Yu Hao ( Chinese : 喻皓 , fl. 970) was a Chinese architect, structural engineer, and writer during the Song Dynasty .
92-462: Yu Hao was given the title of Master-Carpenter (Du Liao Jiang) for his architectural skill. He wrote the Mu Jing (木經; Timberwork Manual ) when he was active sometime between 965 and 995, considered an important piece of classical Chinese architectural literature, and although it no longer survives, Shen Kuo quoted from it. In 989, his architectural design and structural engineering work culminated in
184-453: A Royal charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as: the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange, and in
276-520: A chartered engineer (in most Commonwealth countries), a chartered professional engineer (in Australia and New Zealand ), or a European engineer (in most countries of the European Union ). There are international agreements between relevant professional bodies to allow engineers to practice across national borders. The benefits of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in
368-443: A chartered engineer ). Civil engineering structures are often subjected to very extreme forces, such as large variations in temperature, dynamic loads such as waves or traffic, or high pressures from water or compressed gases. They are also often constructed in corrosive environments, such as at sea, in industrial facilities, or below ground. The forces which parts of a machine are subjected to can vary significantly and can do so at
460-505: A bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification , and a professional body certifies the degree program. After completing a certified degree program, the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements including work experience and exam requirements before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated as a professional engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa),
552-741: A beam (divided along its length) to go into compression and the other part into tension. The compression part must be designed to resist buckling and crushing, while the tension part must be able to adequately resist the tension. A truss is a structure comprising members and connection points or nodes. When members are connected at nodes and forces are applied at nodes members can act in tension or compression. Members acting in compression are referred to as compression members or struts while members acting in tension are referred to as tension members or ties . Most trusses use gusset plates to connect intersecting elements. Gusset plates are relatively flexible and unable to transfer bending moments . The connection
644-453: A catenary in two directions. Structural engineering depends on the knowledge of materials and their properties, in order to understand how different materials support and resist loads. It also involves a knowledge of Corrosion engineering to avoid for example galvanic coupling of dissimilar materials. Common structural materials are: Civil engineering Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with
736-708: A four or five-year undergraduate degree, followed by a minimum of three years of professional practice before being considered fully qualified. Structural engineers are licensed or accredited by different learned societies and regulatory bodies around the world (for example, the Institution of Structural Engineers in the UK). Depending on the degree course they have studied and/or the jurisdiction they are seeking licensure in, they may be accredited (or licensed) as just structural engineers, or as civil engineers, or as both civil and structural engineers. Another international organisation
828-634: A great rate. The forces which a boat or aircraft are subjected to vary enormously and will do so thousands of times over the structure's lifetime. The structural design must ensure that such structures can endure such loading for their entire design life without failing. These works can require mechanical structural engineering: Aerospace structure types include launch vehicles, ( Atlas , Delta , Titan), missiles (ALCM, Harpoon), Hypersonic vehicles (Space Shuttle), military aircraft (F-16, F-18) and commercial aircraft ( Boeing 777, MD-11). Aerospace structures typically consist of thin plates with stiffeners for
920-414: A licensed land surveyor are generally required for boundary surveys (to establish the boundaries of a parcel using its legal description) and subdivision plans (a plot or map based on a survey of a parcel of land, with boundary lines drawn inside the larger parcel to indicate the creation of new boundary lines and roads), both of which are generally referred to as Cadastral surveying . Construction surveying
1012-421: A more defined and formalized profession with the emergence of architecture as a distinct profession from engineering during the industrial revolution in the late 19th century. Until then, the architect and the structural engineer were usually one and the same thing – the master builder. Only with the development of specialized knowledge of structural theories that emerged during the 19th and early 20th centuries, did
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#17327907415581104-402: A number of sub-disciplines within the broad field of civil engineering. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to design grading, drainage, pavement , water supply, sewer service, dams, electric and communications supply. General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting
1196-416: A partial collapse of the three-story schoolhouse that sent neighbors fleeing. The final collapse killed 94 people, mostly children. In other cases structural failures require careful study, and the results of these inquiries have resulted in improved practices and a greater understanding of the science of structural engineering. Some such studies are the result of forensic engineering investigations where
1288-427: A patient's medical state. Monitors may measure patient vital signs and other parameters including ECG , EEG , blood pressure, and dissolved gases in the blood; diagnostic medical equipment may also be used in the home for certain purposes, e.g. for the control of diabetes mellitus. A biomedical equipment technician (BMET) is a vital component of the healthcare delivery system. Employed primarily by hospitals, BMETs are
1380-479: A structure to move freely with the ground. Civil structural engineering includes all structural engineering related to the built environment. It includes: The structural engineer is the lead designer on these structures, and often the sole designer. In the design of structures such as these, structural safety is of paramount importance (in the UK, designs for dams, nuclear power stations and bridges must be signed off by
1472-455: A tract of land from one usage to another. Site engineers spend time visiting project sites, meeting with stakeholders, and preparing construction plans. Civil engineers apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering to residential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction. Coastal engineering
1564-461: Is IABSE(International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering). The aim of that association is to exchange knowledge and to advance the practice of structural engineering worldwide in the service of the profession and society. Structural building engineering is primarily driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms and the underlying mathematical and scientific ideas to achieve an end that fulfills its functional requirements and
1656-409: Is a complex non-linear relationship. A beam may be defined as an element in which one dimension is much greater than the other two and the applied loads are usually normal to the main axis of the element. Beams and columns are called line elements and are often represented by simple lines in structural modeling. Beams are elements that carry pure bending only. Bending causes one part of the section of
1748-455: Is a discipline that promotes using systems thinking to manage complexity and change in civil engineering within its broader public context. It posits that the proper development of civil engineering infrastructure requires a holistic , coherent understanding of the relationships between all of the crucial factors that contribute to successful projects while at the same time emphasizing the importance of attention to technical detail. Its purpose
1840-468: Is a sub-discipline of structural engineering. The main objectives of earthquake engineering are to understand interaction of structures on the shaky ground; foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes; and design, construct and maintain structures to perform at earthquake in compliance with building codes . Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for sanitary engineering , though sanitary engineering traditionally had not included much of
1932-590: Is above the ground floor follows the Middlework Unit, and everything below that (platforms, foundations, paving, etc.) follows the Lowerwork Unit. The length of the cross-beams will naturally govern the lengths of the uppermost cross-beams as well as the rafters, etc. Thus for a (main) cross-beam of (8 ft.) length, an uppermost cross-beam of (3.5 ft.) length will be needed. (The proportions are maintained) in larger and smaller halls. This (2/28)
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#17327907415582024-454: Is based upon applied physical laws and empirical knowledge of the structural performance of different materials and geometries. Structural engineering design uses a number of relatively simple structural concepts to build complex structural systems . Structural engineers are responsible for making creative and efficient use of funds, structural elements and materials to achieve these goals. Structural engineering dates back to 2700 B.C. when
2116-628: Is closely related to civil engineering. It studies fundamental characteristics of materials, and deals with ceramics such as concrete and mix asphalt concrete, strong metals such as aluminum and steel, and thermosetting polymers including polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and carbon fibers. Materials engineering involves protection and prevention (paints and finishes). Alloying combines two types of metals to produce another metal with desired properties. It incorporates elements of applied physics and chemistry . With recent media attention on nanoscience and nanotechnology , materials engineering has been at
2208-857: Is concerned with managing coastal areas. In some jurisdictions, the terms sea defense and coastal protection mean defense against flooding and erosion, respectively. Coastal defense is the more traditional term, but coastal management has become popular as well. Construction engineering involves planning and execution, transportation of materials, and site development based on hydraulic, environmental, structural, and geotechnical engineering. As construction firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering firms, construction engineers often engage in more business-like transactions, such as drafting and reviewing contracts, evaluating logistical operations , and monitoring supply prices. Earthquake engineering involves designing structures to withstand hazardous earthquake exposures. Earthquake engineering
2300-445: Is concerned with municipal infrastructure. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining streets, sidewalks , water supply networks , sewers, street lighting , municipal solid waste management and disposal, storage depots for various bulk materials used for maintenance and public works (salt, sand, etc.), public parks and cycling infrastructure . In the case of underground utility networks, it may also include
2392-528: Is converted into a graphical representation of the Earth's surface in the form of a map. This information is then used by civil engineers, contractors and realtors to design from, build on, and trade, respectively. Elements of a structure must be sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures. Although surveying is a distinct profession with separate qualifications and licensing arrangements, civil engineers are trained in
2484-433: Is defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering. Civil engineering can take place in the public sector from municipal public works departments through to federal government agencies, and in the private sector from locally based firms to Fortune Global 500 companies. Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles for solving the problems of society, and its history
2576-786: Is generally performed by specialized technicians. Unlike land surveyors, the resulting plan does not have legal status. Construction surveyors perform the following tasks: Transportation engineering is concerned with moving people and goods efficiently, safely, and in a manner conducive to a vibrant community. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining transportation infrastructure which includes streets, canals, highways, rail systems , airports, ports, and mass transit . It includes areas such as transportation design, transportation planning , traffic engineering , some aspects of urban engineering , queueing theory , pavement engineering , Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), and infrastructure management. Municipal engineering
2668-480: Is intricately linked to advances in the understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a broad profession, including several specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology , soils , hydrology , environmental science , mechanics , project management , and other fields. Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction
2760-501: Is limited to the state of Queensland . Almost all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics which all members must abide by. Engineers must obey contract law in their contractual relationships with other parties. In cases where an engineer's work fails, they may be subject to the law of tort of negligence , and in extreme cases, criminal charges. An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and environmental law . There are
2852-418: Is needed to ensure that the assumed collapse mechanism is realistic. Shells derive their strength from their form and carry forces in compression in two directions. A dome is an example of a shell. They can be designed by making a hanging-chain model, which will act as a catenary in pure tension and inverting the form to achieve pure compression. Arches carry forces in compression in one direction only, which
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2944-738: Is structurally safe when subjected to all the loads it could reasonably be expected to experience. This is subtly different from architectural design, which is driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms, mass, space, volume, texture, and light to achieve an end which is aesthetic, functional, and often artistic. The structural design for a building must ensure that the building can stand up safely, able to function without excessive deflections or movements which may cause fatigue of structural elements, cracking or failure of fixtures, fittings or partitions, or discomfort for occupants. It must account for movements and forces due to temperature, creep , cracking, and imposed loads. It must also ensure that
3036-416: Is technically called a beam-column but practically, just a column). The design of a column must check the axial capacity of the element and the buckling capacity. The buckling capacity is the capacity of the element to withstand the propensity to buckle. Its capacity depends upon its geometry, material, and the effective length of the column, which depends upon the restraint conditions at the top and bottom of
3128-481: Is the Upperwork Unit. Similarly, the dimensions of the foundations must match the dimensions of the columns to be used, as also those of the (side-) rafters , etc. For example, a column (11 ft.) high will need a platform (4.5 ft.) high. So also for all the other components, corbelled brackets (kung), projecting rafters (tshui), other rafters (chueh), all have their fixed proportions. All these follow
3220-484: Is the investigation of materials, products , structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property. The consequences of failure are dealt with by the law of product liability. The field also deals with retracing processes and procedures leading to accidents in operation of vehicles or machinery. The subject is applied most commonly in civil law cases, although it may be of use in criminal law cases. Generally
3312-465: Is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions that occur on or near the surface of the Earth. Surveying equipment such as levels and theodolites are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation, horizontal, vertical and slope distances. With computerization, electronic distance measurement (EDM), total stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning have to a large extent supplanted traditional instruments. Data collected by survey measurement
3404-527: Is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes' principle , which underpins our understanding of buoyancy , and practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw . Brahmagupta , an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations. Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practice of civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in ancient Egypt ,
3496-703: Is three to five years, and the completed degree is designated as a bachelor of technology , or a bachelor of engineering . The curriculum generally includes classes in physics, mathematics, project management , design and specific topics in civil engineering. After taking basic courses in most sub-disciplines of civil engineering, they move on to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines at advanced levels. While an undergraduate degree (BEng/BSc) normally provides successful students with industry-accredited qualifications, some academic institutions offer post-graduate degrees (MEng/MSc), which allow students to further specialize in their particular area of interest. In most countries,
3588-418: Is usually arranged so that the lines of force in the members are coincident at the joint thus allowing the truss members to act in pure tension or compression. Trusses are usually used in large-span structures, where it would be uneconomical to use solid beams. Plates carry bending in two directions. A concrete flat slab is an example of a plate. Plates are understood by using continuum mechanics , but due to
3680-473: Is why it is appropriate to build arches out of masonry. They are designed by ensuring that the line of thrust of the force remains within the depth of the arch. It is mainly used to increase the bountifulness of any structure. Catenaries derive their strength from their form and carry transverse forces in pure tension by deflecting (just as a tightrope will sag when someone walks on it). They are almost always cable or fabric structures. A fabric structure acts as
3772-653: The Eddystone Lighthouse . In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society. In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received
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3864-526: The Indus Valley civilization , and Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, creating a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing . Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to
3956-956: The Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447–438 BC), the Appian Way by Roman engineers ( c. 312 BC ), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti ( c. 220 BC ) and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura . The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts , insulae , harbors, bridges, dams and roads. In
4048-428: The design , construction , and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment , including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewage systems , pipelines, structural components of buildings, and railways. Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines. It is considered the second-oldest engineering discipline after military engineering , and it
4140-552: The stability , strength, rigidity and earthquake-susceptibility of built structures for buildings and nonbuilding structures . The structural designs are integrated with those of other designers such as architects and building services engineer and often supervise the construction of projects by contractors on site. They can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, and vehicles where structural integrity affects functioning and safety. See glossary of structural engineering . Structural engineering theory
4232-471: The 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering. In 1747, the first institution for the teaching of civil engineering, the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées , was established in France; and more examples followed in other European countries, like Spain . The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton , who constructed
4324-627: The Class of Civil Engineering and Mining was founded at King's College London in 1838, mainly as a response to the growth of the railway system and the need for more qualified engineers, the private College for Civil Engineers in Putney was established in 1839, and the UK's first Chair of Engineering was established at the University of Glasgow in 1840. Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree in civil engineering. The length of study
4416-405: The Middlework Unit (2/24). Now below of ramps (and steps) there are three kinds, steep, easy-going, and intermediate. In places these gradients are based upon a unit derived from the imperial litters. Steep ramps (chun tao) are ramps for ascending which the leading and trailing bearers have to extend their arms fully down and up respectively (ratio 3/35). Easy-going ramps (man tao) are those for which
4508-613: The Renaissance and have since developed into computer-based applications pioneered in the 1970s. The history of structural engineering contains many collapses and failures. Sometimes this is due to obvious negligence, as in the case of the Pétion-Ville school collapse , in which Rev. Fortin Augustin " constructed the building all by himself, saying he didn't need an engineer as he had good knowledge of construction" following
4600-633: The United States and Canada, "only a licensed professional engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients." This requirement is enforced under provincial law such as the Engineers Act in Quebec . No such legislation has been enacted in other countries including the United Kingdom. In Australia, state licensing of engineers
4692-604: The United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905. In the UK during the early 19th century, the division between civil engineering and military engineering (served by the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich ), coupled with the demands of the Industrial Revolution, spawned new engineering education initiatives:
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#17327907415584784-459: The architectural writings of Yu Hao. Below are two passages from Shen's book Meng Xi Bi Tan ( Dream Pool Essays ), outlining the basics contained in Yu's 10th-century work on early Song-era architecture. In the first quote, Shen describes a scene in which Yu gives advice to another artisan architect about slanting struts for diagonal wind bracing ( Wade-Giles spelling): When Mr. Chhien (Wei-Yen)
4876-564: The basics of surveying and mapping, as well as geographic information systems . Surveyors also lay out the routes of railways, tramway tracks , highways, roads, pipelines and streets as well as position other infrastructure, such as harbors , before construction. In the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and most Commonwealth countries land surveying is considered to be a separate and distinct profession. Land surveyors are not considered to be engineers, and have their own professional associations and licensing requirements. The services of
4968-451: The civil portion (conduits and access chambers) of the local distribution networks of electrical and telecommunications services. It can also include the optimization of waste collection and bus service networks. Some of these disciplines overlap with other civil engineering specialties, however municipal engineering focuses on the coordination of these infrastructure networks and services, as they are often built simultaneously, and managed by
5060-409: The column. The effective length is K ∗ l {\displaystyle K*l} where l {\displaystyle l} is the real length of the column and K is the factor dependent on the restraint conditions. The capacity of a column to carry axial load depends on the degree of bending it is subjected to, and vice versa. This is represented on an interaction chart and
5152-441: The complexity involved they are most often designed using a codified empirical approach, or computer analysis. They can also be designed with yield line theory, where an assumed collapse mechanism is analyzed to give an upper bound on the collapse load. This technique is used in practice but because the method provides an upper-bound (i.e. an unsafe prediction of the collapse load) for poorly conceived collapse mechanisms, great care
5244-499: The construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns. The first private college to teach civil engineering in the United States was Norwich University , founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge. The first degree in civil engineering in
5336-568: The construction of the Kai-Bao Pagoda, a wooden Chinese pagoda of medieval Kaifeng (the Northern Song's capital city). The pagoda was lost in a 1040 lightning conflagration, while the now-famous Iron Pagoda of Kaifeng was rebuilt on the same spot in 1049, constructed out of brick and stone to resist arson and lightning fires. Writing a century later (c. 1088), the polymath scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095) praised
5428-602: The design is practically buildable within acceptable manufacturing tolerances of the materials. It must allow the architecture to work, and the building services to fit within the building and function (air conditioning, ventilation, smoke extract, electrics, lighting, etc.). The structural design of a modern building can be extremely complex and often requires a large team to complete. Structural engineering specialties for buildings include: Earthquake engineering structures are those engineered to withstand earthquakes . The main objectives of earthquake engineering are to understand
5520-457: The design of structures, with the functionality to assist in the drawing, analyzing and designing of structures with maximum precision; examples include AutoCAD , StaadPro, ETABS , Prokon, Revit Structure, Inducta RCB, etc. Such software may also take into consideration environmental loads, such as earthquakes and winds. Structural engineers are responsible for engineering design and structural analysis. Entry-level structural engineers may design
5612-432: The effect. So then they put on all the tiles, but the sway continued as before. Being at a loss what to do, he privately sent his wife to see the wife of Yu Hao with a present of golden hair pins , and enquire about the cause of the motion. (Yu) Hao laughed and said: 'That's easy, just fit in struts (pan) to settle the work, fixed with ( iron ) nails , and it will not move anymore.' The Master-Builder followed his advice, and
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#17327907415585704-527: The expertise thus shown. In this next quote, Shen describes the dimensions and types of architecture outlined in Yu Hao's book (Wade-Giles spelling): Methods of building construction are described in the Timberwork Manual , which, some say, was written by Yu. (According to that book), buildings have three basic units of proportion (fen), what is above the cross-beams follows the Upperwork Unit, what
5796-429: The external surfaces, bulkheads, and frames to support the shape and fasteners such as welds, rivets, screws, and bolts to hold the components together. A nanostructure is an object of intermediate size between molecular and microscopic (micrometer-sized) structures. In describing nanostructures it is necessary to differentiate between the number of dimensions on the nanoscale. Nanotextured surfaces have one dimension on
5888-529: The field of soil science , materials science, mechanics , and hydraulics is applied to safely and economically design foundations , retaining walls , and other structures. Environmental efforts to protect groundwater and safely maintain landfills have spawned a new area of research called geo-environmental engineering. Identification of soil properties presents challenges to geotechnical engineers. Boundary conditions are often well defined in other branches of civil engineering, but unlike steel or concrete,
5980-445: The flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines , water supply network , drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, channels , culverts , levees , storm sewers ), and canals. Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of fluid pressure , fluid statics , fluid dynamics , and hydraulics, among others. Civil engineering systems
6072-535: The forefront of academic research. It is also an important part of forensic engineering and failure analysis . Site development , also known as site planning , is focused on the planning and development potential of a site as well as addressing possible impacts from permitting issues and environmental challenges . Structural engineering is concerned with the structural design and structural analysis of buildings, bridges, towers , flyovers (overpasses), tunnels, off shore structures like oil and gas fields in
6164-618: The function they are designed for (to be serviceable ). Due to the nature of some loading conditions, sub-disciplines within structural engineering have emerged, including wind engineering and earthquake engineering. Design considerations will include strength, stiffness, and stability of the structure when subjected to loads which may be static, such as furniture or self-weight, or dynamic, such as wind, seismic, crowd or vehicle loads, or transitory, such as temporary construction loads or impact. Other considerations include cost, constructibility, safety, aesthetics and sustainability . Surveying
6256-414: The hazardous waste management and environmental remediation work covered by environmental engineering. Public health engineering and environmental health engineering are other terms being used. Environmental engineering deals with treatment of chemical, biological, or thermal wastes, purification of water and air, and remediation of contaminated sites after waste disposal or accidental contamination. Among
6348-672: The individual structural elements of a structure, such as the beams and columns of a building. More experienced engineers may be responsible for the structural design and integrity of an entire system, such as a building. Structural engineers often specialize in particular types of structures, such as buildings, bridges, pipelines, industrial, tunnels, vehicles, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft. Structural engineers who specialize in buildings may specialize in particular construction materials such as concrete, steel, wood, masonry, alloys and composites. Structural engineering has existed since humans first started to construct their structures. It became
6440-461: The interaction of structures with the shaking ground, foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes, and design and construct the structures to perform during an earthquake. Earthquake-proof structures are not necessarily extremely strong like the El Castillo pyramid at Chichen Itza shown above. One important tool of earthquake engineering is base isolation , which allows the base of
6532-412: The knowledge successfully a structural engineer generally requires detailed knowledge of relevant empirical and theoretical design codes , the techniques of structural analysis , as well as some knowledge of the corrosion resistance of the materials and structures, especially when those structures are exposed to the external environment. Since the 1990s, specialist software has become available to aid in
6624-483: The leaders use elbow length and the trailers shoulder height (ratio 1/38); intermediate ones (phing tao) are negotiated by the leaders with downstretched arms and trailers at shoulder height (ratio 2/18). These are the Lowerwork Units. The book (of Yu Hao) had three chapters. But builders (thu mu chih kung) in recent years have become much more precise and skillful (yen shan) than formerly. Thus for some time past
6716-497: The material properties and behavior of soil are difficult to predict due to its variability and limitation on investigation . Furthermore, soil exhibits nonlinear ( stress -dependent) strength , stiffness, and dilatancy (volume change associated with application of shear stress ), making studying soil mechanics all the more difficult. Geotechnical engineers frequently work with professional geologists , Geological Engineering professionals and soil scientists. Materials science
6808-478: The micrometer range. The term 'nanostructure' is often used when referring to magnetic technology. Medical equipment (also known as armamentarium) is designed to aid in the diagnosis, monitoring or treatment of medical conditions. There are several basic types: diagnostic equipment includes medical imaging machines, used to aid in diagnosis; equipment includes infusion pumps, medical lasers, and LASIK surgical machines ; medical monitors allow medical staff to measure
6900-508: The nanoscale, i.e., only the thickness of the surface of an object is between 0.1 and 100 nm. Nanotubes have two dimensions on the nanoscale, i.e., the diameter of the tube is between 0.1 and 100 nm; its length could be much greater. Finally, spherical nanoparticles have three dimensions on the nanoscale, i.e., the particle is between 0.1 and 100 nm in each spatial dimension. The terms nanoparticles and ultrafine particles (UFP) often are used synonymously although UFP can reach into
6992-463: The old Timberwork Manual has fallen out of use. But (unfortunately) there is hardly anybody capable of writing a new one. To do that would be a masterpiece in itself! Structural engineering Structural engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering in which structural engineers are trained to design the 'bones and joints' that create the form and shape of human-made structures . Structural engineers also must understand and calculate
7084-574: The original engineer seems to have done everything in accordance with the state of the profession and acceptable practice yet a failure still eventuated. A famous case of structural knowledge and practice being advanced in this manner can be found in a series of failures involving box girders which collapsed in Australia during the 1970s. Structural engineering depends upon a detailed knowledge of applied mechanics , materials science , and applied mathematics to understand and predict how structures support and resist self-weight and imposed loads. To apply
7176-411: The people responsible for maintaining a facility's medical equipment. Any structure is essentially made up of only a small number of different types of elements: Many of these elements can be classified according to form (straight, plane / curve) and dimensionality (one-dimensional / two-dimensional): Columns are elements that carry only axial force (compression) or both axial force and bending (which
7268-454: The prediction and management of both the quality and the quantity of water in both underground ( aquifers ) and above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams) resources. Water resource engineers analyze and model very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the amount and content of water as it flows into, through, or out of a facility. However, the actual design of the facility may be left to other engineers. Hydraulic engineering concerns
7360-451: The professional structural engineers come into existence. The role of a structural engineer today involves a significant understanding of both static and dynamic loading and the structures that are available to resist them. The complexity of modern structures often requires a great deal of creativity from the engineer in order to ensure the structures support and resist the loads they are subjected to. A structural engineer will typically have
7452-405: The purpose of a Forensic engineering investigation is to locate cause or causes of failure with a view to improve performance or life of a component, or to assist a court in determining the facts of an accident. It can also involve investigation of intellectual property claims, especially patents . Geotechnical engineering studies rock and soil supporting civil engineering systems. Knowledge from
7544-418: The pyramid, whilst primarily gained from its shape, relies also on the strength of the stone from which it is constructed, and its ability to support the weight of the stone above it. The limestone blocks were often taken from a quarry near the building site and have a compressive strength from 30 to 250 MPa (MPa = Pa × 10 ). Therefore, the structural strength of the pyramid stems from the material properties of
7636-558: The same municipal authority. Municipal engineers may also design the site civil works for large buildings, industrial plants or campuses (i.e. access roads, parking lots, potable water supply, treatment or pretreatment of waste water, site drainage, etc.) Water resources engineering is concerned with the collection and management of water (as a natural resource ). As a discipline, it therefore combines elements of hydrology, environmental science, meteorology , conservation , and resource management . This area of civil engineering relates to
7728-512: The same occupation, and often used interchangeably. The constructions of pyramids in Egypt ( c. 2700 –2500 BC) constitute some of the first instances of large structure constructions in history. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Qanat water management system in modern-day Iran (the oldest is older than 3000 years and longer than 71 kilometres (44 mi) ),
7820-534: The sea, aerostructure and other structures. This involves identifying the loads which act upon a structure and the forces and stresses which arise within that structure due to those loads, and then designing the structure to successfully support and resist those loads. The loads can be self weight of the structures, other dead load, live loads, moving (wheel) load, wind load, earthquake load, load from temperature change etc. The structural engineer must design structures to be safe for their users and to successfully fulfill
7912-435: The step pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser was built by Imhotep , the first engineer in history known by name. Pyramids were the most common major structures built by ancient civilizations because the structural form of a pyramid is inherently stable and can be almost infinitely scaled (as opposed to most other structural forms, which cannot be linearly increased in size in proportion to increased loads). The structural stability of
8004-463: The stones from which it was built rather than the pyramid's geometry. Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction were carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. No theory of structures existed, and understanding of how structures stood up was extremely limited, and based almost entirely on empirical evidence of 'what had worked before' and intuition . Knowledge
8096-433: The topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport, water purification , waste water treatment , air pollution, solid waste treatment , recycling , and hazardous waste management . Environmental engineers administer pollution reduction, green engineering , and industrial ecology . Environmental engineers also compile information on environmental consequences of proposed actions. Forensic engineering
8188-404: The tower stood quite firm. This is because the nailed struts filled in and bound together (all the members) up and down so that the six planes (above and below, front and back, left and right) were mutually linked like the cage of the thorax . Although people might walk on the struts, the six planes grasped and supported each other, so naturally, there could be no more motion. Everybody acknowledged
8280-537: Was Governor of the two Chekiang provinces, he authorized the building of a wooden pagoda at the Fan-Thien Ssu ( Brahma -Heaven Temple) in Hangchow with a design of twice three stories. While it was under construction General Chien went up to the top and was worried because it swayed a little. But the master-builder explained that as the tiles had not yet been put on, the upper part was still rather light, hence
8372-416: Was carried out by artisans , such as stonemasons and carpenters , rising to the role of master builder . Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads, and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental. One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering
8464-492: Was retained by guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental. No record exists of the first calculations of the strength of structural members or the behavior of structural material, but the profession of a structural engineer only really took shape with the Industrial Revolution and the re-invention of concrete (see History of Concrete ). The physical sciences underlying structural engineering began to be understood in
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