The Jizhong discovery ( Chinese : 汲冢发现 ) was the accidental rediscovery in 279 AD of a corpus of bamboo and wooden slips , as attested in the Book of Jin . The slips were found by a grave robber named Biao Zhun ( 不準 ) who had broken into the tomb of King Xiang of Wei ( r. 318–296 BC). The rediscovered texts enabled philological study among scholars that had been impossible since the editorial work of Han-era scholars Liu Xiang and Liu Xin . The importance of the discovery has been compared to that of the Guodian Chu Slips for modern scholarship.
50-525: The Yi Zhou Shu ( traditional Chinese : 逸周書 ; simplified Chinese : 逸周书 ; Wade–Giles : I Chou shu ; lit. 'Lost Book of Zhou') is a compendium of Chinese historical documents about the Western Zhou period (1046–771 BCE). Its textual history began with a (4th century BCE) text/compendium known as the Zhou Shu ("Book of Zhou"), which was possibly not differentiated from
100-548: A Jizhong Zhoushu in ten fascicles and Kong Zhao's annotated Zhoushu in eight. The (1345) History of Song and subsequent dynastic histories only list the Jizhong Zhoushu in ten fascicles. Shaughnessy concludes that two separate versions existed up until the Tang period, the eight-fascicle Kong Zhao zhu Zhoushu ( 孔晁注周書 ) and the ten-fascicle Jizhong Zhoushu ( 汲冢周書 ). These two textual versions were assimilated during
150-529: A Zhoushu in ten fascicles ( juan ), and notes it derived from the Jizhong discovery of Jin dynasty period. Yan Shigu (581–645), annotating Yiwenzhi , states that of the 71 Yizhoushu chapters only 45 are extant. However, Liu Zhiji (661–721) claims that all 71 original chapters were extant. The Old Book of Tang (945) bibliography lists an 8-fascicle Zhoushu with annotations by Kong Zhao ( 孔晁 , mid-3rd century). The New Book of Tang (1060) lists both
200-509: A certain extent in South Korea , remain virtually identical to traditional characters, with variations between the two forms largely stylistic. There has historically been a debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters . Because the simplifications are fairly systematic, it is possible to convert computer-encoded characters between the two sets, with the main issue being ambiguities in simplified representations resulting from
250-828: A preface. Eleven chapters were lost around the 12th century CE, and only the titles survive. The extant text has 59 chapters and a preface, with a commentary for 42 chapters attributed to the Jin dynasty scholar Kong Zhao ( 孔晁 , fl. 256–266). Based upon linguistic and thematic consistencies, modern scholarship reveals that 32 chapters constitute a textual "core" treating governmental and military topics. The remaining 27 Yizhoushu chapters are heterogeneous. Some describe historical events ranging from King Wen of Zhou (r. 1099–1050 BCE) down to King Jing of Zhou (Gui) (r. 544–520 BCE); supplementary chapters record topics such as astronomy (52 Shixun 時訓 ) and posthumous names (54 Shifa 謚法 ). McNeal disagrees with Shaughnessy's claim that "there
300-869: Is 産 (also the accepted form in Japan and Korea), while in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan the accepted form is 產 (also the accepted form in Vietnamese chữ Nôm ). The PRC tends to print material intended for people in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, and overseas Chinese in traditional characters. For example, versions of the People's Daily are printed in traditional characters, and both People's Daily and Xinhua have traditional character versions of their website available, using Big5 encoding. Mainland companies selling products in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan use traditional characters in order to communicate with consumers;
350-698: Is attested by the preserved textual quotes, most of which are ascribed to Jin personae. A number of thematic parallels are found between Yizhoushu and the Wenzi , which is reported to be also produced in Jin. The bibliography sections ( yiwenzhi 藝文志 ) of the Twenty-four Histories provide valuable diachronic data. The (111 CE) Book of Han imperial Bibliography records the Zhoushu , or Zhoushiji 周史記 , in 71 chapters. The (636) Book of Sui lists
400-510: Is called the 抱經堂本 "Baojing Study version". The (1919) Sibu congkan 四部叢刊 collection reproduced the earliest edition, a (1543) version by Zhang Bo ( 章檗 ) printed at the Jiaxing provincial academy. Compared with most other Chinese classics , the Yizhoushu has been neglected by scholars, both Chinese and Western. McNeal suggests, "A bias against the work, perhaps originating in part from
450-476: Is no discernible organization of the text," and contends, "there is in fact a chronological presentation of material throughout the progression of most of the chapters." For instance, 18 chapter titles use one of the paired words wen 文 "civil; literary" and wu 武 "military; martial" – a literary reference to the Zhou founders King Wen and King Wu . At least 28 of the 59 extant chapters "are unambiguously set in
500-622: Is now a "general scholarly consensus" that the title should in fact read simply as Zhou shu . However, since Zhou shu also figures as the section of the Book of Documents , the name "Yizhoushu" has obtained broad currency as safely marking the differentiation. English translations of the Yi Zhou shu title include: In the 1st century BCE, the Zhoushu or Yizhoushu text consisted of 10 fascicles ( juan 巻 "scroll; volume; book; fascicle") with 70 chapters ( pian 篇 "article; section; chapter") and
550-534: The Bamboo Annals . Shaughnessy explains that "the Yi Zhou shu was extant as an integral text, known as the Zhou shu 周書 , throughout the nearly six centuries from King Xiang 's burial in 296 B.C. through the opening of the tomb in 280 A.D." Some chapters (e.g., 62 Shifang 職方 ) have internal evidence of being written after the 221 BCE Qin dynasty unification. Second, it is unlikely that Kong Zhao, author of
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#1732765743005600-493: The Chinese Commercial News , World News , and United Daily News all use traditional characters, as do some Hong Kong–based magazines such as Yazhou Zhoukan . The Philippine Chinese Daily uses simplified characters. DVDs are usually subtitled using traditional characters, influenced by media from Taiwan as well as by the two countries sharing the same DVD region , 3. With most having immigrated to
650-520: The Shi ji account on Zhou history, and the Yizhoushu "Ke Yin" (#36) and "Duoyi" (#44) chapters are basically incorporated into the Shi ji in their full form. The observation was made by Ding Fu ( 丁黼 ). Among the excavated sources on Yizhoushu : The Shi fu ( 世浮 ) document was condemned by Mencius and ignored by Sima Qian , which is probably part of the reason it is found in the Yizhoushu today instead of
700-769: The Zuozhuan , Hanfeizi , and Zhanguoce . Second, no later than the early 1st century BCE, another editor, possibly the preface's author, composed a redaction with 70 chapters and a preface (modeled upon the Old Texts preface to the Shangshu ). Some secondary chapters are earlier than the core and others are later. For instance, Chapter 32 Wushun 武順 uses the term di 帝 " emperor "; McNeal interprets it as "a late third-century BC date", when di came to mean " Emperor of China ". Qing historian Zhu Youceng ( 朱右曾 , 19th century) claimed that, though possibly not produced in
750-542: The Book of Documents . After its compilation, the Yizhoushu was condemned as inadequate representation of history by the traditional Confucian scholars of the late imperial period, beginning from the Song dynasty (Ding Fu, Hong Mai). Their standpoints were characterized by merging of moralistic judgement into textual criticism. Most pronounced condemnation came from Fang Xiaoru (1357–1402). Fang claimed that Yi Zhou Shu contained "exaggerations" and "immoral" notions ascribed to
800-473: The Kensiu language . Jizhong discovery The initial editorial work on the slips was done by Xun Xu (d. 289), who was the director of the Jin imperial library, though its quality was questioned by his successors. Among his editions, only two have survived; the large number of quotations shows the extent of Xun Xu work's influence. Among the works retrieved, collectively known as Jizhongshu ( 汲塚書 ),
850-475: The Northern Song period (960–1279), and the loss of eleven chapters occurred before the middle Southern Song (1127–1279). Both these traditions, associating the extant Yizhoushu to Jizhong texts or Kong's edition, have dubious historicity. First, contemporary research on the Yizhoushu has conclusively demonstrated that the received text could not have been recovered from King Xiang's tomb along with
900-640: The Shanghainese -language character U+20C8E 𠲎 CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-20C8E —a composition of 伐 with the ⼝ 'MOUTH' radical—used instead of the Standard Chinese 嗎 ; 吗 . Typefaces often use the initialism TC to signify the use of traditional Chinese characters, as well as SC for simplified Chinese characters . In addition, the Noto, Italy family of typefaces, for example, also provides separate fonts for
950-472: The Yi Zhou Shu as a zashi ( 雜史 ) or "unofficial history" and excluded it from the canonical dynastic Twenty-Four Histories . This early Chinese historical text has four titles: Zhou zhi , Zhou shu "Documents/Book of Zhou", Yi Zhoushu "Lost/Leftover Documents/Book of Zhou", and Jizhong Zhou shu "Ji Tomb Documents/Book of Zhou". Zhou zhi 周志 appears once throughout the transmitted texts: in
1000-467: The Zuo zhuan (Duke Wen of Lu 's 2nd year - 625 BCE), along the quote presently found in the Yi Zhou Shu . The reference is valuable since it differentiates the Yi Zhou Shu from the corpus of other documents called shu and possibly refers to its educational function. Zhoushu (or Zhou shu ) – combining Zhou 周 " Zhou dynasty " and shu 書 "writing; document; book; letter" – is the earliest record of
1050-555: The People's Republic of China, traditional Chinese characters are standardised according to the Table of Comparison between Standard, Traditional and Variant Chinese Characters . Dictionaries published in mainland China generally show both simplified and their traditional counterparts. There are differences between the accepted traditional forms in mainland China and elsewhere, for example the accepted traditional form of 产 in mainland China
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#17327657430051100-587: The United States during the second half of the 19th century, Chinese Americans have long used traditional characters. When not providing both, US public notices and signs in Chinese are generally written in traditional characters, more often than in simplified characters. In the past, traditional Chinese was most often encoded on computers using the Big5 standard, which favored traditional characters. However,
1150-551: The bamboo strips. Yizhoushu commentaries began with Kong Zhao in the 3rd century and continue in the present day. Kong's commentary is extant for 42 of the 59 chapters, and has been included in most editions. Qing dynasty (1644–1912) scholarship produced valuable Yizhoushu commentaries and editions. The text-critical edition of Lu Wenchao ( 盧文弨 , 1717–1796) was based on eight Yuan dynasty and Ming dynasty versions, and includes twelve earlier Qing commentaries. The (1936) Sibu beiyao 四部備要 series reprinted Lu's edition, which
1200-476: The chapter, the totals of captives and animals, etc., are best understood in this light, and as demonstrating an ideal of kingship far removed from the moralistic " Mandate of Heaven " ideological construction of the Zhou conquest: hence Mencius's rejection of what is probably a more authentic account. Traditional Chinese characters Traditional Chinese characters are a standard set of Chinese character forms used to write Chinese languages . In Taiwan ,
1250-492: The concept was highlighted by the famous ancient military strategist and politician Jiang Ziya or Tai Gong 太公 , who is known through the writings of Su Qin (380–284 BCE) from the School of Diplomacy or "School of Vertical and Horizontal [Alliances]". According to Chinese scholars, possible transmission line of the earliest Yizhoushu chapters went through the state of Jin ( 晉 ) and its subsequently divided territories. It
1300-560: The corpus of the same name in the extant Book of Documents . Western Han dynasty (202 BCE–CE 9) editors listed 70 chapters of the Yi Zhou Shu , of which 59 are extant as texts, and the rest only as chapter titles. Such condition is described for the first time by Wang Shihan ( 王士漢 ) in 1669. Circulation ways of the individual chapters before that point (merging of different texts or single text's editions, substitution, addition, conflation with commentaries etc.) are subject to scholarly debates. Traditional Chinese historiography classified
1350-534: The earliest commentary, consulted the Jizhong documents. The dates of Kong's life are uncertain, but he was a close contemporary of Wang Su (195–256), and the last historical reference to him was in an imperial invitation of 266. Shaughnessy says Kong's commentary was added to the text "sometime in the middle of the third century A.D., but certainly before the 280 opening of King Xiang's tomb." Histories listed many scholars – but not Kong Zhao – who worked on deciphering
1400-465: The early Western Han the transmitted version of the Zhou shu was expanded so as to produce a text of exactly seventy-one chapters, so that, added to the twenty-nine chapters of the Shang shu , the so-called "hundred chapters of the shu " could be given a literal meaning. This would account for those chapters of the Yi Zhou shu that seem entirely unrelated or only tentatively related to the main themes of
1450-545: The early Zhou, Yizhoushu had no features of the Warring States or Qin–Han forgery. The philosophical lineage of the Yizhoushu within the Hundred Schools of Thought remains uncertain. According to McNeal, several schools (including one branch of Confucianism ) emphasized the concept of wen and wu as "the civil and martial spheres of government as comprising a comprehensive totality." In particular,
1500-493: The inverse is equally true as well. In digital media, many cultural phenomena imported from Hong Kong and Taiwan into mainland China, such as music videos, karaoke videos, subtitled movies, and subtitled dramas, use traditional Chinese characters. In Hong Kong and Macau , traditional characters were retained during the colonial period, while the mainland adopted simplified characters. Simplified characters are contemporaneously used to accommodate immigrants and tourists, often from
1550-725: The mainland. The increasing use of simplified characters has led to concern among residents regarding protecting what they see as their local heritage. Taiwan has never adopted simplified characters. The use of simplified characters in government documents and educational settings is discouraged by the government of Taiwan. Nevertheless, with sufficient context simplified characters are likely to be successfully read by those used to traditional characters, especially given some previous exposure. Many simplified characters were previously variants that had long been in some use, with systematic stroke simplifications used in folk handwriting since antiquity. Traditional characters were recognized as
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1600-682: The majority of Chinese text in mainland China are simplified characters , there is no legislation prohibiting the use of traditional Chinese characters, and often traditional Chinese characters remain in use for stylistic and commercial purposes, such as in shopfront displays and advertising. Traditional Chinese characters remain ubiquitous on buildings that predate the promulgation of the current simplification scheme, such as former government buildings, religious buildings, educational institutions, and historical monuments. Traditional Chinese characters continue to be used for ceremonial, cultural, scholarly/academic research, and artistic/decorative purposes. In
1650-983: The merging of previously distinct character forms. Many Chinese online newspapers allow users to switch between these character sets. Traditional characters are known by different names throughout the Chinese-speaking world. The government of Taiwan officially refers to traditional Chinese characters as 正體字 ; 正体字 ; zhèngtǐzì ; 'orthodox characters'. This term is also used outside Taiwan to distinguish standard characters, including both simplified, and traditional, from other variants and idiomatic characters . Users of traditional characters elsewhere, as well as those using simplified characters, call traditional characters 繁體字 ; 繁体字 ; fántǐzì ; 'complex characters', 老字 ; lǎozì ; 'old characters', or 全體字 ; 全体字 ; quántǐzì ; 'full characters' to distinguish them from simplified characters. Some argue that since traditional characters are often
1700-450: The misconception that it comprised those Zhou documents that Confucius deemed unfit for inclusion in his canonical edition of the Shang shu 尚書 , or Venerated Documents (which includes a section called "Zhou Documents" itself), has contributed to the relative neglect of this text." The text close to the known version of Yizhoushu was known to Sima Qian : numerous parallels are found in
1750-638: The most important were the Bamboo Annals , but other works of interest include manuscripts of the Guoyu , the I Ching , the Tale of King Mu , the Suoyu ( 瑣語 'Minor Sayings'), an anthology of zhiguai , and several Warring States -era glossaries. Though the majority of the collection have subsequently been lost, the restoration work, which involved identifying a great number of variant scripts as well as collating fragmented bamboo strips and finding parallels in
1800-677: The official script in Singapore until 1969, when the government officially adopted Simplified characters. Traditional characters still are widely used in contexts such as in baby and corporation names, advertisements, decorations, official documents and in newspapers. The Chinese Filipino community continues to be one of the most conservative in Southeast Asia regarding simplification. Although major public universities teach in simplified characters, many well-established Chinese schools still use traditional characters. Publications such as
1850-700: The original standard forms, they should not be called 'complex'. Conversely, there is a common objection to the description of traditional characters as 'standard', due to them not being used by a large population of Chinese speakers. Additionally, as the process of Chinese character creation often made many characters more elaborate over time, there is sometimes a hesitation to characterize them as 'traditional'. Some people refer to traditional characters as 'proper characters' ( 正字 ; zhèngzì or 正寫 ; zhèngxiě ) and to simplified characters as 簡筆字 ; 简笔字 ; jiǎnbǐzì ; 'simplified-stroke characters' or 減筆字 ; 减笔字 ; jiǎnbǐzì ; 'reduced-stroke characters', as
1900-434: The past sages (bringing "Shi fu" chapter as an example for the first, and "Guan ren", "Da wu", "Da ming" for the second). He concluded on those grounds that they could not have been authentic Zhou documents, and thus Liu Xiang's claim that they had been left over by Confucius was necessarily false. Yegor Grebnev has recently shown that the "Shi fu" chapter is a compilation of a number of pre-existing texts. The organization of
1950-423: The pre-dynastic reigns of Kings Wen and Wu or during the immediate time of the conquest of Shang ." According to Shaughnessy, the Yizhoushu underwent two textual redactions . First, sometime in the late 4th or early 3rd century BCE, an anonymous editor compiled the 32 "core" chapters. These have linguistic and intellectual features characteristic of Warring States writings, and were quoted in classics such as
2000-833: The predominant forms. Simplified characters as codified by the People's Republic of China are predominantly used in mainland China , Malaysia, and Singapore. "Traditional" as such is a retronym applied to non-simplified character sets in the wake of widespread use of simplified characters. Traditional characters are commonly used in Taiwan , Hong Kong , and Macau , as well as in most overseas Chinese communities outside of Southeast Asia. As for non-Chinese languages written using Chinese characters, Japanese kanji include many simplified characters known as shinjitai standardized after World War II, sometimes distinct from their simplified Chinese counterparts . Korean hanja , still used to
2050-508: The present title. Depending upon the semantic interpretation of shu , Zhoushu can be translated "Book(s) of Zhou" (cf. Hanshu 漢書 Book of Han ) or "Documents of Zhou" (cf. Shujing 書經 Book of Documents ). In Modern Standard Chinese usage, Zhoushu is the title of the Book of Zhou history about the later Northern Zhou dynasty (557–581). Yizhoushu (or Yi Zhou shu ) adds yi 逸 "escape; flee; neglect; missing; lost; remain" to
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2100-581: The received literature of the time, sparked renewed interest in ancient texts and epigraphy among Xun Xu's contemporaries, such as Lü Chen ( 呂忱 ), who wrote his Zilin dictionary by extending the Shuowen Jiezi ; Guo Pu , who annotated the Erya , Sancang , Fangyan , the Classic of Mountains and Seas , and the Tale of King Mu ; and Zhang Hua , who wrote the encyclopedic Bowuzhi . Since
2150-521: The set of traditional characters is regulated by the Ministry of Education and standardized in the Standard Form of National Characters . These forms were predominant in written Chinese until the middle of the 20th century, when various countries that use Chinese characters began standardizing simplified sets of characters, often with characters that existed before as well-known variants of
2200-406: The text as: "The solemn statements and orders of the Zhou period; they are in fact the residue of the hundred pian [chapters] discussed by Confucius." McNeal translates differently, "[The Yi Zhou shu ] may well be what remained after Confucius edited the hundred chapters [of the Shang shu ]". Since the canonical Shang shu in circulation had 29 chapters, McNeal proposes, Perhaps sometime during
2250-420: The title, which scholars interpret in two ways. Either "Lost Book(s) of Zhou", with a literal translation of yi as "lost" (cf. yishu 逸書 "lost books; ancient works no longer in existence"). Or "Remaining Book(s) of Zhou", with a reading of yi as "remnant; leftover" (cf. yijing 逸經 "classical texts not included in the orthodox classics"). This dubious tradition began with Liu Xiang (79–8 BCE) describing
2300-636: The traditional character set used in Taiwan ( TC ) and the set used in Hong Kong ( HK ). Most Chinese-language webpages now use Unicode for their text. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) recommends the use of the language tag zh-Hant to specify webpage content written with traditional characters. In the Japanese writing system , kyujitai are traditional forms, which were simplified to create shinjitai for standardized Japanese use following World War II. Kyūjitai are mostly congruent with
2350-985: The traditional characters in Chinese, save for minor stylistic variation. Characters that are not included in the jōyō kanji list are generally recommended to be printed in their traditional forms, with a few exceptions. Additionally, there are kokuji , which are kanji wholly created in Japan, rather than originally being borrowed from China. In the Korean writing system , hanja —replaced almost entirely by hangul in South Korea and totally replaced in North Korea —are mostly identical with their traditional counterparts, save minor stylistic variations. As with Japanese, there are autochthonous hanja, known as gukja . Traditional Chinese characters are also used by non-Chinese ethnic groups. The Maniq people living in Thailand and Malaysia use Chinese characters to write
2400-518: The ubiquitous Unicode standard gives equal weight to simplified and traditional Chinese characters, and has become by far the most popular encoding for Chinese-language text. There are various input method editors (IMEs) available for the input of Chinese characters . Many characters, often dialectical variants, are encoded in Unicode but cannot be inputted using certain IMEs, with one example being
2450-587: The words for simplified and reduced are homophonous in Standard Chinese , both pronounced as jiǎn . The modern shapes of traditional Chinese characters first appeared with the emergence of the clerical script during the Han dynasty c. 200 BCE , with the sets of forms and norms more or less stable since the Southern and Northern dynasties period c. the 5th century . Although
2500-447: The work. Jizhong Zhoushu (or Jizhong Zhou shu , 汲冢周書 ) derives from a second tradition that the text was found among the manuscripts on bamboo slips unearthed in the ( c. 279 CE) Jizhong discovery of the tomb of King Xiang of Wei ( 衛襄王 , r. 311–296 BCE). Shaughnessy concludes that since "both of these traditions can be shown to be without foundation", and since all the earliest textual citations refer to it as Zhoushu , there
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