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60-594: Jinnō Shōtōki ( 神皇正統記 , "Chronicles of the Authentic Lineages of the Divine Emperors" ) is a Japanese historical book written by Kitabatake Chikafusa . The work sought both to clarify the genesis and potential consequences of a contemporary crisis in Japanese politics, and to dispel or at least ameliorate the prevailing disorder. The text begins with these statements as prologue: Great Japan

120-629: A history of Japan and a number of works defending the right of Go-Daigo's line to the throne, Kitabatake fought in defense of the Southern Court as a member of the Murakami branch of the Minamoto clan . Kitabatake, in his writings, held a strong distaste for the Ashikaga clan , the ruling family at the time who held the position of shōgun and maintained a rival Imperial court known as

180-509: A center for intellectual thought. The Mito School ( Mitogaku ) was an influential school of Japanese thought which advocated isolationism , nativism , and reverence of the emperor . The origins of this Neo-Confucianist movement date to Mitsukuni's decision to establish a historiographical organization known as the Shōkōkan in 1657. Mitsukuni recruited educated scholars to the Shōkōkan to study

240-656: A consensus from the daimyōs on how to solve the Western problem. The daimyōs failed to reach a consensus on either fighting the United States or agreeing to trade, so Abe had no other option but to agree to the United States' demands in the Convention of Kanagawa . The inability of the shogunate to defend Japan from the West immediately undermined the people's confidence in the bakufu. Consequently, Abe resigned after

300-495: A nationalist, pro-royal ideology which influenced many of the leading anti-bakufu revolutionaries. While the Mito scholars never actually called for the overthrow of the bakufu, their emphasis on internal and external threats to Japan impacted the political views of the revolutionaries. The Mito school of thought had a profound impact on many individuals because the Mito domain had a tradition of intellectualism which lent legitimacy to

360-426: Is believed that the significant portions of the text were probably drafted in the autumn of 1339, around the time Emperor Go-Daigo died and his successor Go-Murakami was enthroned. Current scholars accept that the original text is missing and that all extant versions of the text thus are manuscript versions that differ slightly from the original. A sense of immediacy seems to inform the writing, and this may be due to

420-549: Is described, together with personal observations by Chikafusa based on his own political and ethical beliefs. The chronicles thus serve as a context for Chikafusa to expound his views about appropriate conduct for Japanese sovereigns, and thereby attempt to justify the legitimacy of the Southern Court . The book greatly encouraged the faction supporting the Southern Court during the Nanboku-chō period. Chikafusa's work

480-401: Is the divine land. The heavenly progenitor founded it, and the sun goddess bequeathed it to her descendants to rule eternally. Only in our country is this true; there are no similar examples in other countries. This is why our country is called the divine land. Chikafusa had been a careful student of the book Nihon Shoki (日本書紀, "The Chronicles of Japan" ), and this background is reflected in

540-595: The Dai Nihon-shi (A History of Great Japan) established the domain's tradition of intellectualism. Later, Mito scholars and their ideology influenced many of the revolutionaries involved in the Meiji Restoration . Following the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu appointed his eleventh son, Tokugawa Yorifusa, as daimyō in 1608. With his appointment, Yorifusa became

600-484: The Dai Nihon-shi , the Mito domain experienced agricultural and economic problems. Beginning as early as 1688, financial ruin plagued Mito and discontent grew in the domain. In addition to the financial issues, famines and natural disasters were common occurrences. In 1709, dissatisfied peasants staged the largest rebellion in the history of the domain. An increasing number of discontent citizens in Mito embraced

660-530: The Northern Court . This disdain came not only because they were warriors rather than nobles, who were clumsy and uncouth at court, but because they were of a less distinguished branch of the famous Minamoto clan than Kitabatake's own Murakami branch. In particular, he disliked Ashikaga Takauji , the first Ashikaga shogun, who had originally supported Go-Daigo's claim to the Throne, but who ultimately headed

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720-468: The Taihō Era , in 702, before the rise of feudalism and military rule. He recognized that certain privileges gained by the bushi (great warrior families) and kuge (court nobility) in that time would not be relinquished, but he did seek to abolish the systems of land tenure and tax collection that supported the power of the bushi . Kitabatake viewed the bushi , and by extension the bakufu ( shogunate ),

780-401: The bakufu in battle. The Tengu band, led by Fujita Koshirō , included thousands of troops from Mito who defeated the troops of several other domains. Later, a major battle occurred where a thousand of the rebels surrendered with the promise of mercy from the conservatives. Ironically, the opposition was led by Hitotsubashi Keiki. The conservatives, however, lied and executed the leaders of

840-464: The daimyō of Mito in 1829, and he developed into an important figure in the nationalist movement in Japan during the 1850s and 1860s. Nariaki was one of the most radical defenders of Japan's seclusion from the West . Starting in 1830, Nariaki vocally supported the ideas of the Mito school by championing sonnō jōi and demanding that the shogunate honor the emperor by fulfilling its duties. Traditionally

900-501: The "Annals" and one hundred and seventy chapters of "Biographies" by the time of his death in 1700. In 1720, the Mito scholars finished the "Annals" and "Biographies" and offered them to the bakufu. These events signalled the end of the early Mito school. For the next seven decades, the Shōkōkan made very little progress with the Dai Nihon-shi without the guidance of Mitsukuni. in 1786, Tachihara Suiken took over leadership of

960-505: The 19th century leading up to the Meiji Restoration -1869. Mito thought stressed other ideas concerning the role of morality in Tokugawa Japan. Fujita, a prominent scholar, argued that Japanese civilization would end as a result of internal problems rather than external threats. Other writers of the late Mito school such as Fujita Toko and Seishisai also agreed that lack of moral leadership would weaken Japan from within and expose

1020-587: The Emperor and Expel the Barbarians". The scholar Aizawa Seishisai was the first advocate of this philosophy in Japan. In 1825, he wrote New Proposals , which presented his ideas about the need to protect Japan from the Western 'barbarians'. He promoted nativism and opposition to Western force, trade, and belief systems. He was particularly a fierce opponent of Christianity, which in his view undermined Japanese values. Seishisai likewise advocated support of

1080-531: The Mito branch of the Tokugawa clan controlled the domain until the abolition of the han system in 1871. During the Edo period, Mito represented the center of nativism largely as a result of the Mitogaku , an influential school of Japanese thought, which advanced the political philosophy of sonnō jōi ("revere the emperor, expel the barbarians") that had become a popular sentiment after 1854. Mito's sponsorship of

1140-497: The Mito loyalist's belief that they had to revere the emperor and confront the 'barbarian' West. The death of Shōgun Tokugawa Iesada in 1858 led to a power struggle over the succession of the shōgun. At the same time, various factions were debating the foreign policy issue, and the stability of the Tokugawa shogunate was compromised. There were two potential shōgun, and one of them was Hitotsubashi Keiki , Nariaki's son. To solve

1200-564: The Northern Court and sought to destroy all who supported the Emperor's Southern Court. Kitabatake also wrote of Nitta Yoshisada , one of the greatest military supporters of Go-Daigo, in a bad light. He saw Nitta as a warrior, little different from the Shoguns, but also accused him of never being available when the Emperor called upon him. Had Nitta been more available in the south of the country, instead of fighting his own battles in

1260-448: The Shōkōkan and resumed work on the compilation. Fujita Yūkoku became the head of the institute after Tachihara, and he pushed for more focus on the history of that period. During the late 18th century, two factions within the Shōkōkan emerged. Fujita and the other opponents of Tachihara called for the removal of Asaka Tanpaku 's "Appraisals" as well as the changing of the name Dai Nihon-shi to "Nihon" or "Yamato". The struggle between

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1320-471: The Southern Court's legitimacy. It was largely written on the road, and recompiled and edited in 1343. One of the issues it addressed was the chaotic and unbalanced distribution of land, which he blamed on the government. But he also blamed the government officials and feudal lords who claimed the land. He wrote that seeking rewards was not part of proper behavior, and that it was a warrior's place to give up land and even his life for duty. He also claimed that

1380-472: The anti-foreign views of the scholars. During the 1840s, Nariaki's support of these views allowed for an entire generation to grow up with these ideas. Maki Izumi , a leading revolutionary, admitted to being strongly affected by Mito beliefs. The Mitogaku played a major role in inspiring the anti-bakufu elements in Japan to unite and lead the Meiji Restoration. Mito radicals initiated many of

1440-603: The assassination, the shogunate pacified the radicals by changing shogunal policies in the Bunkyū Reforms and naming Hitotsubashi Keiki as guardian of the shōgun. Throughout the decades leading up to the Meiji Restoration, the Mito daimyō as well as the Mito scholars undermined the bakufu through their calls for reform and their direct action. Tokugawa Nariaki repeatedly criticized the shogunate for their moral decay and inability to protect Japan from financial ruin or foreign invasion. The Mito school of thought likewise provided

1500-423: The chaos of feudalism was derived, ultimately, from an unlimited number of people claiming a limited amount of land. Kitabatake's other major work, Shokugen-shō , was also written in 1339, largely from memory, as the author, under siege in his home province, was unable to perform research at Court. It described the origins and organization of governmental offices and structures, as well as the author's opinions on

1560-416: The country and instead had focused on the interests of the bakufu. He stated that the shōgun should strengthen Japan's defenses and initiate necessary reforms in order to create a strong, prosperous Japan. Ultimately, Nariaki's determination and criticism of the shogunate caused him to become popular among segments of the population. While Nariaki was very critical of the shogunate, he still acknowledged that

1620-446: The country to the invasion of Westerners. Many of the Mito scholars worried about economic collapse, and Fujita especially recognized that many financial troubles in Mito were present throughout Japan. Basing his argument on Neo-Confucianism, Fujita reasoned that the emperor grants power to the shōgun to confront domestic and foreign dangers. Fujita and the other Mito scholars decided that the shogunate had not upheld its duty to preserve

1680-478: The course of the centuries. Chikafusa's work manages to inspire; and because it does, the book effectively mirrors the serial responses of readers and thinkers throughout the periods in which it has been studied and pondered. Alternately, the work's value may have accrued because a gifted, original and mature mind "made its way onto the level of secular historical explanation". Kitabatake Chikafusa Kitabatake Chikafusa ( 北畠 親房 , March 8, 1293 – June 1, 1354)

1740-433: The defense or economic prosperity of Japan. Fujita suggested that the bakufu should push for reforms, and the daimyōs should implement the reforms. Fujita's ideas represented radical challenges to the bakufu system because he was arguing that the bakufu had failed to address important issues. Fujita concluded that the shogunate had caused the domains to become economically and militarily weak. Tokugawa Nariaki became

1800-459: The development of the Kō Koku Shi Kan (皇国史観), a view of history in which Japan is regarded as a divine nation governed by emperors in a single family line from its beginning. These concepts became even more important in the national ideology under Japanese militarism during World War II. Today, Jinnō Shōtōki stands on its own literary and historical merits. It has taken on added value over

1860-559: The emperor as a method of confronting the Western threat from abroad. In the work, Seishisai also advanced the idea of kokutai ("national essence") which combined Confucian morals, Shinto myths, and other philosophies. According to Seishisai, the Japanese imperial family were direct descendants of Amaterasu , the Sun Goddess, so Japan was supposed to establish the proper standard for other nations to emulate. New Proposals served as an inspiration for Japanese nationalists throughout

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1920-412: The emperor delegated power to the shōgun. Nariaki only wanted the shogunate to change its policies, and he did not openly support the overthrow of the bakufu. He believed that the political philosophy of sonnō jōi would benefit Japan, the shogunate, the emperor, and the people. Along with many Mito scholars, Nariaki grew increasingly concerned with the monetary problems in Mito. In Nariaki's view, Japan

1980-500: The event, and Hotta Masayoshi replaced him. In 1858, Hotta met with Emperor Kōmei and submitted the Harris Treaty , which allowed for Westerners to trade in Japan and granted them extraterritoriality . The emperor refused to support the treaty, and the anti-foreign movement in Mito and other domains saw the event as an opportunity to unite behind the emperor. Hotta's failure to obtain the emperor's support further reinforced

2040-550: The events of the 1830s, the shogunate agreed with Nariaki's calls for reform. Despite this agreement, however, the shogunate forced Nariaki into early retirement. This action angered Nariaki's supporters in Mito as well as other daimyōs who agreed with Nariaki's beliefs. Later, Rōjū Abe Masahiro brought Nariaki out of retirement to be an adviser on foreign policy because he respected Nariaki's experience and views. Additionally, Nariaki's warnings about Western involvement in Japanese affairs also led Abe to conclude that Nariaki

2100-460: The founding member of the Mito branch of the Tokugawa clan. Along with the Tokugawa branches in Kii and Owari, the Mito branch represented one of three Tokugawa houses known as the gosanke . Although the Mito branch held less land and wealth than either of the other two branches, they maintained considerable influence throughout the Edo period. The domain's promiximity to the de facto capital in Edo

2160-430: The history and philosophy of Japan. Mitsukuni initiated the creation of the Dai Nihon-shi by the scholars in order to compile a history of Japan which would focus on the imperial line. Each chapter of the "Annals" in the Dai Nihon-shi concentrated on the rule of a specific emperor. The project took more than two hundred and fifty years to finish, and it was officially published in 1906. While scholars were compiling

2220-404: The insurrection. The Tengu insurrection was an important event because it represented the growing discontent with the bakufu in the years immediately leading up to the Meiji Restoration. Mito forces were involved in many of the early uprisings before the successful Restoration. While Mito did not have a major role in the fighting like Satsuma and Chōshū , the Mito ideology did however influence

2280-596: The legitimacy of the Northern Court. Tokugawa Mitsukuni , the Edo-period daimyō of the Mito Domain , valued Chikafusa's work highly, a view which he expressed in the Japanese chronicle Dai Nihonshi (大日本史): "History of Great Japan" . Mitsukuni's patronage ensured that the perspectives and ideology of Jinnō Shōtōki were propounded at the Mito Academy (水戸学). These pre-Meiji influences contributed to

2340-463: The military government, as enemies of the throne . In 1339, he wrote Jinnō Shōtōki , a chronicle which relates the history of Japan through analysis of the Imperial reigns, from the earliest legendary semi-mythical emperors down to Daigō II (Emperor Go-Daigo) and his successor Murakami II (Emperor Go-Murakami). It was intended largely as a guide to the young Murakami, and as a treatise defending

2400-405: The narrative having a specific, more narrowly focused purpose—to instruct the young Emperor Go-Murakami (r. 1339-1368). A curious sentence on the last page of the work, "This book is directed to some child", has been interpreted as a dedication to either Go-Murakami or Yuki Chikatomo . In Jinnō Shōtōki , the reign of each emperor from the mythological period to the enthronement of Go-Murakami

2460-624: The narrative structure of his Jinnō Shōtōki . He was also well acquainted with Watarai Ieyuki (度会家行), a prominent Shinto priest at the Ise Shrine . Watarai's life of study significantly clarified the theory of Ise Shinto , and this point-of-view is reflected in the tone of Jinnō Shōtōki. The work as a whole was written in the years 1338–1341 at Oda fortress in Hitachi Province , Japan (present-day Tsukuba City, Ibaraki Prefecture ) and then amended in 1343 at Seki fortress. It

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2520-403: The north, Kitabatake claims, Nitta could have prevented the death of his son Akiie . When Go-Daigo died in 1339, Kitabatake was under siege in his stronghold in Hitachi Province . He sent copies of his major works to the new emperor, twelve-year-old Emperor Go-Murakami , advising him and his advisors. Though he is most well known for his writings and his role as Imperial advisor, Kitabatake

2580-503: The problem, the fudai daimyōs put Ii Naosuke in charge as great councilor ( Tairō ) of the shogunate. Ii decided to punish supporters of Nariaki in order to re-establish the power of the shogunate. While Ii was temporarily successful in maintaining order, his purge of Nariaki supporters in the domains and the court, the Ansei Purge , drove young Mito radicals to assassinate him in 1860 ( Sakuradamon Incident ). In response to

2640-445: The promotion and appointment of officials. Kitabatake is considered one of the greatest men of his time, along with his rival Ashikaga Takauji . Though his works are heavily colored by his personal bias and political motives, they are some of the most detailed accounts available on the history of Japan's feudal government and Imperial line. Mito Domain In the han system , Mito

2700-465: The shogunate signed a treaty allowing the "barbarians" access to the country of Japan for the purpose of trade. Of course it would be the duty of the Shōgun to expel the "barbarians" from the country on behalf of the emperor. Nariaki believed that Japan's inability to confront foreign and domestic problems was due to the shogunate's mismanagement and selfishness. In his mind, the shogunate had failed to protect

2760-467: The shōgun to provide guidance. The policies of the shogunate, however, continued to provide a barrier to reform in the domains. A few years later in 1836, a nationwide famine occurred, and uprisings spread across Japan as Nariaki had predicted. In 1840, the Opium War began between China and Britain, and Nariaki's predictions about Western interference also appeared to be a legitimate concern. After

2820-502: The subject of land ownership. In one document he denounces the Provincial Shugo and Jitō (Constables and Stewards) as land-hungry, and writes that the creation of this system in 1190 altered the traditional state of the country, and caused it to lose the art of government. Though the full details of his ideas for reform are unknown, it is likely that Kitabatake sought a return to the governmental structures set down during

2880-569: The term Shōgun means "Barbarian exterminating Lord"(this term goes back to the Heian Era, if not before then). Westerners had been termed "barbarians" by the Japanese since their arrival in the 16th century. The first Tokugawa Shōgun, Tokugawa Ieyasu, expelled all foreign powers from Japan and closed it off from the rest of the world. The Dutch were allowed one trading port at Nagasaki which was under strict regulation. Aside from this one small Dutch trading port, Japan remained closed off until 1854 when

2940-409: The two factions eventually led to the house arrest of Fujita in 1797. By 1807, Fujita was once again in power and Tachihara had left the institute. As Mito thought developed during the 19th century, the scholars began to emphasize anti-Western sentiment and the importance of the emperor in Japanese society. In particular, Mito scholars embraced the political slogan " sonnō jōi " which means "Revere

3000-471: The violent acts which led to the overthrow of the bakufu as well. Starting with the assassination of Ii Naosuke, nationalist terrorism spread in Japan. In Mito, anti-foreign loyalists staged a rebellion, which involved the son of Fujita Toko. The bakufu and domain military forces joined together in order to crush the uprising, and the loyalist movement temporarily lost momentum. In 1864, the " Tengu insurrection " occurred in which armed Mito rebels confronted

3060-411: The works of the early Mito scholars for their reverence of the emperor and their anti-foreign ideology. These works inspired waves of nationalism and loyalty to the imperial family during the 17th century. During these disorderly years, the Mito scholarship grew into a renowned school of thought in Japan. Under Mitsukuni's leadership, the Dai Nihon-shi significantly expanded to seventy-three chapters of

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3120-404: Was a political and economic abstraction based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields. In other words, the domain was defined in terms of kokudaka , not land area. This was different from the feudalism of the West. The domain's capital was the city of Mito . Beginning with the appointment of Tokugawa Yorifusa by his father, Shōgun Tokugawa Ieyasu , in 1608,

3180-492: Was a Japanese court noble and writer of the 14th century who supported the Southern Court in the Nanboku-cho period, serving as advisor to five Emperors . Some of his greatest and most famous work was performed during the reign of Emperor Go-Daigo , under whom he proposed a series of reforms, amounting to a revival or restoration of political and economic systems of several centuries earlier. In addition to authoring

3240-400: Was a contributing factor to this power as well as the fact that many people unofficially considered the Mito daimyō to be "vice-shōgun". Tokugawa Mitsukuni , the third son of Tokugawa Yorifusa, became the second daimyō of Mito in 1661. Mitsukuni further established Mito's status as a respected han by sponsoring the Dai Nihon-shi in 1657. The endeavor would launch Mito's reputation as

3300-433: Was all the more important because of the relative weakness of the Southern Court in its extended military campaign against the Northern Court armies. The book was early recognized as a compelling and subtle analysis of the history of Japan and its emperors. From the very beginning, it was read not only by adherents of the Southern Court, but also by supporters of the Northern Court. However, its criticism of Ashikaga Takauji

3360-433: Was also a competent commander in battle, and held off the superior forces of the shogunate on many occasions. The siege of Hitachi lasted four years, and though his fortress ultimately fell to the supporters of the shogunate, Kitabatake escaped to Yoshino , the capital of the Southern Court, where he advised the Emperor until his own death in 1354. In his writings on the legitimate imperial lineage, Kitabatake delved into

3420-478: Was demonstrably ideal, and that it is both appropriate and beneficial for the emperor and court nobles to rule and for the samurai and others to be led by them. After the Northern and Southern courts were reunited, a curious, self-styled "sequel" to Jinnō Shōtōki was circulated. The book, written by Ozuki Harutomi (小槻晴富), was created under the influence of the Ashikaga shogunate for the purpose of justifying

3480-456: Was experiencing a financial crisis as samurai and peasants suffered under the economic conditions. Drawing on his Confucian beliefs, Nariaki believed that Japan needed a revival of morality in order to combat weakness. He feared that the country may be plunged into chaos if famine or Western imperialism threatened the nation. In response, he called for the shogunate to rebuild the military and economy of Japan (leading to Fukoku kyōhei ) and for

3540-548: Was knowledgeable about the issue. Throughout the 1840s, the Western nations applied increasing pressure on Japan to open its market to Western goods. Western pressure on Japan culminated in 1853, with the arrival of Commodore Matthew Perry and the Black Ships , which presented a significant challenge to Japanese isolationism. Perry demanded the opening of Japanese ports for trade with the United States . Abe sought

3600-466: Was not well received in Northern Court circles, and that section of the original text was omitted in manuscript copies which circulated outside the ambit of the Southern Court. Chikafusa argued that possessing the Imperial Regalia of Japan is an absolute and indispensable condition for being recognized as a Japanese monarch. Chikafusa contended that much about the Japanese form of government

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