. According to historian Anne Witchard, many Londoners believed the British Chinese community, including Triad gangsters, "were abducting young English women to sell into white slavery ",

11280-458: The West against conquest from the East. In pursuing Weltpolitik policies meant to establish Germany as the dominant empire, the Kaiser manipulated his own government officials, public opinion, and other monarchs. In a letter to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia , the Kaiser said: "It is clearly the great task of the future for Russia to cultivate the Asian continent, and defend Europe from the inroads of

11421-427: The Western world and the Eastern world were in a Darwinian racial struggle for domination of the planet, which the yellow race was winning. That the Chinese were an inferior race of people whose Oriental culture lacked "all potentialities   ... determination, initiative, productivity, invention, and organizational talent" supposedly innate to the white cultures of the West. Nonetheless, despite having dehumanized

11562-554: The Western world; yet Renan had meant the Russian Empire (1721–1917), a country and nation whom the West perceived as more Asiatic than European. Since 1870, the Yellow Peril ideology gave concrete form to the anti-East Asian racism of Europe and North America. In central Europe, the Orientalist and diplomat Max von Brandt advised Kaiser Wilhelm II that Imperial Germany had colonial interests to pursue in China. Hence,

11703-487: The Yellow Peril apocalypse with quotations from the Sinophobic poems of the philosopher Vladimir Solovyov . Likewise, in the press, the aristocracy demanded action against the Asian threat. Prince Sergei Nikolaevich Trubetskoy urged Imperial Russia and other European monarchies to jointly partition China and to end the Yellow Peril to Christendom. Hence, on 3 July 1900, in response to the Boxer Rebellion, Russia expelled

11844-551: The Yellow Peril originated in the late 19th century, when Chinese workers (people of different skin-color and physiognomy, language and culture) legally immigrated to Australia, Canada, the U.S., and New Zealand, where their work ethic inadvertently provoked a racist backlash against Chinese communities, for agreeing to work for lower wages than did the local white populations. In 1870, the French Orientalist and historian Ernest Renan warned Europeans of Eastern danger to

11985-541: The alien Other, and the Spenglerian belief that the West will become outnumbered and enslaved by the East." The academic Gina Marchetti identified the psycho-cultural fear of East Asians as "rooted in medieval fears of Genghis Khan and the Mongol invasions of Europe [1236–1291], the Yellow Peril combines racist terror of alien cultures, sexual anxieties, and the belief that the West will be overpowered and enveloped, by

12126-437: The arriving Chinese and continued: But of the remainder, what can be said? They are for the most part an industrious people, forbearing and patient of injury, quiet and peaceable in their habits; say this and you have said all good that can be said of them. They are uncivilized, unclean, and filthy beyond all conception, without any of the higher domestic or social relations; lustful and sensual in their dispositions; every female

12267-496: The author's experiences with racism when he was traveling in the South as an African American. Much American fictional literature has focused on issues of racism and the black "racial experience" in the US, including works written by whites, such as Uncle Tom's Cabin , To Kill a Mockingbird , and Imitation of Life , or even the non-fiction work Black Like Me . These books, and others like them, feed into what has been called

12408-562: The basis of those observations are heavily influenced by cultural ideologies. Racism, as an ideology, exists in a society at both the individual and institutional level. While much of the research and work on racism during the last half-century or so has concentrated on "white racism" in the Western world, historical accounts of race-based social practices can be found across the globe. Thus, racism can be broadly defined to encompass individual and group prejudices and acts of discrimination that result in material and cultural advantages conferred on

12549-496: The belief that one race is inherently superior to another, cultural racism can be characterised by the belief that one culture is inherently superior to another. Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of discrimination caused by past racism and historical reasons, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in previous generations, and through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of

12690-472: The breeding functions of wife and mother. The fertile women would reside and live their daily lives in communal barracks, where they collectively rear their many children. To fulfill her reproductive obligations to the state, each woman is assigned a husband only for reproductive sexual intercourse. Ehrenfels's social engineering for worldwide white supremacy eliminates romantic love (marriage) from sexual intercourse, and thus reduces man–woman sexual relations to

12831-504: The completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR). The tax was abolished by the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 , which outright prevented all Chinese immigration except for that of business people, clergy, educators, students, and some others. In 1900, the anticolonial Boxer Rebellion (August 1899 – September 1901) reinforced the racist stereotypes of East Asians as a Yellow Peril to white people. The Society of

12972-459: The concept of reverse racism . "Reverse racism" is a concept often used to describe acts of discrimination or hostility against members of a dominant racial or ethnic group while favoring members of minority groups. This concept has been used especially in the United States in debates over color-conscious policies (such as affirmative action ) intended to remedy racial inequalities. However, many experts and other commenters view reverse racism as

13113-619: The concepts of race and ethnicity are considered to be separate in contemporary social science , the two terms have a long history of equivalence in popular usage and older social science literature. "Ethnicity" is often used in a sense close to one traditionally attributed to "race", the division of human groups based on qualities assumed to be essential or innate to the group (e.g. shared ancestry or shared behavior). Racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, independent of whether these differences are described as racial. According to

13254-493: The continual procreation of genetically and numerically superior populations of White people. In such a patriarchal society, only high-status white men of known genetic reliability would have the legal right to reproduce, with the number of reproductive wives he can afford, and so ensure that only the "social winners" reproduce, within their racial caste. Despite such radical social engineering of men's sexual behavior, white women remained monogamous by law; their lives dedicated to

13395-614: The definition of racism, their impact can be similar, though typically less pronounced, not being explicit, conscious or deliberate. In 1919, a proposal to include a racial equality provision in the Covenant of the League of Nations was supported by a majority, but not adopted in the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. In 1943, Japan and its allies declared work for the abolition of racial discrimination to be their aim at

13536-421: The destruction of culture, language, religion, and human possibility and that the effects of racism were "the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples". Othering is the term used by some to describe

13677-463: The distinction between the two has been a matter of debate among academics , including anthropologists . Similarly, in British law , the phrase racial group means "any group of people who are defined by reference to their race, colour, nationality (including citizenship) or ethnic or national origin". In Norway, the word "race" has been removed from national laws concerning discrimination because

13818-414: The earliest sociological works on racism were written by sociologist W. E. B. Du Bois , the first African American to earn a doctoral degree from Harvard University . Du Bois wrote, "[t]he problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color line ." Wellman (1993) defines racism as "culturally sanctioned beliefs, which, regardless of intentions involved, defend the advantages whites have because of

13959-584: The early 20th century, the phrase " The White Man's Burden " was widely used to justify an imperialist policy as a noble enterprise. A justification for the policy of conquest and subjugation of Native Americans emanated from the stereotyped perceptions of the indigenous people as "merciless Indian savages", as they are described in the United States Declaration of Independence . Sam Wolfson of The Guardian writes that "the declaration's passage has often been cited as an encapsulation of

14100-721: The early 20th century, would be in the far future of the Western world, realized after defeating the Yellow Peril and the other races for control of the Earth, because "the Aryan will only respond to the imperative of sexual reform when the waves of the Mongolian tide are lapping around his neck". As a racialist, von Ehrenfels characterized the Japanese military victory in the Russo-Japanese War (1905) as an Asian victory against

14241-515: The early decades of the 20th century, Britain buzzed with Sinophobia. Respectable middle-class magazines, tabloids and comics, alike, spread stories of ruthless Chinese ambitions to destroy the West. The Chinese master-criminal (with his "crafty yellow face twisted by a thin-lipped grin", dreaming of world domination) had become a staple of children's publications. In 1911, "The Chinese in England: A Growing National Problem" an article distributed around

14382-789: The emperor. One commission was People of Europe, Guard Your Dearest Goods , based on a rough sketch by Wilhelm that highlighted his fear of the yellow peril after the end of the First Sino-Japanese War . This particular political illustration was sent to Europe's political leaders, including Nicholas II of Russia , and it was mass-distributed through the Leipziger illustrirte Zeitung . It has become Knackfuss's most famous work. Knackfuss also traveled extensively to Greece, Spain, Italy, Asia Minor and Egypt, and accompanied Emperor Wilhelm II to Palestine in 1898. Knackfuss died of typhus in 1915 during World War I while serving as

14523-466: The enemy, you must defeat him, pardon will not be given, prisoners will not be taken! Whoever falls into your hands will fall to your sword! Just as a thousand years ago the Huns, under their King Attila, made a name for themselves with their ferocity, which tradition still recalls; so may the name of Germany become known in China in such a way that no Chinaman will ever dare look a German in the eye, even with

14664-555: The existence of aversive racism. Aversive racism has been shown to have potentially serious implications for decision making in employment, in legal decisions and in helping behavior. In relation to racism, color blindness is the disregard of racial characteristics in social interaction , for example in the rejection of affirmative action, as a way to address the results of past patterns of discrimination. Critics of this attitude argue that by refusing to attend to racial disparities, racial color blindness in fact unconsciously perpetuates

14805-730: The expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices. The ideology underlying racist practices often assumes that humans can be subdivided into distinct groups that are different in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as inferior or superior. Racist ideology can become manifest in many aspects of social life. Associated social actions may include nativism , xenophobia , otherness , segregation , hierarchical ranking , supremacism , and related social phenomena. Racism refers to violation of racial equality based on equal opportunities ( formal equality ) or based on equality of outcomes for different races or ethnicities, also called substantive equality . While

14946-703: The fear of Chinese people, did not include all Asians, because Britain had sided with Japan during the Russo–Japanese War, whilst France and Germany supported Russia; whereas the reports of Captain William Pakenham "tended to depict Russia as his enemy, not just Japan's". About pervasive Sinophobia in Western culture, in The Yellow Peril: Dr Fu Manchu & the Rise of Chinaphobia (2014), historian Christopher Frayling noted: In

15087-726: The final decision because of their race. Some scholars consider modern racism to be characterized by an explicit rejection of stereotypes, combined with resistance to changing structures of discrimination for reasons that are ostensibly non-racial, an ideology that considers opportunity at a purely individual basis denying the relevance of race in determining individual opportunities and the exhibition of indirect forms of micro-aggression toward and/or avoidance of people of other races. Recent research has shown that individuals who consciously claim to reject racism may still exhibit race-based subconscious biases in their decision-making processes. While such "subconscious racial biases" do not fully fit

15228-468: The foreign legations. Afterward, Qing Commander-in-Chief Ronglu and Yikuang (Prince Qing), resisted and expelled the Boxers from Beijing after days of fighting. Most of the victims of the Boxer Rebellion were Chinese Christians, but the massacres of Chinese people were of no interest to the Western world, which demanded Asian blood to avenge the Westerners in China killed by the Boxers. In response,

15369-455: The general population. Some view that capitalism generally transformed racism depending on local circumstances, but racism is not necessary for capitalism. Economic discrimination may lead to choices that perpetuate racism. For example, color photographic film was tuned for white skin as are automatic soap dispensers and facial recognition systems . Institutional racism (also known as structural racism , state racism or systemic racism)

15510-641: The greatest criticism for their ruthlessness and willingness to wantonly execute Chinese of all ages and backgrounds, sometimes by burning and killing entire village populations. The Americans and British paid General Yuan Shikai and his army (the Right Division ) to help the Eight Nation Alliance suppress the Boxers. Yuan's forces killed tens of thousands of people in their anti-Boxer campaign in Zhili Province and Shandong after

15651-774: The ideology of Yellow Peril in Tsarist Russia. The fear continued into the Soviet era where it contributed to the Soviet internal deportation of Koreans . In a 1928 report to the Dalkrai Bureau , Arsenev stated "Our colonization is a type of weak wedge on the edge of the primordial land of the yellow peoples." In the earlier 1914 monograph The Chinese in the Ussuri Region , Arsenev characterized people of three East Asian nationalities (Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese) as

15792-639: The individual experience. Implicit attitudes are not consciously identified (or they are inaccurately identified) traces of past experience that mediate favorable or unfavorable feelings, thoughts, or actions towards social objects. These feelings, thoughts, or actions have an influence on behavior of which the individual may not be aware. Therefore, subconscious racism can influence our visual processing and how our minds work when we are subliminally exposed to faces of different colors. In thinking about crime, for example, social psychologist Jennifer L. Eberhardt (2004) of Stanford University holds that, "blackness

15933-506: The irresistible, dark, occult forces of the East"; hence, to oppose Japanese imperial militarism, the West expanded the Yellow Peril ideology to include the Japanese people. Moreover, in the late-19th and early-20th centuries, writers developed the Yellow Peril literary topos into codified, racialist motifs of narration, especially in stories and novels of ethnic conflict in the genres of invasion literature , adventure fiction , and science fiction . The racist and cultural stereotypes of

16074-597: The last centuries, and not often at all in History   ... not even with the Huns, not even with the Vandals   ... That is not a match for what the German and other troops of foreign powers, together with the Japanese troops, have done in China. The political praxis of Yellow Peril racism calls for apolitical racial unity among the White peoples of the world. To resolve a contemporary problem (economic, social, political)

16215-401: The late 1920s. As its history indicates, the popular use of the word racism is relatively recent. The word came into widespread usage in the Western world in the 1930s, when it was used to describe the social and political ideology of Nazism , which treated "race" as a naturally given political unit. It is commonly agreed that racism existed before the coinage of the word, but there is not

16356-753: The late 19th century, with the Treaty of Saint Petersburg , the Qing dynasty (1644–1912) China recovered the eastern portion of the Ili River basin ( Zhetysu ), which Russia had occupied for a decade, since the Dungan Revolt . In that time, the mass communications media of the West misrepresented China as an ascendant military power, and applied Yellow Peril ideology to evoke racist fears that China would conquer Western colonies, such as Australia. Imperial Russian writers, notably symbolists , expressed fears of

16497-467: The leader of Europe, personified as a "prehistoric warrior-goddesses being led by the Archangel Michael against the 'yellow peril' from the East", which is represented by "dark cloud of smoke [upon] which rests an eerily calm Buddha , wreathed in flame ". Politically, the Knackfuss lithograph allowed Kaiser Wilhelm II to believe he prophesied the imminent race war that would decide global hegemony in

16638-412: The list is not exhaustive. Aversive racism is a form of implicit racism, in which a person's unconscious negative evaluations of racial or ethnic minorities are realized by a persistent avoidance of interaction with other racial and ethnic groups. As opposed to traditional, overt racism, which is characterized by overt hatred for and explicit discrimination against racial/ethnic minorities, aversive racism

16779-610: The motive. King Edward said he "could not see it. The Japanese were an intelligent, brave and chivalrous nation, quite as civilized as the Europeans, from whom they only differed by the pigmentation of their skin". The first British usage of the Yellow Peril phrase was in the Daily News (21 July 1900) report describing the Boxer Rebellion as "the yellow peril in its most serious form". In that time, British Sinophobia ,

16920-417: The notion of a dominant group, usually whites, vying for racial purity and progress, rather than an overt or obvious ideology focused on the oppression of nonwhites. In popular usage, as in some academic usage, little distinction is made between "racism" and " ethnocentrism ". Often, the two are listed together as "racial and ethnic" in describing some action or outcome that is associated with prejudice within

17061-455: The patterns that produce racial inequality. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva argues that color blind racism arises from an "abstract liberalism , biologization of culture, naturalization of racial matters, and minimization of racism". Color blind practices are "subtle, institutional , and apparently nonracial" because race is explicitly ignored in decision-making. If race is disregarded in predominantly white populations, for example, whiteness becomes

17202-602: The political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life. In their 1978 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice (Article 1), the UN states, "All human beings belong to a single species and are descended from a common stock. They are born equal in dignity and rights and all form an integral part of humanity." The UN definition of racial discrimination does not make any distinction between discrimination based on ethnicity and race , in part because

17343-403: The purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life. (Part 1 of Article 1 of the U.N. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination) Hermann Knackfuss Hermann Knackfuss studied at

17484-476: The race of the person being evaluated. This view is based on studies of prejudice and discriminatory behavior, where some people will act ambivalently towards black people, with positive reactions in certain, more public contexts, but more negative views and expressions in more private contexts. This ambivalence may also be visible for example in hiring decisions where job candidates that are otherwise positively evaluated may be unconsciously disfavored by employers in

17625-421: The racialist politician calls for White unity against the nonwhite Other who threatens Western civilization from distant Asia. Despite the Western powers' military defeat of the anticolonial Boxer Rebellion, Yellow Peril fear of Chinese nationalism became a cultural factor among white people: That "the Chinese race" mean to invade, vanquish, and subjugate Christian civilization in the Western world. In July 1900,

17766-737: The remaining Boxers. The German soldiers killed more peasants than Boxer guerrillas because by that time, the Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists (the Boxers) had posed no threat. On 19 November 1900, at the Reichstag , the German Social Democrat politician August Bebel criticized the Kaiser's attack upon China as shameful to Germany: No, this is no crusade, no holy war; it is a very ordinary war of conquest   ... A campaign of revenge as barbaric as has never been seen in

17907-409: The same dictionary termed racism a synonym of racialism : "belief in the superiority of a particular race". By the end of World War II , racism had acquired the same supremacist connotations formerly associated with racialism : racism by then implied racial discrimination , racial supremacism , and a harmful intent. The term "race hatred" had also been used by sociologist Frederick Hertz in

18048-437: The streets of Peking   ... See the filthy, tattered rags they wrap around them. Smell them as they pass. Hear of their nameless immorality. Witness their shameless indecency, and picture them among your own people—Ugh! It makes you shudder!" British admiral Roger Keyes recalled: "Every Chinaman   ... was treated as a Boxer, by the Russian and French troops, and the slaughter of men, women, and children, in retaliation,

18189-660: The subordinated position of racial minorities". In both sociology and economics, the outcomes of racist actions are often measured by the inequality in income , wealth , net worth , and access to other cultural resources (such as education), between racial groups. In sociology and social psychology , racial identity and the acquisition of that identity, is often used as a variable in racism studies. Racial ideologies and racial identity affect individuals' perception of race and discrimination. Cazenave and Maddern (1999) define racism as "a highly organized system of 'race'-based group privilege that operates at every level of society and

18330-594: The term race altogether and instead speak of ethnic groups ". The statement condemned scientific racism theories that had played a role in the Holocaust . It aimed both at debunking scientific racist theories, by popularizing modern knowledge concerning "the race question", and morally condemned racism as contrary to the philosophy of the Enlightenment and its assumption of equal rights for all. Along with Myrdal's An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (1944), The Race Question influenced

18471-403: The use of the phrase is considered problematic and unethical. The Norwegian Anti-Discrimination Act bans discrimination based on ethnicity, national origin, descent, and skin color. Sociologists , in general, recognize "race" as a social construct . This means that, although the concepts of race and racism are based on observable biological characteristics, any conclusions drawn about race on

18612-732: The ways in which these factors of human society are described and discussed in various written and oral works. For example, Van Dijk (1992) examines the different ways in which descriptions of racism and racist actions are depicted by the perpetrators of such actions as well as by their victims. He notes that when descriptions of actions have negative implications for the majority, and especially for white elites, they are often seen as controversial and such controversial interpretations are typically marked with quotation marks or they are greeted with expressions of distance or doubt. The previously cited book, The Souls of Black Folk by W.E.B. Du Bois, represents early African-American literature that describes

18753-424: The white peoples of the Christian West, a cultural failure which indicated "the absolute necessity of a radical, sexual reform for the continued existence of the Western races of man   ... [The matter of White racial survival] has been raised from the level of discussion to the level of a scientifically proven fact". From 1895, Kaiser Wilhelm used Yellow Peril ideology to portray Imperial Germany as defender of

18894-732: The white race. In that vein, The Economist magazine warned in 1905: The history of the Boxer movement contains abundant warnings, as to the necessity of an attitude of constant vigilance, on the part of the European Powers, when there are any symptoms that a wave of nationalism is about to sweep over the Celestial Empire. Sixty-one years later, in 1967, during the Cultural Revolution , Red Guards shouting "Shā!, Shā!, Shā!" ( English: Kill!, Kill!, Kill!") attacked

19035-531: The word Mongol a cultural synonym for the "Asian culture of cruelty and insatiable appetite for conquest", which was especially personified by Genghis Khan , leader of the Orda , the Mongol Horde. Despite that justifying historical background, Yellow Peril racism was not universally accepted in the societies of Europe. French intellectual Anatole France said that Yellow Peril ideology was to be expected from

19176-479: The world is "the prospect, placed before the uninstructed reading public, is a revival of the Hun and Mongol terrors, and the names of Attila and Genghis are set out in the largest type to create feelings of apprehension. The reader is assured, in the most positive manner, that this is the doing of the enterprising nation of Japan". Throughout the successful imperial intrigues facilitated by Germany's Yellow Peril ideology,

19317-694: Was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. The UDHR recognizes that if people are to be treated with dignity, they require economic rights , social rights including education, and the rights to cultural and political participation and civil liberty . It further states that everyone is entitled to these rights "without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour , sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status". The UN does not define "racism"; however, it does define "racial discrimination". According to

19458-555: Was appointed to the Cassel Academy . Initially, he taught anatomy , but from 1890 onwards he also taught history of art (1890). Knackfuss primarily created historical paintings, many of which depicted events in the history of Prussia. Many of these were created for public buildings. For example, he made frescoes for the entrance hall of the Strasbourg train station. Early in his career, his paintings were characterized by

19599-650: Was moderated by racial ideology and social beliefs. Some sociologists also argue that, particularly in the West, where racism is often negatively sanctioned in society, racism has changed from being a blatant to a more covert expression of racial prejudice. The "newer" (more hidden and less easily detectable) forms of racism—which can be considered embedded in social processes and structures—are more difficult to explore and challenge. It has been suggested that, while in many countries overt or explicit racism has become increasingly taboo , even among those who display egalitarian explicit attitudes, an implicit or aversive racism

19740-473: Was revolting". The American missionary Luella Miner reported that "the conduct of the Russian soldiers is atrocious , the French are not much better, and the Japanese are looting and burning without mercy. Women and girls, by the hundreds, have committed suicide to escape a worse fate at the hands of Russian and Japanese brutes." From contemporary Western observers, German, Russian, and Japanese troops received

19881-484: Was thought that the East was the opposite of the West; feminine where the West was masculine, weak where the West was strong and traditional where the West was progressive. By making these generalizations and othering the East, Europe was simultaneously defining herself as the norm, further entrenching the gap. Much of the process of othering relies on imagined difference, or the expectation of difference. Spatial difference can be enough to conclude that "we" are "here" and

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