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95-621: The tribunal's establishment is rooted in historical tensions between the United States and Iran. These tensions were exacerbated by the 1953 U.S.-backed coup that overthrew the democratically elected government of Mohammad Mossadegh , followed by Iran's demand for the return of assets taken by the Shah after the 1979 Iranian Revolution . The U.S. refusal to comply with these demands fueled anti-American sentiment in Iran . On November 4, 1979,

190-544: A majlis was a tribal council in which the male members participated in making decisions of common interest. The council was presided over by the chief ( Sheikh ). During the period of the Rashidun Caliphate , the Majlis al-Shura was formed to elect a new caliph. Al-Mawardi has written that members of the majlis should satisfy three conditions: they must be just, they must have enough knowledge to distinguish

285-568: A "needy and naked people". The court ruled that it had no jurisdiction over the case. Nevertheless, the British continued to enforce the embargo of Iranian oil. In August 1952, Iranian Prime Minister Mosaddegh invited an American oil executive to visit Iran and the Truman administration welcomed the invitation. However, the suggestion upset Churchill, who insisted that the U.S. not undermine his campaign to isolate Mosaddegh because of British support for

380-554: A chain of events leading to Mosaddegh's deposition. The Shah himself initially opposed the coup plans and supported the oil nationalization, but he joined in after being informed by the CIA that he too would be "deposed" if he didn't play along. The experience left him with a lifelong awe of American power and would contribute to his pro-US policies while generating a hatred of the British. Mosaddegh's decision to dissolve Parliament also contributed to his decision. The official pretext for

475-584: A few days before continuing on to Europe. After high-level Government consultations, they were escorted to the White House, the Iraqi Government's guest house, before flying to Italy in a plane flown by Mohammad Amir Khatami . After the first coup attempt failed, General Zahedi, declaring that he was the rightful prime minister of Iran, shuttled between multiple safe houses attempting to avoid arrest. Mosaddegh ordered security forces to capture

570-494: A good caliph from a bad one, and must have sufficient wisdom and judgement to select the best caliph. Majlis is also used to refer to a private place where guests are received and entertained. Frequently the room has cushions placed around the walls where the visitors sit, either with the cushions placed directly on the floor or upon a raised shelf. Because hospitality is taken seriously, many families take pride in making their guests comfortable when visiting. In many Arab homes ,

665-573: A group of Iranian university students stormed the U.S. embassy in Tehran , taking 52 American employees hostage for 444 days in an event known as the Iran hostage crisis . The hostage-takers demanded the extradition of the Shah in exchange for the hostages' release. In response, the U.S. froze Iranian assets, imposed sanctions, and authorized the seizure of Iranian property within its jurisdiction. To resolve

760-512: A local-heritage style," said Provincial Airport Director Abdul Aziz Abu Harba . "The seating arrangement at the airport lounge has been in the form of a traditional majlis and the walls are painted in various colors reflecting the natural beauty of Asir." In the Najd of Saudi Arabia, wall coverings include star shapes and other geometric designs carved into the wall covering itself. Courtyards and upper pillared porticoes are principal features of

855-598: A major toll on Mosaddegh's popularity and political power. He was increasingly blamed for the economic and political crisis. Political violence was becoming widespread in the form of street clashes between rival political groups. Mosaddegh was losing popularity and support among the working class which had been his strongest supporters. As he lost support, he became more autocratic. As early as August 1952, he began to rely on emergency powers to rule, generating controversy among his supporters. After an assassination attempt upon one of his cabinet ministers and himself, he ordered

950-541: A reputation as an effective politician with a lack of corruption. By 1925 under his influence, Parliament voted to remove Ahmad Shah Qajar from the throne, and Reza Khan was crowned Reza Shah Pahlavi , of the Pahlavi dynasty . Reza Shah began a rapid and successful modernization program in Persia, which up until that point had been considered to be among the most impoverished countries in the world. Nevertheless, Reza Shah

1045-545: A style of painting the majlis. Sometimes public waiting rooms are also called a majlis, since this is an area where people meet and visit. Here the traditional al-qatt al-Asiri has been added to the interior design of the room. The provincial airport in Abha has recently been designed to reflect the cultural heritage of the region, an airport official said: "Abha is the first city in the Kingdom to have its airport decorated in

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1140-500: A tank fired a single shell into his house, but he later turned himself in to the army's custody. To prevent further bloodshed, he refused a last attempt to organize his supporters. By the end of the day, Zahedi and the army were in control of the government. According to Hugh Wilford in his book published in 2013, despite the CIA's role in creating the conditions for the coup, there was little evidence to prove that Kermit Roosevelt Jr. or other CIA officials were directly responsible for

1235-605: A visit to the United States in October 1951, Mosaddegh—in spite of the popularity of nationalization in Iran—agreed in talks with George C. McGhee to a complex settlement of the crisis involving the sale of the Abadan Refinery to a non-British company and Iranian control of the extraction of crude oil. The US waited until Winston Churchill became prime minister to present the deal, believing he would be more flexible, but

1330-524: A word against nationalisation". Harriman held a press conference in Tehran , calling for reason and enthusiasm in confronting the "nationalisation crisis". As soon as he spoke, a journalist rose and shouted: "We and the Iranian people all support Premier Mosaddegh and oil nationalisation!" Everyone present began cheering and then marched out of the room; the abandoned Harriman shook his head in dismay. On

1425-423: Is quoted acknowledging the coup was carried out "under CIA direction" and "as an act of U.S. foreign policy, conceived and approved at the highest levels of government". In 2023, the CIA took credit for the coup, contradicting a previous scholarly assessment that the CIA had botched the operation. Throughout the 19th century, Iran was caught between two advancing imperial powers, Russia and Britain . In 1892,

1520-408: Is usually begrimed by the smoke of the coffee hearth. In Riyadh , examples can be seen in unadorned clay . On 4 December 2015, the majlis was inscribed on UNESCO ’s List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in a joint file involving the participation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , United Arab Emirates , Sultanate of Oman , and Qatar . The inscription is a testament to the value of the majlis as

1615-633: The Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC). In 1941, after the German invasion of the Soviet Union , British and Soviet forces invaded and occupied Iran , which was largely unopposed by the Iranian government and military. After World War II had broken out, Reza Shah had declared Iran's neutrality, and attempted to appease the British, Soviets and Germans, all of whom maintained a degree of influence in Iran. The primary reasons behind

1710-619: The Eastern Province and in Oman , which are linked to Indian traditions, and resembles instead the motifs and patterns found in ancient Mesopotamia . The rosette, the star, the triangle and the stepped pinnacle pattern of dadoes are all ancient patterns and were found all over the Middle East in antiquity. Al-Qassim Region seems to be the home of this art, and there it is normally worked in hard white plaster, although what you see

1805-518: The Muslim world . Majlis can refer to a legislature as well and is used in the name of legislative councils or assemblies in some states. Majlis is the Arabic word for a sitting room. Its Semitic root is the verb جَلَس jalas meaning 'to sit', (cf. British English ' sitting room ' and ' seat of government '). It is also romanized as Mejlis or Majles. In pre-Islamic Arabia ,

1900-553: The Royal Navy , stopping any ship transporting Iranian oil for carrying so-called "stolen property". On his re-election as prime minister, Winston Churchill took an even harder stance against Iran. The United Kingdom took its anti-nationalization case against Iran to the International Court of Justice at The Hague ; PM Mosaddegh said the world would learn of a "cruel and imperialistic country" stealing from

1995-611: The "foot soldiers" for his government, effectively replacing the Fadaiyan in that role, all the while secretly hoping that Mosaddegh would institute communism. Worried about Britain's other interests in Iran, and thanks to the Tudeh Party, believing that Iran's nationalism was really a Soviet-backed plot, Britain persuaded US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles that Iran was falling to the Soviets—effectively exploiting

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2090-505: The 1930s, Reza Shah tried to terminate the APOC concession that the Qajar dynasty had granted, but Iran was still weak and Britain would not allow it. The concession was renegotiated on terms again favorable to the British (although the D'Arcy Concession was softened). On 21 March 1935, Reza Shah changed the name of the country from Persia to Iran. The Anglo-Persian Oil Company was then renamed

2185-513: The Accords were signed, also affirmed his administration’s commitment to the agreement. 1953 Iranian coup d%27%C3%A9tat Overthrow of Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh The 1953 Iranian coup d'état , known in Iran as the 28 Mordad coup d'état ( Persian : کودتای ۲۸ مرداد ), was the U.S.- and British-instigated, Iranian army-led overthrow of the democratically elected Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh in favor of strengthening

2280-570: The American Cold War mindset. Since President Harry S. Truman was busy fighting a war in Korea, he did not agree to overthrow the government of Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh. However, in 1953, when Dwight D. Eisenhower became president, the UK convinced the U.S. to undertake a joint coup d'état. By 1953, economic tensions caused by the British embargo and political turmoil began to take

2375-738: The Anglo-Soviet invasion was to remove German influence in Iran and secure control over Iran's oil fields and the Trans-Iranian Railway in order to deliver supplies to the USSR. Reza Shah was deposed and exiled by the British to South Africa , and his 22-year-old son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was installed as the new Shah of Iran. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was supported by the Allies because they viewed him as being less able to act against their interests in Iran. The new Shah, unlike his father,

2470-464: The British diplomat George Curzon described Iran as "pieces on a chessboard upon which is being played out a game for the dominion of the world." During the latter half of the 19th century, the concession policies of the monarchy faced increased opposition. In 1872, a representative of British entrepreneur Paul Reuter met with the Iranian monarch Naser al-Din Shah Qajar and agreed to fund

2565-627: The British government to buy a controlling share in the company, essentially nationalizing British oil production in Iran. The British angered the Persians by intervening in their domestic affairs, including in the Persian Constitutional Revolution . Massive popular protests had forced Mozzafar al-Din Shah to allow for the Constitution of 1906 , which limited his powers. It allowed for a parliament elected by

2660-433: The CIA executed the coup. Firmans (royal decrees) dismissing Mosaddegh and appointing General Fazlollah Zahedi (a loyalist who had helped Reza Shah reunify Iran decades earlier) were drawn up by the coup plotters and signed by the Shah. Having signed the decrees and delivered them to General Zahedi, he and Queen Soraya departed for a week-long vacation in northern Iran. On Saturday 15 August, Colonel Nematollah Nassiri ,

2755-423: The CIA history, written by Wilber, referred to the operation as TPAJAX. A tactic Roosevelt admitted to using, was bribing demonstrators into attacking symbols of the Shah, while chanting pro-Mosaddegh slogans. As king, the Shah was largely seen as a symbol of Iran at the time by many Iranians and monarchists. Roosevelt declared that the more that these agents showed their hate for the Shah and attacked his symbols,

2850-473: The CIA organized anti-Communist guerrillas to fight the Tudeh Party if they seized power in the chaos of Operation Ajax. Released National Security Archive documents showed that Undersecretary of State Walter Bedell Smith reported that the CIA had agreed with Qashqai tribal leaders, in south Iran, to establish a clandestine safe haven from which U.S.-funded guerrillas and spies could operate. The CIA sent Major General Norman Schwarzkopf Sr. to persuade

2945-437: The CIA's declassified documents and records, some of the most feared mobsters in Tehran were hired by the CIA to stage pro-shah riots on 19 August. Other men paid by the CIA were brought into Tehran in buses and trucks and took over the streets of the city. Between 200 and 300 people were killed because of the conflict. Mosaddegh was arrested, tried and convicted of treason by the Shah's military court. On 21 December 1953, he

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3040-528: The Communist Tudeh Party , which supported the Soviet Union and had attempted to kill the Shah only four years earlier, began to infiltrate the military and send mobs to "support Mosaddegh" (but in reality to marginalize all non-Communist opponents). Earlier, the Tudeh had denounced Mosaddegh, but by 1953 they changed tack and decided to "support" him. The Tudeh violently attacked opponents under

3135-524: The Fadaiyan's wrath). The nationalization made Mosaddegh instantly popular among millions of Iranians, cementing him as a national hero, and placing him and Iran at the centre of worldwide attention. Britain now faced the newly elected nationalist government in Iran where Mosaddegh, with strong backing of the Iranian parliament and people, demanded more favorable concessionary arrangements, which Britain vigorously opposed. The U.S. State Department not only rejected Britain's demand that it continue to be

3230-504: The Middle East remained the same between 1947 and 1952 but its strategy changed. Washington remained "publicly in solidarity and privately at odds" with Britain, its World War II ally. Britain's empire was steadily weakening, and with an eye on international crises, the U.S. re-appraised its interests and the risks of being identified with British colonial interests. "In Saudi Arabia , to Britain's extreme disapproval, Washington endorsed

3325-573: The Mosaddegh government as late as 1952. British intelligence officials' conclusions and the UK government's solicitations to the US were instrumental in initiating and planning the coup. Following the coup, a government under General Fazlollah Zahedi was formed which allowed Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , the shah of Iran ( Persian for 'king'), to rule more firmly as monarch . He relied heavily on United States support to hold on to power. According to

3420-555: The National Front government, as well as "immoral objects", acting at times as unofficial "enforcers" for the movement. However, by late 1952 Mosaddegh was becoming increasingly opposed to Kashani, as the latter was contributing to mass political instability in Iran. Kashani in turn, berated Mosaddegh for not "Islamizing" Iran, as he was a firm believer in the separation of religion and state. The Shah and his new prime minister Mosaddegh had an antagonistic relationship. Part of

3515-491: The National Front seats in Parliament. A referendum to dissolve parliament and give the prime minister power to make law was submitted to voters, and it passed with 99.9 percent approval, 2,043,300 votes to 1300 votes against. The referendum was widely seen by opponents as treason and an act against the Shah, who was stripped of military power and control over national resources. This act would be one of many key factors in

3610-555: The Parliament Ayatollah Kashani, Mosaddegh's main clerical supporter, became increasingly opposed to the Prime Minister, because Mosaddegh was squeezing him out of power. By 1953, he had completely turned on him, and supported the coup, depriving Mosaddegh of religious support, while giving it to the Shah. While the National Front, which often supported Mosaddegh, won handily in the big cities, there

3705-645: The Roosevelt-organized ones, and were composed of average citizens, not the thugs-for-hire that the CIA and MI6 had recruited. However in 2017, the CIA released documents revealing that the networks established by British intelligence services had been used to run a campaign of propaganda and paid-for protests, resulting in the rapid destabilization of the nation. The Shah stayed in a hotel in Italy until he learned what had transpired, upon which he "chokingly declared": "I knew they loved me." Allen Dulles ,

3800-399: The Shah immediately reinstating him. In late 1951, Iran's Parliament in a near unanimous vote approved the oil nationalization agreement. The bill was widely popular among most Iranians, and generated a huge wave of nationalism, and immediately put Iran at loggerheads with Britain (the handful of MPs that disagreed with it voted for it as well in the face of overwhelming popular support, and

3895-453: The Shah was forced to revoke a tobacco monopoly given to Major G. F. Talbot, following protests and a widespread tobacco boycott . In 1901, Mozzafar al-Din Shah Qajar granted a 60-year petroleum search concession to William Knox D'Arcy . D'Arcy paid £20,000 (equivalent to £2.6 million in 2023 ), according to journalist-turned-historian Stephen Kinzer , and promised equal ownership shares, with 16% of any future net profit, as calculated by

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3990-598: The Shah. Shocked by the experience and emboldened by public sympathy for his injury, the Shah began to take an increasingly active role in politics. He quickly organized the Iran Constituent Assembly to amend the constitution to increase his powers. He established the Senate of Iran , which had been a part of the Constitution of 1906 but had never been convened. The Shah had the right to appoint half

4085-579: The U.S. in the Korean War . In mid-1952, Britain's embargo of Iranian oil was devastatingly effective. British agents in Tehran "worked to subvert" the government of Mosaddegh, who sought help from President Truman and then the World Bank but to no avail. "Iranians were becoming poorer and unhappier by the day" and Mosaddegh's political coalition was fraying. To make matters worse, the Speaker of

4180-423: The U.S. role in the coup by releasing a bulk of previously classified government documents that show it was in charge of both the planning and the execution of the coup. According to American journalist Stephen Kinzer , the operation included false flag attacks , paid protesters, provocations, the bribing of Iranian politicians and high-ranking security and army officials, as well as pro-coup propaganda. The CIA

4275-600: The US required removal of the AIOC's monopoly; five American petroleum companies, Royal Dutch Shell , and the Compagnie Française des Pétroles , were to draw Iran's petroleum after the successful coup d'état—Operation Ajax. The Shah declared this to be a "victory" for Iranians, with the massive influx of money from this agreement resolving the economic collapse from the last three years, and allowing him to carry out his planned modernization projects. As part of that,

4370-461: The actions of the demonstrators or the army on 19 August. It has even been suggested that Roosevelt's activities between 15 and 19 August were primarily intended to organize "stay-behind networks as part of the planned CIA evacuation of the country", although they allowed him to later "claim responsibility for the day's outcome." Middle East scholar Amir Taheri wrote in 1991 that the CIA operation failed on 14 August, and that mistakes by Mosaddegh, and

4465-528: The arrangement between ARAMCO and Saudi Arabia in the 50/50 accord that had reverberations throughout the region." Iran's oil had been discovered and later controlled by the British-owned AIOC. Popular discontent with the AIOC began in the late 1940s: a large segment of Iran's public and a number of politicians saw the company as exploitative and a central tool of continued British imperialism in Iran. In 1949, an assassin attempted to kill

4560-593: The autocratic rule of the shah , Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , on 19 August 1953, with the objectives being to protect British oil interests in Iran after its government refused to concede to western oil demands. It was instigated by the United States (under the name TP-AJAX Project or Operation Ajax ) and the United Kingdom (under the name Operation Boot ). This began a period of dissolution for Iranian democracy and society whose effects on civil rights are prevalent to this day. Mosaddegh had sought to audit

4655-602: The best Nadjdi architecture, in addition to the fine incised plaster wood called jis and painted window shutters that decorate the reception rooms. Good examples of plasterwork can often be seen in the gaping ruins of torn-down buildings- the effect is light, delicate and airy. It is usually around the majlis, around the coffee hearth and along the walls above where guests sat on rugs, against cushions. Doughty wondered if this " parquetting of jis", this " gypsum fretwork... all adorning and unenclosed" originated from India . However, Najdi fretwork seems very different from that seen in

4750-527: The commander of the Imperial Guard , delivered to Mosaddegh a firman from the Shah dismissing him. Mosaddegh, who had been warned of the plot, probably by the Communist Tudeh Party , rejected the firman and had Nassiri arrested. Mosaddegh argued at his trial after the coup that under the Iranian constitutional monarchy, the Shah had no constitutional right to issue an order for the elected Prime Minister's dismissal without Parliament's consent. However,

4845-440: The communists. At the same time pro-Shah crowds began gathering in the streets. By the middle of the day, large crowds of regular citizens, armed with improvised weapons, took to the streets in mass demonstrations, and beat back the Tudeh Party members. Under Zahedi's authority, the army left its barracks and drove off the communist Tudeh and then stormed all government buildings with the support of demonstrators. Mosaddegh fled after

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4940-537: The company. However, the historian L. P. Elwell-Sutton wrote, in 1955, that "Persia's share was 'hardly spectacular' and no money changed hands." On 31 July 1907, D'Arcy withdrew from his private holdings in Persia, and transferred them to the British-owned Burmah Oil Company . On 26 May 1908 the company struck oil at a depth of 1,180 feet (360 m). The company grew slowly until World War I, when Persia's strategic importance led

5035-465: The constitution at the time did allow for such an action, which Mosaddegh considered unfair. Mosaddegh's supporters took to the streets in violent protests. Following the failed coup attempt, the Shah, accompanied by his second wife Soraya Esfandiary-Bakhtiari and Aboul Fath Atabay fled to Baghdad. Arriving unannounced, the Shah asked for permission for himself and his consort to stay in Baghdad for

5130-537: The country. After this vote, Britain instigated a worldwide boycott of Iranian oil to pressure Iran economically. Initially, Britain mobilized its military to seize control of the British-built Abadan oil refinery , then the world's largest, but Prime Minister Clement Attlee (in power until 1951) opted instead to tighten the economic boycott while using Iranian agents to undermine Mosaddegh's government. Judging Mosaddegh to be unamenable and fearing

5225-440: The coup plotters, and dozens were imprisoned. Believing that he had succeeded, and that he was in full control of the government, Mosaddegh erred. Assuming that the coup had failed, he asked his supporters to return to their homes and to continue with their lives as normal. The Tudeh party members also returned to their homes, no longer carrying out enforcement duties. The CIA was ordered to leave Iran, although Kermit Roosevelt Jr.

5320-521: The crisis, Algeria facilitated negotiations, leading to the Algiers Accords. This agreement mandated the release of the hostages and the establishment of an arbitral tribunal to resolve claims arising from the crisis. The IUSCT, headquartered in The Hague , Netherlands , is composed of nine members: three appointed by Iran, three by the United States, and three neutral arbitrators selected by

5415-477: The deal was rejected by the British. By September 1951, the British had virtually ceased Abadan oil field production, forbidden British export to Iran of key British commodities (including sugar and steel), and had frozen Iran's hard currency accounts in British banks. British Prime Minister Clement Attlee considered seizing the Abadan Oil Refinery by force, but instead settled on an embargo by

5510-490: The director of the CIA, flew back with the Shah from Rome to Tehran. Zahedi officially replaced Mosaddegh. Mosaddegh was arrested, tried, and originally sentenced to death. But on the Shah's personal orders, his sentence was commuted to three years' solitary confinement in a military prison, followed by house arrest until his death. As a condition for restoring the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, in 1954

5605-415: The documents of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC), a British corporation (now part of BP ), to verify that AIOC was paying the contracted royalties to Iran, and to limit the company's control over Iranian oil reserves . Upon the AIOC's refusal to cooperate with the Iranian government, the parliament ( Majlis ) voted to nationalize Iran's oil industry and to expel foreign corporate representatives from

5700-466: The elected government power over the un-elected Shah. While the constitution of Iran gave the Shah the power to rule directly, Mosaddegh used the united National Front bloc and the widespread popular support for the oil nationalization vote (the latter which the Shah supported as well) in order to block the Shah's ability to act. As a result, the oil nationalization issue became increasingly intertwined with Mosaddegh's pro-democracy movement. The dejected Shah

5795-485: The exiled Shah to return to rule Iran. Schwarzkopf trained the security forces that would become known as SAVAK to secure the shah's hold on power. According to a heavily redacted CIA document released to the National Security Archive in response to a Freedom of Information request, "Available documents do not indicate who authorized CIA to begin planning the operation, but it almost certainly

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5890-458: The fields of investor-state arbitration and state responsibility. Its rulings are binding on both parties and have served as a model for resolving disputes between nations. The tribunal's legitimacy was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in Dames & Moore v. Regan (1981), which affirmed the constitutionality of the Algiers Accords. U.S. President Ronald Reagan , who assumed office the day after

5985-475: The growing influence of the communist Tudeh , UK prime minister Winston Churchill and the Eisenhower administration decided in early 1953 to overthrow Iran's government. The preceding Truman administration had opposed a coup, fearing the precedent that Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) involvement would set, and the U.S. government had been considering unilateral action (without UK support) to assist

6080-399: The guise of helping the prime minister (the cousin of the future queen of Iran, Farah Pahlavi , was stabbed at the age of 13 in his school by Tudeh activists), and unwittingly helped cause Mosaddegh's reputation to decline, despite the fact that he never officially endorsed them. However, by 1953 he and the Tudeh had formed an unofficial alliance of convenience with each other; the Tudeh were

6175-451: The jailing of dozens of his political opponents. This act created widespread anger among the general public, and led to accusations that Mosaddegh was becoming a dictator. The Tudeh Party's unofficial alliance with Mosaddegh led to fears of communism, and increasingly it was the communists who were taking part in pro-Mosaddegh rallies and attacking opponents. By mid-1953 a mass of resignations by Mosaddegh's parliamentary supporters reduced

6270-421: The majlis is the meeting room or front parlor used to entertain visitors. In Saudi Arabia , the decoration of the majlis in the home is often the responsibility of the women of the house, who either decorate the area themselves or barter with other women to do it for them. In Asir Province and in the neighboring Saada Governorate of Yemen , geometric designs and bright colors are used in al-Qatt Al-Asiri ,

6365-420: The monarch's upcoming lavish visit to Europe in return for exclusive contracts for Iranian roads, telegraphs, mills, factories, extraction of resources, and other public works, in which Reuter would receive a stipulated sum for five years and 60% of all the net revenue for 20 years. However, the so-called " Reuter concession " was never put into effect because of violent opposition at home and from Russia. In 1892

6460-407: The more it caused the average Iranian citizen to dislike and distrust Mosaddegh. The British and American spy agencies strengthened the monarchy in Iran by backing the pro-western Shah for the next 26 years. The Shah was overthrown in 1979. Some Iranian clerics cooperated with the western spy agencies because they were dissatisfied with Mosaddegh's secular government. While the broad outlines of

6555-634: The operation are known, "...the C.I.A.'s records were widely thought by historians to have the potential to add depth and clarity to a famous but little-documented intelligence operation", reporter Tim Weiner wrote in The New York Times 29 May 1997. Majlis Majlis ( Arabic : المجلس , pl. مجالس Majālis ) is an Arabic term meaning 'sitting room', used to describe various types of special gatherings among common interest groups of administrative, social or religious nature in countries with linguistic or cultural connections to

6650-902: The parties' appointees. The tribunal began operations on July 1, 1981, and initially operated from the Peace Palace before moving to its permanent premises in The Hague. The tribunal adjudicates claims in accordance with modified UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules. Its jurisdiction includes: The tribunal closed to new private claims on January 19, 1982, after receiving over 4,700 submissions. It has ordered payments exceeding $ 3.5 billion, with approximately $ 2.5 billion awarded to U.S. nationals and over $ 1 billion to Iran. As of 2014, all private claims had been resolved, though some intergovernmental disputes remain pending. The IUSCT has been described as “the most significant arbitral body in history” due to its influence on international arbitration, particularly in

6745-502: The people to make the laws, and a prime minister to sign and carry them out. The prime minister would be confirmed by the shah after a vote in Parliament. Nevertheless, the new constitution gave the shah many executive powers as well. It allowed for the shah to issue royal decrees ( Farman ), gave him the power to dismiss prime ministers, appoint half of the members of the Senate (which was not convened until 1949), and introduce bills to dissolve Parliament. It abolished arbitrary rule, but

6840-582: The plan; and he did not discuss it with his Cabinet or the NSC. Establishing a pattern he would hold to throughout his Presidency, he kept his distance and left no documents behind that could implicate the President in any projected coup. But in the privacy of the Oval Office, over cocktails, he was kept informed by Foster Dulles, and he maintained a tight control over the activities of the CIA. One version of

6935-527: The popular fear of Russian control of Iran, allowed the 19 August uprising to happen. In 2014, historian Ray Takeyh stated that the US-led coup attempt was unsuccessful, citing how the CIA wrote to Eisenhower that "The move failed […] We now [...] probably have to snuggle up to Mosaddeq if we're going to save [our influence in Iran];" the demonstrations that led to Mosaddegh's resignation took place some weeks after

7030-505: The primary beneficiary of Iranian oil reserves but "U.S. international oil interests were among the beneficiaries of the concessionary arrangements that followed nationalization." Mohammad Mosaddegh attempted to negotiate with the AIOC, but the company rejected his proposed compromise. Mosaddegh's plan, based on the 1948 compromise between the Venezuelan Government of Rómulo Gallegos and Creole Petroleum , would divide

7125-621: The prime minister. The plotters sought to capitalize on these anxieties. The Ayatollah Behbahani also used his influence to rally religious demonstrators against Mosaddegh. On 19 August, Mossadegh issued a decree banning all demonstrations on that day. However, mobilization of crowds and street protests widely believed to have been organized with CIA assistance, had occurred to create the impression of popular unrest and opposition to Mossadegh's government. Bloody street battles were observed to have broken out in Tehran between Tudeh Party activists and right wing parties, whose offices were attacked by

7220-403: The problem stemmed from the fact that Mosaddegh was connected by blood to the former royal Qajar dynasty , and saw the Pahlavi king as a usurper to the throne. But the real issue stemmed from the fact that Mosaddegh represented a pro-democratic force that wanted to temper the Shah's rule in Iranian politics. He wanted the Shah to be a ceremonial monarch rather than a ruling monarch, thus giving

7315-475: The profits from oil 50/50 between Iran and Britain. Against the recommendation of the United States, Britain refused this proposal and began planning to undermine and overthrow the Iranian government. In July 1951, the American diplomat Averell Harriman went to Iran to negotiate an Anglo-Iranian compromise, asking the Shah's help; his reply was that "in the face of public opinion, there was no way he could say

7410-478: The senators, and he chose men sympathetic to his aims. Mosaddegh thought this increase in the Shah's political power was not democratic; he believed that the Shah should "reign, but not rule" in a manner similar to Europe's constitutional monarchies . Led by Mosaddegh, political parties and opponents of the Shah's policies banded together to form a coalition known as the National Front . Oil nationalization

7505-463: The shah served as an executive, rather than in a ceremonial role. The Constitutional Revolution was opposed by the British and Russians, who attempted to subvert it through the backing of Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar (the son of Mozzafar-e-din Shah), who tried to break up the democratic government by force. A guerrilla movement led by Sattar Khan deposed him in 1910. In the aftermath of World War I there

7600-399: The start of the coup was Mosaddegh's decree to dissolve Parliament, giving himself and his cabinet complete power to rule, while effectively stripping the Shah of his powers. It resulted in him being accused of giving himself "total and dictatorial powers." The Shah, who had been resisting the CIA's demands for the coup, finally agreed to support it. Having obtained the Shah's concurrence,

7695-469: Was President Eisenhower himself. Eisenhower biographer Stephen Ambrose has written that the absence of documentation reflected the President's style." The CIA document then quotes from the Ambrose biography of Eisenhower: Before going into the operation, Ajax had to have the approval of the President. Eisenhower participated in none of the meetings that set up Ajax; he received only oral reports on

7790-434: Was a major policy goal for the party. By 1951, the National Front had won majority seats for the popularly elected Majlis (Parliament of Iran). According to Iran's constitution, the majority elected party in the parliament would choose its prime minister candidate by vote, after which the Shah would confirm the candidate to power. The Prime Minister Haj Ali Razmara , who opposed the oil nationalization on technical grounds,

7885-426: Was also a very harsh ruler who did not tolerate dissent. By the 1930s, he had suppressed all opposition, and had sidelined the democratic aspects of the constitution. Opponents were jailed and in some cases even executed. While some agreed with his policies, arguing that it was necessary as Iran was in such turmoil, others argued that it was unjustified. One such opponent was a politician named Mohammad Mosaddegh , who

7980-546: Was angered by Mosaddegh's "insolence" (according to Abbas Milani, he angrily paced in the rooms of his palace at the thought that he would be reduced to a figurehead ). But Mosaddegh and the oil nationalization's popularity prevented the Shah from acting against his prime minister (which was allowed under Iran's constitution, something that Mosaddegh felt a king had no right to do). In 1952 the Shah dismissed Mosaddegh, replacing him with Ahmad Qavam (a veteran prime minister). But widespread protests by Mosaddegh supporters resulted in

8075-565: Was assassinated by the hardline Fadaiyan e-Islam (whose spiritual leader the Ayatollah Abol-Qassem Kashani , a mentor to the future Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini , After the National Front dominated the voting in Parliament, Mosaddegh was confirmed prime minister of Iran by the Shah (replacing Hossein Ala , who had replaced Razmara). Under heavy pressure by the National Front, the assassin of Razmara ( Khalil Tahmasebi )

8170-541: Was ended when the US lobbied for the Iranian Army to reassert control over the two occupied territories. The earlier agreed-upon Soviet-Iranian oil agreement would never be honored. Nationalist leaders in Iran became influential by seeking a reduction in long-term foreign interventions in their country—especially the oil concession which was very profitable for the West and not very profitable for Iran. U.S. objectives in

8265-509: Was initially a mild leader and at times indecisive. During the 1940s he did not for most part take an independent role in the government, and much of Reza Shah's authoritarian policies were rolled back. Iranian democracy effectively was restored during this period as a result. The British occupational force withdrew from Iran after the end of the war. However, under Stalin, the Soviet Union partly remained by sponsoring two "People's Democratic Republics" within Iran's borders. The related conflict

8360-474: Was jailed in 1940. The experience gave him a lasting dislike for authoritarian rule and monarchy, and it helped make Mosaddegh a dedicated advocate of complete oil nationalization in Iran. Reza Shah attempted to attenuate the power of the colonial forces in Iran, and was successful to a large extent. However, he also needed them to help modernize the country. He did so by balancing the influence of various colonial powers, including that of Britain and Germany. In

8455-485: Was left without access to markets where it could sell its oil. The embargo had the effect of causing Iran to spiral into bankruptcy. Tens of thousands had lost their jobs at the Abadan refinery, and although most understood and passionately supported the idea of nationalisation, they naturally hoped that Mosaddegh would find a way to put them back to work. The only way he could do that was to sell oil. To make matters worse,

8550-551: Was no one to monitor voting in the rural areas. Violence broke out in Abadan and other parts of the country where elections were hotly contested. Faced with having to leave Iran for The Hague where Britain was suing for control of Iranian oil, Mosaddegh's cabinet voted to postpone the remainder of the election until after the return of the Iranian delegation from The Hague: While Mosaddegh dealt with political challenge, he faced another that most Iranians considered far more urgent. The British blockade of Iranian seaports meant that Iran

8645-406: Was released and pardoned, thus proving the movement's power in Iranian politics. For the time being, Mosaddegh and Kashani were allies of convenience, as Mosaddegh saw that Kashani could mobilize the "religious masses", while Kashani wanted Mosaddegh to drive out British and other foreign influence. Kashani's Fadaiyan mobs often violently attacked the opponents of nationalization and opponents of

8740-505: Was sentenced to three years in jail, then placed under house arrest for the remainder of his life. Other Mosaddegh supporters were imprisoned, and several received the death penalty. The coup strengthened the Shah's authority, and he continued to rule Iran for the next 26 years as a pro-Western monarch until he was overthrown in the Iranian Revolution in 1979. In August 2013, the U.S. government formally acknowledged

8835-479: Was slow to receive the message—allegedly due to MI6 interference—and eagerly continued to foment anti-Mosaddegh unrest. The Eisenhower administration considered changing its policy to support Mosaddegh, with undersecretary of state Walter Bedell Smith remarking on 17 August: "Whatever his faults, Mosaddegh had no love for the Russians and timely aid might enable him to keep Communism in check." General Zahedi, who

8930-473: Was still on the run, secretly met with the pro-Shah Ayatollah Mohammad Behbahani and other Shah supporters. Backed by CIA money (derisively known as "Behbahani dollars"), they developed a strategy to stoke class and religious resentment toward the Mossadegh government. The Shah's flight from Iran, Mosaddegh's arrests of political opponents, and fears of communism had already soured many upper-class Iranians on

9025-602: Was widespread political dissatisfaction with the royalty terms of the British petroleum concession, under the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC), whereby Persia received 16% of "net profits". In 1921, after years of severe mismanagement under the Qajar dynasty , a coup d'état (allegedly backed by the British) brought a general, Reza Khan , into the government. By 1923, he had become prime minister, and gained

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