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117-512: In 221 BCE, the Qin state conquered the other six major states  – Han , Zhao , Yan , Wei , Chu and Qi  – and unified China under the Qin dynasty with Qin Shi Huang as the first Qin emperor. After the emperor's death in 210 BCE, an uprising broke out in 209, and lasted about five months before Qin forces defeated the rebels. Although the uprising

234-460: A conflict between Qin and Zhao for control of Shangdang. Qin and Zhao engaged in the three-year-long Battle of Changping , followed by another three-year siege by Qin on Zhao's capital city of Handan . The conflict at Changping was seen as a power struggle, as both sides pitted their forces against each other not only on the battlefield, but also domestically. Although Qin had an abundance of resources and vast manpower, it had to enlist every man above

351-556: A crushing defeat on Chu. In 299 BC, King Huai I was tricked into attending a diplomatic conference in Qin, where he was captured and held hostage until his death. In the meantime, Qin launched several attacks on Chu and eventually sacked the Chu capital city of Chen ( 陳 ; modern Jiangling County , Hubei). The crown prince of Chu fled east and was crowned King Qingxiang of Chu in the new capital city of Shouchun ( 壽春 ; modern Shou County , Anhui). In

468-526: A false impression that Chu had fallen to Han forces. The Chu army's morale plummeted and many soldiers deserted. Xiang Yu attempted to break out the siege and was left with only 28 men when he reached the northern bank of the Wu River ( 烏江 ; near present-day He County , Anhui). He made a last stand and managed to slay hundreds of Han officers and soldiers before he was eventually overwhelmed and committed suicide by slitting his throat. After Xiang Yu's death,

585-651: A famine the following year, Duke Hui did not reciprocate, leading to diplomatic deterioration and a war in 645 BC. The war ended with Duke Hui's defeat and capture, but Duke Mu later released him after Jin agreed to cede land and form an alliance. During the battles with Jin, Duke Mu learned that Chong'er, one of Duke Xian's exiled sons, was taking refuge in the state of Chu . After consulting his subjects, Duke Mu sent an emissary to Chu to invite Chong'er and supported him in his challenge against his brother, Duke Hui. After Chong'er defeated Duke Hui to become Duke Wen of Jin , he expressed gratitude to Duke Mu, and relations between

702-555: A horse-breeder as their ancestor may imply that the Ying family had a partial connection to nomadic tribes. As late as 266 BC, it was remarked by a noble of Wei that they shared customs with the Rong and Beidi tribes; the central plains states seemed to hold Qin culture and other peripheral states like Yan and Chu in low regard, due to the marginal location of their states. Qin was the second state after Zhao to adopt cavalry tactics from

819-407: A lack of coordination among the five states. In addition to the effects on Qin's military, Shang Yang's reforms also increased labour for numerous public works projects aimed at enhancing agriculture, and enabled Qin to maintain and supply an active military force of more than a million troops. This achievement could not be matched by any other state, except Chu, during that time. Qin's conquests of

936-579: A major victory. Duke Mu refused to advance further east after holding a memorial service for those killed in action at the Battle of Xiao and returned to focus on the traditional policy of expanding Qin's dominance in the west. Duke Mu's achievements in Qin's western campaigns and his handling of foreign relations with Jin earned him a position among the Five Hegemons of the Spring and Autumn period. In

1053-713: A messenger to meet Ying Bu , the King of Jiujiang, to persuade Ying Bu to support him. In November, after Han Xin's victory at the Battle of Jingxing , Ying Bu agreed to join Liu Bang and rebelled against Xiang Yu. Upon learning about it, Xiang Yu sent Long Ju to attack Ying Bu. In the sixth lunar month of 205 BCE, Liu Bang named his son Liu Ying as his heir apparent and put him in charge of Yueyang ( 櫟陽 ; present-day Yanliang District , Xi'an). Shortly after, Han forces conquered Feiqiu ( 廢丘 ; present-day Xingping , Shaanxi), which

1170-504: A plan for conquering the other six states and unifying China, with assistance from Li Si and Wei Liao. In 230, Qin attacked Han , the weakest of the Seven Warring States , and succeeded in conquering Han within a year. Since 236, Qin had been launching several assaults on Zhao , which had been devastated by its calamitous defeat at the Battle of Changping three decades earlier. Although Qin faced strong resistance from

1287-622: A platform for launching attacks on the Chu state, which lies downstream of the Yangtze. During the reign of King Huiwen of Qin , the state of Chu to the southeast became a target for Qin's aggression. Although Chu had the largest operation-ready army of all the Seven Warring States at over a million troops, its administrative and military strength was plagued by corruption and divided among the nobles. The Qin strategist Zhang Yi suggested to King Huiwen to exercise Qin's interest at

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1404-532: A precautionary move against any attack from outside Bashu. Meanwhile, in the former Qi state , Tian Rong , a Qi noble, was unhappy with how the Qi territories had been split among three kingdoms – Qi, Jiaodong and Jibei, collectively known as the Three Qis ;– so he waged war against the other kingdoms. He killed Tian Shi, the King of Jiaodong, and Tian An, the King of Jibei. Tian Du,

1521-583: A series of Legalist reforms in Qin with the support of Duke Xiao, despite facing strong opposition from conservative Qin politicians. Direct primogeniture was abolished, with all commoners granted citizenship rights. Many were resettled in new clusters with a focus on increasing agricultural output. Meritocracy was practiced throughout, especially in the military, with soldiers and officers receiving due rewards according to their contributions, regardless of their backgrounds. However, stringent and strict laws were also imposed, with severe punishments being meted out for

1638-457: A speech pronounced on the eve of a major interstate conference of 546 BC, a Jin leader recognized Qin, along with Jin, Chu and Qi, as one of the four pivotal great powers of the current world. In 506 BC, King Helü of Wu defeated Chu at the Battle of Boju and captured the Chu capital, Ying (modern Jingzhou ). Helü's adviser, Wu Zixu , who had previously been forced into exile by the already deceased King Ping of Chu and craved vengeance for

1755-489: The Battle of Julu and declared himself "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" even though he still paid nominal allegiance to King Huai II. After the battle, he controlled nine commanderies in the former Liang and Chu territories, with the capital at Pengcheng ( 彭城 ; present-day Xuzhou , Jiangsu). In the meantime, there was another notable rebel leader, Liu Bang , who had originally joined Xiang Yu's rebel army but had since led his own rebel forces. Liu Bang managed to advance into

1872-474: The Battle of Wei River , the Chu army's morale fell and it ran short of supplies months later. Xiang Yu had no choice but to request to make peace with Liu Bang and release Liu Bang's family members, who were held hostage by him. Xiang Yu and Liu Bang agreed to a ceasefire at the Treaty of Hong Canal, which divided China into east and west under the Chu and Han domains respectively. In 203 BCE, while Xiang Yu

1989-547: The Eighteen Kingdoms , with the Kingdom of Chu as the nominal sovereign power over the other kingdoms. Xiang Yu also honoured King Huai II with a higher title, "Emperor Yi of Chu". Shortly after that, he exiled the figurehead emperor to Chen County ( 郴縣 ; present-day Chenzhou , Hunan ), and secretly ordered Ying Bu , the King of Jiujiang, to intercept and assassinate Emperor Yi along the way. In 206 BCE, after

2106-527: The Feast at Swan Goose Gate but Liu Bang survived and escaped due to Xiang Yu's indecisiveness. Later, Xiang Yu forced Liu Bang to relocate from Guanzhong to the remote and underdeveloped Bashu region (present-day Chongqing and Sichuan ). Xiang Yu then divided the former Qin Empire into numerous vassal states, each ruled by either a rebel leader or a surrendered Qin general. The states were collectively known as

2223-518: The Guanzhong region, the heartland of the Qin dynasty, and faced minimal resistance along the way as the bulk of the Qin forces had gone to fight at the Battle of Julu. In 206 BCE, the last Qin emperor, Ziying , surrendered the capital Xianyang to Liu Bang, thus bringing an end to the Qin dynasty. Liu Bang treated Ziying respectfully and forbade his followers from harming civilians and looting Xianyang. However, when Xiang Yu eventually arrived in

2340-413: The Seven Warring States . It unified the seven states of China in 221 BC under Qin Shi Huang . This unification established the Qin dynasty , which, despite its short duration, had a significant influence on later Chinese history. Accordingly, the Qin state before the Qin dynasty was established is also referred to as the "predynastic Qin" or "proto-Qin". According to the 2nd-century BC Records of

2457-507: The Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC), the Qin state's interaction with other central Chinese states remained minimal due to their primary concern with the Rong to the west. The exception was their immediate eastern neighbor, Jin , a large vassal of the Zhou. Qin maintained diplomatic relations with Jin through intermarriages between the royal clans, but relations occasionally deteriorated to

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2574-657: The Yellow River in modern Shanxi . The latter became the ancestors of the rulers of the later state of Zhao . The western Ying clan at Quanqiu were lords over the Xichui ('western march ') region west of Mount Long and served as a buffer state for the Shang dynasty against invasions by the Xirong barbarians. One of them, Elai , was killed defending King Zhou of Shang during the rebellion led by Ji Fa that established

2691-541: The Zhou dynasty . It is traditionally dated to 897 BC. The Qin state originated from a reconquest of western lands that had previously been lost to the Xirong . Its location at the western edge of Chinese civilisation allowed for expansion and development that was not available to its rivals in the North China Plain . After extensive reform during the 4th century BC, Qin emerged as one of the dominant powers among

2808-561: The canal was named in honour of Zheng . Qin benefited from the project as it became one of the most fertile states in China due to the efficient irrigation system, and also because it could now muster more troops as a result of increased agricultural yield. In 247, the 13-year-old Ying Zheng became King of Qin following the sudden death of King Zhuangxiang. However, Ying Zheng did not fully wield state power until 238, after eliminating his political rivals, Lü Buwei and Lao Ai . Ying formulated

2925-919: The gallery roads leading from Bashu to the Three Qins in order to put the enemy off guard, while secretly taking another route through Chencang (present-day Chencang District , Baoji , Shaanxi) to get to the Three Qins. Han Xin took Zhang Han , the King of Yong, by surprise and defeated him in two consecutive battles. Riding on the tide of victory, Liu Bang proceeded to conquer Longxi (the area in present-day Gansu located west of Mount Long ), Beidi (eastern Gansu and Ningxia ) and Shang (around present-day Yulin, Shaanxi ). He also sent his men to fetch his family in Pei ; present-day Xuzhou , Jiangsu). Upon receiving news of Liu Bang's attacks, Xiang Yu sent an army to Yangjia ( 陽夏 ; present-day Taikang County , Henan) to block Liu Bang's forces, and appointed Zheng Chang as

3042-489: The 400,000 prisoners of war from Zhao to be executed by burying them alive. Subsequently, the Qin forces marched on the Zhao capital city of Handan in an attempt to conquer Zhao completely. However, the Qin troops were unable to capture Handan as they were already exhausted and also because the Zhao forces put up fierce resistance. King Xiaocheng of Zhao offered six cities to Qin as a peace offer, and King Zhaoxiang of Qin accepted

3159-469: The 600,000-strong army as he had requested and ordered Wang to lead another attack on Chu. Wang scored a major victory against the Chu forces in 224, and Xiang Yan was killed in action. The following year, Qin pushed on and captured Chu's capital city of Shouchun , bringing an end to Chu's existence. In 222, the Qin army advanced southward and annexed the Wuyue region (modern Zhejiang and Jiangsu). By 221, Qi

3276-695: The Grand Historian by Sima Qian , the Qin state traced its origin to Zhuanxu , one of the legendary Five Emperors in ancient times. One of his descendants, Boyi, was granted the family name of Ying by Emperor Shun . During the Xia and Shang dynasties , the Ying clan split into two: a western branch that migrated across the Ordos Plateau to Quanqiu ( 犬丘 'hill of the Quanrong ', modern Li County, Gansu ), and an eastern branch that settled east of

3393-643: The Grand Historian with corrections by Han Zhaoqi: Qin is represented by two stars, Theta Capricorni ('first star of Qin') and 30 Capricorni ('second star of Qin'), in Twelve States asterism. Qin is also represented by the star Delta Serpentis in the Right Wall asterism, part of the Heavenly Market enclosure (see Chinese constellation ). Peng Yue Peng Yue (died c. April 196 BC ), courtesy name Zhong ,

3510-520: The Guanzhong region, Liu Bang was pressured into ceding control of the region to Xiang Yu despite an earlier agreement between them that whoever occupied Guanzhong first would be the "King of Guanzhong". After Xiang Yu took control of Xianyang, he allowed his troops to pillage and plunder the city and ordered the destruction of the Epang Palace . Xiang Yu also attempted to assassinate Liu Bang at

3627-450: The King of Hán to help him cover his flank. Meanwhile, Zang Tu , the King of Yan , killed Han Guang , the King of Liaodong , seized his lands and proclaimed himself the ruler of the Yan territories. In 205 BCE, after conquering the Three Qins in the Guanzhong region, Liu Bang advanced to the east of Hangu Pass to prepare for an attack on the region that is now Henan . Sima Xin ,

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3744-500: The King of Dai, as the new ruler of the Zhao territories. Xiang Yu felt threatened by the rebellions in Qi and Zhao so he led his forces to attack Tian Rong. While Xiang Yu was away suppressing the rebellions in Qi and Zhao, Liu Bang seized the opportunity to attack the territories in Guanzhong ruled by three former Qin generals which were collectively known as the Three Qins . He ordered his general Han Xin to pretend to repair

3861-536: The King of Qi, lost to Tian Rong so he fled and joined Xiang Yu. Tian Rong gained control of the Three Qis and became the new king of the Qi territories. Tian Rong put Peng Yue in command of the Qi army and sent him to attack Xiang Yu. At the same time, he sent troops to support Chen Yu in a rebellion in the former state of Zhao . In 205 BCE, Chen Yu defeated Zhang Er , the King of Changshan, and seized control of his kingdom. Chen Yu then installed Zhao Xie ,

3978-407: The King of Sai, Dong Yi , the King of Di, and Shen Yang , the King of Henan, surrendered to Liu Bang. Zheng Chang , the King of Hán , refused to submit to Liu Bang so Liu Bang sent Hán Xin to attack and defeat him. Liu Bang then replaced Zheng Chang with Hán Xin as the new King of Hán. Zhang Er , the former King of Changshan, joined Liu Bang after losing his domain to Zhao Xie and Chen Yu. In

4095-453: The King of Zhao, and his chancellor, Chen Yu , led an army of 200,000 to resist the Han forces. Li Zuoche, a Zhao general, proposed a plan to trap Han Xin within 10 days: he would lead 30,000 men to disrupt Han Xin's supply route and block his return route, while Chen Yu would defend the frontline firmly and prevent Han Xin from advancing. Chen Yu refused to implement Li's plan. The evening before

4212-499: The Qin army, led by Wang Ben , invaded Wei and besieged Wei's capital city of Daliang for three months. Wang directed the waters from the Yellow River and the Hong Canal to flood Daliang ; King Jia of Wei surrendered, and Wei was conquered. In 224, Qin prepared for an attack on Chu , its most powerful rival among the six states. During a discussion between Ying Zheng and his subjects, the veteran general Wang Jian claimed that

4329-509: The Qin dynasty, and became the first sovereign ruler of a united China. Before Qin unified China, each state had its own customs and culture. According to the Yu Gong or Tribute of Yu , composed in the 4th or 5th century BC and included in the Book of Documents , there were nine distinct cultural regions of China, which are described in detail in this book. The work focuses on the travels of

4446-441: The Qin government's direct administration. King Zhaoxiang's foreign adviser, Fan Sui, counselled the king to abandon these fruitless campaigns against distant states. King Zhaoxiang heeded this advice and altered Qin's foreign policy to foster good diplomatic relations with the distant states of Yan and Qi), while focusing on attacking the nearby Zhao, Han, and Wei. As a result, Qin began to launch constant attacks on Han and Wei over

4563-492: The Rong and recovered their lost patrimony, formerly held by the deceased branch of the Ying clan. King Xuan formally awarded them the territory of Quanqiu. Duke Zhuang then moved his seat from Qinyi to Quanqiu and had three sons. When Duke Zhuang died in 778 BC, his eldest son Shifu chose to continue fighting the Xirong and avenge their grandfather, turning down the succession. As a result, his second son, Duke Xiang , ascended as

4680-573: The Rong but was released a year later. In 771, the Marquess of Shen , in collaboration with the state of Zeng and the Quanrong nomads, attacked and sacked the Zhou capital Haojing , killing King You of Zhou and ending the Western Zhou . Duke Xiang led his troops to escort King You's son, King Ping , to Luoyi (modern Luoyang ), where the new capital city of the Eastern Zhou dynasty

4797-487: The Rong tribes that were occupying it. Encouraged by this promise, the following generations of Qin rulers launched several military campaigns against the Rong, eventually expanding their territories far beyond the original lands lost by the Western Zhou dynasty. The Qin state therefore viewed the Zhou rulers King Wen and Wu as their predecessors and themselves as the legitimate inheritors of their legacy. During

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4914-508: The Zhao forces, led by General Li Mu , it still managed to defeat the Zhao army by using a ploy to sow discord between King Qian of Zhao and Li Mu, leading King Qian to order Li Mu's execution and replace Li with the less competent Zhao Cong. Zhao eventually fell to Qin in 228 after the capital city of Handan was taken. However, a Zhao noble managed to escape with remnant forces and proclaim himself King in Dai. Dai fell to Qin six years later. After

5031-435: The Zhou dynasty. The Ying clan was, however, allied with the politically influential marquesses of Shen , whom the Zhou monarch relied upon heavily to manage the Rong people and was thus allowed to retain their lands and continued serving as an attached vassal under the Zhou dynasty. Feizi , a younger son of Elai's fourth-generation descendant Daluo, impressed King Xiao of Zhou so much with his horse breeding skills, that he

5148-400: The advice of Zhang Liang and Chen Ping , and reluctantly approved Han Xin's request. At the same time, Xiang Yu felt worried after losing Long Ju, so he sent Wu She to attempt to persuade Han Xin to rebel against Liu Bang and declare himself king. However, despite Kuai Tong's urging, Han Xin refused to betray Liu Bang. Han Xin later organised an army to move southward and attack Xiang Yu. On

5265-487: The affairs of the Zhou world in the 5th and the early 4th century BC considerably diminished. Another research also finds that Qin was strong and explains the weak influence on the Central Plain by the Qin isolationist policy. Initially, Qin avoided involvement using its protective geography and, responding to growing external threats, gradually turned to intervention in the manner of "defensive imperialism." During

5382-422: The age of 15 for war-related duties, ranging from front-line service to logistics and agriculture. King Zhaoxiang even personally directed his army's supply lines. Qin's eventual victory in 260 BC was attributed to its use of schemes to stir up internal conflict in Zhao, which led to the replacement of Zhao's military leaders. Following the Qin victory at the Battle of Changping, the Qin commander, Bai Qi , ordered

5499-449: The battle and was captured. When he surrendered, Liu Bang accepted his surrender and appointed him as a general. Within the same month, Han Xin attacked the Kingdom of Dai with support from Zhang Er , the former King of Changshan, scored a decisive victory against Dai, and captured Xia Shuo, the Dai chancellor. After achieving victory over the Kingdom of Dai, Han Xin and Zhang Er attacked the kingdom of Zhao at Jingxing Pass . Zhao Xie ,

5616-528: The battle, Han Xin sent 2,000 horsemen, each carrying a flag of the Han army, to station near the Zhao camp. The next morning, Han Xin feigned defeat in a skirmish with Zhao forces and lured them to follow him, while his 2,000 men took advantage of the situation to capture the weakly defended Zhao camp. Meanwhile, the Zhao soldiers retreated after failing to conquer Han Xin's fort, and were surprised to see that their camp had been occupied by Han forces when they returned. The Zhao army fell into chaos and Han Xin seized

5733-426: The brutal execution of his father and brother, exhumed King Ping's corpse and posthumously lashed it. This was a great humiliation for the Chu state. Consequently, Shen Baoxu, a Chu official and a former friend of Wu Zixu, travelled to the Qin court and pleaded for assistance from Duke Ai of Qin to recover the capital. After Duke Ai initially refused to help, Shen spent seven days crying in the palace courtyard. Duke Ai

5850-504: The city of Waihuang. He and Liu Bang reorganised the Han army and established strong Han garrisons in Xingyang and Chenggao . Han Xin also developed his plan to conquer northern China, with the aim that Xiang Yu would be too distracted by Liu Bang and his bases of Xingyang and Chenggao to properly counter Han Xin in the north, nor could he endanger his line of retreat by marching past Xingyang and Chenggao into Guanzhong. Liu Bang then sent

5967-399: The clan leader. In 777 BC, Duke Xiang married his younger sister, Mu Ying, to a Rong leader named King Feng ( 豐王 ) in an apparent attempt to make peace. The following year, he moved the Qin capital eastward from Quanqiu to Qian ( 汧 ; modern Long County, Shaanxi ). However, Quanqiu soon fell to the Rong again after he left. His older brother Shifu, who led the defense of Quanqiu, was captured by

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6084-417: The core philosophies of Legalism. Following these reforms, Qin rose to prominence in the late fourth century BC and emerged as the dominant superpower among the Seven Warring States . In 364 BC, Qin defeated the combined armies of Wei and Han, and King Xian of Zhou , the nominal ruler of China, declared Duke Xian the Hegemon (ba) of China (Sima Qian 4:160). His successor, Duke Xiao , who ascended

6201-554: The early Warring States period , its neighbours in the Central Plains began rapidly developing. The Wei state , formed from the partition of Jin , became the most powerful state on Qin's eastern border. Qin largely relied on natural defences such as the Hangu Pass (northeast of modern Lingbao, Henan ) and Wu Pass (modern Danfeng County ) in the east, to protect its Guanzhong heartland. Between 413 and 409 BC, during

6318-481: The empress pretended to agree. Peng Yue was brought back to Luoyang where he was subsequently executed. Empress Lü ordered his clan be put to death as well. Peng Yue's corpse was minced into pieces, salted like meat, and distributed to all the noble families of China, who found this very disturbing. Peng Yue is sometimes venerated as a door god in Chinese and Taoist temples , usually partnered with Ying Bu . He

6435-433: The enemy to follow him. When about a quarter of the Chu army had crossed the river, Han Xin signalled to his men to open the dam. Many Chu soldiers drowned and Long Ju was isolated with only a fraction of his forces. Taking advantage of the situation, Han Xin launched a counterattack. Long Ju was killed in action and the rest of the Chu army disintegrated as Han Xin continued pressing the attack. Tian Guang fled. Han Xin pursued

6552-565: The eventual Han victory over Xiang Yu. After Liu Bang founded the Han dynasty , Peng Yue was conferred the title of "King of Liang " ( 梁王 ) and granted the lands of former Wei state as his kingdom. In 196 BC, Liu Bang led an army to suppress a rebellion by Chen Xi, the Marquis of Yangxia, and he requested reinforcements from Peng Yue. Peng Yue claimed to be ill and sent his subordinates to help Liu Bang in place of himself. After Chen Xi's rebellion

6669-462: The execution of the duties of their position. Its courts and bureaus functioned without delays and with such smoothness that it was as if there were no government at all." In his Petition against driving away foreigners ( 諫逐客書 ), Li Si mentioned that the guzheng and percussion instruments made of pottery and tiles were characteristic of Qin music. List of Qin rulers based on the Records of

6786-483: The expense of Chu. Over the following years, Zhang engineered and executed a number of diplomatic plots against Chu, supported by the constant military raids on Chu's north-western border. Chu suffered many defeats in battles against Qin and was forced to cede territories to Qin. King Huai I of Chu was furious and ordered a military campaign against Qin, but he was tricked by Zhang Yi into breaking diplomatic ties with his allies, and his angered allies joined Qin in inflicting

6903-464: The fall of Zhao, Qin turned its attention towards Crown Prince Dan of Yan, who had sent Jing Ke to assassinate Ying Zheng, but the assassination attempt failed, and Qin used that as a pretext to attack Yan. Yan lost to Qin at a battle on the eastern bank of the Yi River in 226, and King Xi of Yan fled with remnant forces to Liaodong . Qin attacked Yan again in 222 and annexed Yan completely. In 225,

7020-559: The five decades following King Huiwen's death, King Zhaoxiang of Qin shifted his focus to the central plains after victories in the south against Chu. In the early years of King Zhaoxiang's reign, the Marquis of Rang ( 穰侯 ) served as Qin's chancellor and actively advocated for military campaigns against the state of Qi in the far eastern part of China. However, the marquis had personal motives, intending to use Qin's formidable military to secure his own fief in Qi territories, as these lands were not directly linked to Qin and would not be under

7137-468: The former Qin Empire was divided into the Eighteen Kingdoms , Liu Bang was made King of Han and relocated to the Ba–Shu region (present-day Chongqing and Sichuan ) along with 30,000 troops and thousands of civilians. Upon reaching his destination, Liu Bang ordered the destruction of the gallery roads leading into Bashu in order to trick Xiang Yu into believing that he had no intention of leaving Bashu, and as

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7254-424: The fourth lunar month of 205 BCE, Xiang Yu defeated Tian Rong at Chengyang ( 城陽 ; around present-day Ju County , Shandong). Tian Rong was killed while retreating to Pingyuan (around present-day northwestern Shandong). Although the Kingdom of Qi had surrendered, Xiang Yu still allowed his troops to plunder and loot the Qi territories. Tian Rong's younger brother, Tian Heng , made Tian Guang , Tian Rong's son,

7371-420: The greedy will abandon their general to give chase. We can then capitalize on this opportunity by hunting each group down individually and then capturing the generals that have been isolated. Finally, we must array our army to ambush their commander. According to Wu, the character of the populace is a consequence of the government, which in turn is a result of the ruggedness of the terrain. Wu expounds upon each of

7488-515: The intention of surrendering, he followed Kuai Tong's advice and launched an attack on Qi. Han Xin conquered Lixia and attacked the Qi capital, Linzi . Tian Guang thought that Li Yiji had lied to him so he had Li Yiji boiled alive. Then, he retreated to Gaomi and requested aid from Xiang Yu. In the meantime, Han Xin conquered Linzi and continued to pursue the retreating Qi forces to Gaomi. Xiang Yu sent Long Ju to lead 200,000 troops to help Tian Guang. After Han Xin defeated Long Ju in battle, Long Ju

7605-410: The invasion force needed to be at least 600,000 strong, but the younger general Li Xin thought that 200,000 men would suffice. Ying Zheng put Li Xin in command of the Qin army to attack Chu. The Chu defenders, led by Xiang Yan, took Li Xin's army by surprise and defeated the Qin invaders. The defeat was deemed the greatest setback for Qin in its wars to unify China. Ying Zheng put Wang Jian in command of

7722-512: The king harboured a personal grudge against Shang, as he had been severely punished for a minor infraction during his adolescence under Shang's reformed system. Despite this, King Huiwen and his successors maintained the reformed systems, which laid the foundation for Qin's eventual unification of China under the Qin dynasty in 221 BC. Shang Yang's theories were later expanded upon by Han Fei , another Legalist scholar. Han Fei amalgamated Shang's ideas with those of Shen Buhai and Shen Dao , forming

7839-538: The kings of Qin, but de facto Qin remained hegemonic until its universal conquest in 221 BC. It seldom suffered defeats and repeatedly crashed other states in at least 15 major campaigns. Memorial on the Abolition of Feudal Lords by Qin official Li Si , dated to 246 BC, described: Through military victories, Qin has, "in the time of the last six kings," that is from Xiao in 361 BC to the First Emperor, brought

7956-628: The lords of equal rank to its court." By the late 4th century BC, other states in China became alarmed by the Qin power and began forming anti-hegemonic alliances, called Perpendicular (Sima Qian 5:208; 6:279). Qin repeatedly clashed with these alliances. This pattern continued during the last century of the Warring States. The success of Qin is attributed to the industriousness of its people. The Qin kings authorised numerous state development projects, including significant public works such as irrigation canals and defensive structures. One of

8073-470: The middle of the 3rd century, Zheng Guo , a hydraulic engineer from the state of Han, was dispatched to Qin to advise King Zhaoxiang on the construction of irrigation canals. Qin had a predilection for constructing large-scale canals, as evidenced by its irrigation system for the Min River . King Zhaoxiang approved Zheng Guo's proposal to construct an even larger canal. The project was completed in 264 and

8190-402: The most evident outcomes of the reforms was the transformation in Qin's military. Previously, the army was under the control of Qin's nobles and comprised feudal levies. Following Shang Yang's reforms, the aristocracy system was abolished and replaced by a meritocracy, in which ordinary citizens had the same opportunities as the nobles to be promoted to high ranks. Additionally, military discipline

8307-427: The neighbouring state of Jin. In 842 BC, nobles revolted against the corrupt King Li of Zhou in a coup known as the 'countrymen's riot' ( 國人暴動 ). They overthrew him the following year, leading the country into political turmoil. The Xirong tribes seized this opportunity to rebel against the Zhou dynasty, attacking and exterminating the senior branch of the Ying clan at Quanqiu. This left the cadet branch at Qinyi as

8424-415: The neighbouring states of Wei and Chu . Wei was hesitant to help Zhao initially but launched an attack on Qin after seeing that Qin was already exhausted after years of war. The Qin forces crumbled and retreated, and Zheng Anping surrendered. The combined forces of Wei and Chu continued to pursue the retreating Qin army, and Wei managed to retake part of its original lands that were lost to Qin earlier. In

8541-453: The new King of Qi, and continued to put up resistance against Xiang Yu. Meanwhile, Liu Bang had mustered an army of about 560,000 with support from the kings who surrendered to him. In the eighth lunar month of 205 BCE, the Chu capital, Pengcheng ( 彭城 ; present-day Xuzhou , Jiangsu), fell to a coalition force led by Liu Bang. When Xiang Yu received news that Liu Bang had occupied Pengcheng, he led 30,000 troops to retake Pengcheng. Liu Bang

8658-445: The next morning. However, his men did not arrive in time and the last one came at noon. Peng Yue said, "Since everyone has chosen me to be the leader, there must be discipline. As there are too many people who were late today, I cannot possibly punish all of them. The last man to arrive will be executed." In 205 BC, Peng Yue allied with Liu Bang , the King of Han, and became one of Liu's generals after Liu promised to grant him land and

8775-616: The nomads. Following the collapse of the Zhou dynasty, the Qin state absorbed cultures from two of the Four Barbarians from the west and north, which made the other warring states see their culture in low esteem. However, the Qin state was sensitive to the cultural discrimination by the Central Plains states and attempted to assert their Huaxia identity. In Qin law, mixed-ethnicity offspring were categorised as Huaxia, as well as in their preference for importing recruits from

8892-454: The offer after being persuaded by Fan Sui. Within Zhao, many officials strongly opposed King Xiaocheng's decision to give up the cities, and subsequent delays caused the siege on Handan to be prolonged until 258 BC. Meanwhile, Bai Qi was consecutively replaced by Wang Xi, Wang Ling, and Zheng Anping as the Qin commander at the siege. In 257 BC, Qin was still unable to penetrate Handan after besieging it for three years, and Zhao requested aid from

9009-525: The only surviving Ying clan in the west. After King Xuan of Zhou ascended the throne in 827 BC, he appointed Qin Zhong , Feizi's great-grandson, as the commander of his forces in the campaign against the Xirong. In 822 BC, Qin Zhong was killed in battle and succeeded by his eldest son, Duke Zhuang . To commemorate Qin Zhong's loyalty, King Xuan summoned Duke Zhuang and his four younger brothers and gave them 7,000 soldiers. The Qin brothers successfully defeated

9126-409: The opportunity to destroy Liu Bang. Xiang Yu changed his mind, pressed the attack on Xingyang and besieged Liu Bang's forces inside the city. Liu Bang heeded Chen Ping 's suggestion to bribe Xiang Yu's men with 40,000 catties of gold for them to spread rumours that Fan Zeng had the intention of betraying Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu fell for the ruse and dismissed Fan Zeng. In late 204 BCE, while Xiang Yu

9243-435: The opportunity to launch a counterattack and scored a victory. Chen Yu was killed in action while Zhao Xie and Li Zuoche were captured. In 204 BCE, after the state of Yan surrendered to him, Liu Bang made Zhang Er the new King of Zhao. Xiang Yu constantly sent his forces to attack the Kingdom of Zhao, but Han Xin and Zhang Er managed to hold their ground. Xiang Yu then turned his attention towards Xingyang, where Liu Bang

9360-509: The other states "into submission." Already by the 240s BC, other states "yielded obeiscence to Qin as if they were its commanderies and prefectures." Sima Qian (6:282) confirmed and dated the beginning of the Qin hegemonic policy already from the reign of Xiao's predecessor, Xian (384-361 BC): Since his reign, Qin "gradually swallowed up the six states until, after 100 years or so," the First Emperor conquered them. "For more than one hundred years [before 221 BC], Qin commanded Eight lands and brought

9477-620: The point of armed conflict. In the early reign of Duke Mu of Qin , the Jin state, under the leadership of Duke Xian of Jin , was a formidable power. However, after Duke Xian's death, Jin descended into internal conflict as Duke Xian's sons fought for succession. Duke Hui of Jin , one of the contenders, emerged victorious. However, Jin was struck by a famine in 647 BC, and Duke Hui requested aid from Qin. Duke Mu of Qin, married to Duke Hui's half-sister, sent relief food supplies and agricultural equipment to Jin out of goodwill. However, when Qin experienced

9594-458: The recaptured capital. Mozi (460–390 BC) did not list Qin among the powerful states. However, other scattered information of its military exploits indicates that Qin remained a powerful polity ever since Lord Mu. Its armies acted, even if infrequently, in the eastern and southeastern parts of the Chinese world, occasionally against great power Wu. Although not weak, the overall impact of Qin on

9711-712: The reign of Duke Jian of Qin , the Wei army, led by Wu Qi and supported by Zhao and Han , attacked Qin and conquered some Qin territories west of the Yellow River . In 362 BC, Qin defeated Wei and Han . Following these victories, the Qin rulers actively pursued legal, economic, and social reforms. In 361 BC, Duke Xiao ascended the throne of Qin. He issued an announcement inviting men of talent (including scholars, administrators, theorists, and militarists) from other states to enter Qin and assist him with his reforms, promising rewards of high offices and lands in return. Among these foreign talents, Shang Yang successfully conducted

9828-404: The rest of the Chu forces surrendered to Liu Bang, and China was unified under Han rule. Liu Bang granted Peng Yue , Ying Bu and Han Xin the titles of King of Liang , King of Huainan and King of Chu respectively. Months later, at the urging of his followers and vassals, Liu Bang declared himself emperor and established the Han dynasty as the ruling dynasty in China. The imperial capital

9945-453: The retreating enemy forces to Chengyang ( 城陽 ; near present-day Ju County , Shandong). After his victory, Han Xin swiftly took control of the Qi territories and then sent a messenger to Liu Bang, requesting that Liu Bang make him the new King of Qi. At the time, Liu Bang was under attack by Xiang Yu in Xingyang and was eagerly awaiting reinforcements from Han Xin. He was furious when he received Han Xin's request. However, he eventually acted on

10062-399: The route to Linjin ( 臨晉 ; present-day Dali County , Shaanxi). Han Xin tricked Wei Bao into believing that he was planning to attack Linjin, while secretly sending a force from Xiayang ( 夏陽 ; present-day Hancheng , Shaanxi) to cross the river and attack Anyi ( 安邑 ; present-day Xia County , Shanxi). In the ninth lunar month of 205 BCE, Wei Bao personally led an attack on Han Xin but lost

10179-486: The same time, he sent messengers to meet Han Xin and Peng Yue again, promising them land and titles if they joined him in attacking Xiang Yu. Three months later, in 202 BCE, Liu Bang, Han Xin and Peng Yue attacked Xiang Yu from three directions. Xiang Yu's army ran low on supplies and were trapped in Gaixia ( 垓下 ; southeast of present-day Lingbi County , Anhui). Han Xin ordered his troops to sing Chu folk songs to create

10296-442: The slightest of offences, and even the nobility and royalty were not exempt. After decades, the reforms strengthened Qin economically and militarily, and transformed it into a highly centralised state with an efficient administrative system. Following the death of Duke Xiao, King Huiwen ascended as the new ruler of Qin. He executed Shang Yang by tearing him apart with chariots, citing charges of treason. However, some speculated that

10413-431: The southern front, Liu Bang's forces started building supply routes from Xingyang to Aocang ( 敖倉 ; northwest of Xingyang, Henan). In 204 BCE, after sustaining losses from Chu attacks on the routes, the Han army ran short of supplies. Liu Bang negotiated for peace with Xiang Yu and agreed to cede the lands east of Xingyang to Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu wanted to accept Liu Bang's offer, but Fan Zeng advised him to reject and use

10530-542: The southern states of Ba and Shu (modern Sichuan ) also provided Qin with significant strategic advantages. The lands in the new territories were highly fertile and served as a "backyard" for supplies and additional manpower. It was difficult for Qin's rivals to attack Ba and Shu, as the territories were located deep in the mountains upstream of the Yangtze . Simultaneously, Qin's strategic position in Ba and Shu provided it with

10647-803: The states in this manner. Following a visit to Qin in 264, the Confucian philosopher Xun Kuang observed that Qin society was "simple and unsophisticated", and its people held their officials in awe but were entirely devoid of Confucian literati. Despite being disliked by many Confucians of its time for "dangerously lacking in Confucian scholars", Confucian Xun Kuang wrote of the later Qin that "its topographical features are inherently advantageous", and that its "manifold natural resources gave it remarkable inherent strength. Its people were unspoiled and exceedingly deferential; its officers unfailingly respectful, earnest, reverential, loyal, and trustworthy; and its high officials public-spirited, intelligent, and assiduous in

10764-457: The subsequent decades, conquering several territories in its campaigns. By then, Qin's territories had expanded beyond the eastern shore of the Yellow River , and Han and Wei were reduced to the status of "buffers" for Qin against the other states in the east. Starting from 265 BC, Qin launched a massive invasion on Han and forced Han to cede its territory of Shangdang ( 上黨 ; modern Shanxi). However, Han offered Shangdang to Zhao instead, leading to

10881-492: The terrain they live in. Of Qin, he said: The nature of Qin's troops is to disperse so that each unit fights their own respective battles. The people of Qin are ferocious by nature and their terrain is treacherous. The government's decrees are strict and impartial. The rewards and punishments are clear. Qin soldiers are brave and high in morale so that they are able to scatter and engage in individual combat. To strike at Qin's army, we must entice various groups with small benefits;

10998-498: The third lunar month of 205 BCE, Liu Bang attacked Henei with help from Wei Bao , the King of Western Wei . When Liu Bang received news that Xiang Yu had ordered the assassination of Emperor Yi , the nominal sovereign over the Eighteen Kingdoms, he held a memorial service for the emperor and accused Xiang Yu of committing regicide, using this incident as political propaganda to justify his war against Xiang Yu. In

11115-411: The throne in 361 BC, was also appointed Hegemon (Sima Qian 7:203). The Guanzi defines the status of hegemon as intermediate between king and emperor. A text from the late Warring States period describes hegemon as controlling military forces and commerce of the states under the hegemony and using court visits as a means of supervision. After Xiao, the status of hegemon was not officially granted to

11232-449: The title of a vassal king. Earlier on, Peng Yue had refused to send his troops to help Liu Bang, that resulted in the latter's defeat by Xiang Yu at the Battle of Guling . Three years later, Peng Yue conquered more than 20 cities around Changyi and acquired a large amount of supplies. He then led his troops southwards and joined the armies of Han Xin and Liu Bang at the Battle of Gaixia against Xiang Yu. Peng Yue's contributed greatly to

11349-510: The titular sage, Yu the Great , throughout each of the regions. Other texts, predominantly military, also discussed these cultural variations. One of these texts was the Wuzi , written in response to a query by Marquis Wu of Wei on how to cope with the military threat posed by competing states. Wu Qi , the author of the work, declared that the government and nature of the people were reflective of

11466-476: The two states improved. With stability on his eastern front, Duke Mu seized the opportunity to launch military campaigns against the Rong tribes in the west. In 630 BC, Qin and Jin agreed to wage war on the state of Zheng , but Duke Mu was lobbied by the Zheng emissary to abandon the alliance. In 627 BC, Duke Mu planned a covert attack on Zheng, but the Qin army retreated after being deceived into believing that Zheng

11583-461: Was a Chinese military general and politician in the late Qin dynasty and early Western Han dynasty . He was involved in the Chu–Han Contention – a power struggle between the Han dynasty's founder, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) , and his rival, Xiang Yu – as an ally of Liu Bang. In recognition of his contributions, Liu Bang granted Peng Yue the title "King of Liang " ( 梁王 ) after the Han dynasty

11700-494: Was advised to focus on strengthening his defences and getting Tian Guang to rally support from the fallen Qi territories. However, Long Ju decided not to heed the advice, and insisted on attacking Han Xin. On the night before the battle, Han Xin sent his men to dam the Wei River ( 濰水 ; in present-day Weifang , Shandong) with sandbags. The next morning, after a skirmish with Chu forces, Han Xin feigned defeat and retreated to lure

11817-435: Was already prepared for Qin's invasion. By that point, Duke Wen had died and his personal alliance with Duke Mu no longer stood, and his successor Duke Xiang ordered an ambush for the retreating Qin army. The Qin forces were defeated at the Battle of Xiao (near modern Luoning County , Henan) and suffered heavy casualties, and all three of its generals were captured. Three years later, Qin attacked Jin for revenge and achieved

11934-402: Was at Luoyang but later moved to Chang'an (present-day Xi'an ). Liu Bang made his wife Lü Zhi empress and his eldest son Liu Ying crown prince. Although Liu Bang initially handsomely rewarded those who helped him become emperor, he gradually became suspicious of them and started to doubt their loyalties. Han Xin was demoted from King of Chu to Marquis of Huaiyin in late 202 BCE, and

12051-462: Was awarded a separate fief in the valley of Qin (modern Qingshui and Zhangjiachuan in Gansu) northeast of Quanqiu, and his seat was named Qinyi (modern Qintingzhen). Both branches of the western Ying clan lived in the midst of the Rong tribes, sometimes fighting their armies and sometimes intermarrying with their kings. Scholars such as Annette Juliano and Arthur Cotterel have suggested that having

12168-486: Was away suppressing the rebellion in Qi, Li Yiji had advised Liu Bang to use the opportunity to attack Xiang Yu. Han forces conquered Chenggao and defeated the Chu army led by Cao Jiu near the Si River . Liu Bang's forces advanced further until they reached Guangwu ( 廣武 ; present-day Guangwu, Xingyang, Henan). Chu forces led by Zhongli Mo were trapped by the Han army at the east of Xingyang. Following Han Xin's victory in

12285-612: Was caught off guard and his army suffered heavy casualties and his family members were captured by Chu forces. After the battle, Liu Bang lost his territorial gains in Chu and the support of his allies. After their defeat at Pengcheng, the strength of the Han forces decreased drastically. Liu Bang's family members were captured by Chu forces and kept as hostages. Many of the kings who had surrendered to Liu Bang earlier defected to Xiang Yu's side after Liu Bang's defeat. Qi and Zhao also requested to make peace with Chu. Upon reaching Xiayi ( 下邑 ; east of present-day Dangshan County , Anhui), which

12402-437: Was crushed, several other rebellions erupted consecutively over the next three years. The leaders of these rebellions were either supporters of pretenders to the thrones of the former six states conquered by Qin, or pretenders themselves. Among them, the most notable one was Xiang Yu , a Chu nobleman who wanted to restore the Chu state with King Huai II as its nominal ruler. Xiang Yu led Chu forces to victory over Qin forces at

12519-526: Was established. He is often regarded as the inventor of guerrilla warfare . Peng Yue was a native of Changyi (present-day Jinxiang County , Shandong ), and was originally a fisherman. Following the Dazexiang Uprising in 209 BC, Peng Yue was nominated by his fellows to be their leader and he led an uprising against the Qin dynasty . Initially, Peng Yue was reluctant to rebel, but obliged eventually and he arranged for his supporters to meet him

12636-419: Was established. In gratitude for Duke Xiang's service, King Ping formally enfeoffed Duke Xiang as a feudal lord and elevated Qin from an 'attached state' ( 附庸 ; fùyōng , a minor state with limited self-rule under the authority of another liege-lord) to a major vassal state with full autonomy. He further promised to permanently grant Qin the lands west of Qishan , the former heartland of Zhou, if Qin could expel

12753-466: Was eventually moved by his devotion and agreed to send troops to assist Chu. The famous poem, "No Clothes" ( Chinese : 無衣 ; pinyin : Wú Yī ), recorded in the Classic of Poetry , was a battle hymn personally composed by Duke Ai to boost the morale of the Qin troops. In 505 BC, the Qin and Chu armies jointly defeated Wu in several battles, allowing King Zhao of Chu to be restored and return to

12870-649: Was guarded by Zhang Han , who committed suicide after his defeat. On another front, Ying Bu was unable to resist Long Ju's attacks so he gave up on his domain in Jiujiang and joined Liu Bang. In 205 BCE, Wei Bao left Liu Bang on the pretext of visiting an ill relative and secretly returned to his domain. He pledged allegiance to Xiang Yu and rebelled against Liu Bang. Liu Bang sent Li Yiji to persuade Wei Bao to surrender but Wei Bao refused, so Liu Bang ordered Han Xin to attack Wei Bao. Wei Bao stationed his army at Puban ( 蒲阪 ; present-day Yongji, Shanxi ) and blocked

12987-412: Was guarded by his brother-in-law, Liu Bang reorganised his troops for a retreat. Meanwhile, Han Xin led reinforcements from Guanzhong into the Central Plain and attacked and defeated a Chu army between Jing County ( 京縣 ) and Suo Village ( 索亭 ), both in present-day Henan . He also put down a rebellion by Wang Wu and Cheng Chu - former Qin commanders - and Shen Tu, the magistrate of Wei, capturing their base,

13104-407: Was quelled, Liu Bang heard rumours that Peng Yue was intending to rebel against him as well, and he had Peng arrested. Peng Yue was demoted to the status of a commoner and exiled to the remote Qingyi County (in present-day Ya'an , Sichuan ). Along the way, Peng Yue encountered Empress Lü Zhi, who wanted to have him killed. He pleaded with her to spare his life and let him return home to Changyi, and

13221-482: Was retreating eastward, Liu Bang, acting on the advice of Zhang Liang and Chen Ping , renounced the Treaty of Hong Canal and ordered an attack on Xiang Yu. He also requested assistance from Han Xin and Peng Yue to attack Xiang Yu simultaneously from three directions. However, as Han Xin and Peng Yue did not mobilise their troops, Liu Bang was defeated by Xiang Yu at Guling ( 固陵 ; south of present-day Taikang County , Henan). He retreated and reinforced his defences. At

13338-650: Was stationed. Liu Bang was forced to retreat to Chenggao , but he eventually abandoned Chenggao and headed north of the Yellow River to where Han Xin was. In a surprise move, Liu Bang seized control over the troops under Han Xin's command and ordered Han Xin to attack the state of Qi . Just as Han Xin was preparing to attack Qi, Liu Bang sent Li Yiji to persuade Tian Guang , the King of Qi, to surrender. Liu Bang had not informed Han Xin about what he had sent Li Yiji to do. Tian Guang decided to surrender so he ordered to withdraw from Lixia ( 歷下 ; present-day Jinan , Shandong). However, as Han Xin did not know that Tian Guang had

13455-433: Was strictly enforced, and the troops were trained to adapt more effectively to various battle situations. Qin's military strength increased significantly with the full support of the state. In 318 BC, the states of Wei , Zhao, Han , Yan, and Chu formed an alliance and attacked Qin, but failed to advance beyond Hangu Pass , and were defeated by counter-attacking Qin forces. The alliance crumbled due to mistrust, suspicion, and

13572-435: Was subsequently arrested and executed by Empress Lü in 196 for allegedly plotting a rebellion with Chen Xi . In the same year, Liu Bang believed rumours that Peng Yue was also involved in the plot, so he demoted Peng Yue to the status of a commoner. Peng Yue and his family members were subsequently executed by Empress Lü. Qin (state) Qin ( / tʃ ɪ n / , or Ch'in ) was an ancient Chinese state during

13689-465: Was the only rival state left. Qin advanced into the heartland of Qi via a southern detour, avoiding direct confrontation with the Qi forces on Qi's western border and arrived swiftly at Qi's capital city of Linzi. The Qi forces were taken by surprise and surrendered without putting up resistance. Following the fall of Qi in 221 BC, China was unified under the rule of Qin. Ying Zheng declared himself " Qin Shi Huang " (meaning "First Emperor of Qin"), founded

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