101-422: In Norse mythology , Ragnarök ( / ˈ r æ ɡ n ə r ɒ k / RAG -nə-rok or / ˈ r ɑː ɡ -/ RAHG - ; Old Norse : Ragnarǫk [ˈrɑɣnɑˌrɒk] ) is a foretold series of impending events, including a great battle in which numerous great Norse mythological figures will perish (including the gods Odin , Thor , Týr , Freyr , Heimdall , and Loki ); it will entail
202-458: A shepherd who lives inside a tree, whose descendants repopulate the land after life there has been wiped out by plague (citing a retelling by F. R. Schröder). In addition, Simek points to an Old Norse parallel in the figure of Örvar-Oddr , "who is rejuvenated after living as a tree-man ( Ǫrvar-Odds saga 24–27)." Theories have been proposed about the relation between Ragnarök and the 9th-century Old High German epic poem Muspilli about
303-497: A catastrophic series of natural disasters, including the burning of the world, and culminate in the submersion of the world underwater. After these events, the world will rise again, cleansed and fertile, the surviving and returning gods will meet, and the world will be repopulated by two human survivors, Líf and Lífþrasir . Ragnarök is an important event in Norse mythology and has been the subject of scholarly discourse and theory in
404-583: A common noun, a synonym of valkyrie , while in Sigrdráfumál it is explicitly used as the name of the valkyrie whose name is given as Hildr or Brynhildr in the Prose Edda. Bellows (1936) emphasizes that sigrdrífa is an epithet of Brynhildr (and not a "second Valkyrie"). The Sigrdrífumál follows the Fáfnismál without break, and editors are not unanimous in where they set
505-785: A cosmic winter motif between the Norse Fimbulwinter , the Iranian Bundahishn and Yima . Víðarr's stride has been compared to the Vedic god Vishnu in that both have a "cosmic stride" with a special shoe used to tear apart a beastly wolf. Larger patterns have also been drawn between "final battle" events in Indo-European cultures, including the occurrence of a blind or semi-blind figure in "final battle" themes, and figures appearing suddenly with surprising skills. Hilda Ellis Davidson theorizes that
606-529: A daughter at least as beautiful as she, and this daughter will follow the same path as her mother. Vafþrúðnismál stanza 47 is quoted, and so ends the foretelling of Ragnarök in Gylfaginning . Various objects have been identified as depicting events from Ragnarök . Thorwald's Cross , a partially surviving runestone erected at Kirk Andreas on the Isle of Man , depicts a bearded human holding
707-455: A female being of the same name , may be ferried away by valkyries to Odin's martial hall Valhalla , or may be chosen by the goddess Freyja to dwell in her field Fólkvangr . The goddess Rán may claim those that die at sea, and the goddess Gefjon is said to be attended by virgins upon their death. Texts also make reference to reincarnation . Time itself is presented between cyclic and linear, and some scholars have argued that cyclic time
808-489: A few in galdralag . The end is in the lost part of the manuscript but it has been substituted from younger paper manuscripts. The Völsunga saga describes the scene and contains some of the poem. The compound sigr-drífa means "driver to victory" (or "victory-urger", "inciter to victory" ) It occurs only in Fáfnismál (stanza 44) and in stanza 4 of the Sigrdrífumál . In Fáfnismál , it could be
909-471: A figure with his foot at the mouth of a four-legged beast, and this may also be a depiction of Odin being devoured by Fenrir at Ragnarök . Below the beast and the man is a depiction of a legless, helmeted man, with his arms in a prostrate position. The Younger Futhark inscription on the stone bears a commonly seen memorial dedication, but is followed by an encoded runic sequence that has been described as "mysterious," and "an interesting magic formula which
1010-408: A poem about the finding of the runes by Odin . Stanzas 15-17 are again from an unrelated poem, but still about the topic of runes. The same holds for stanzas 18-19, which return to the mythological acquisition of the runes, and the passing of their knowledge to the æsir , elves , vanir and mortal men . Allar váro af scafnar / þer er váro a ristnar, oc hverfðar viþ inn helga mioþ oc sendar
1111-676: A quote from Völuspá to highlight that the dragon Níðhöggr harasses the corpses of the dead there. Chapter 53 begins with Gangleri asking if any of the gods will survive and if there will be anything left of the earth or the sky. High responds that the earth will appear once more from the sea, beautiful and green, where self-sown crops grow. The field Iðavöllr exists where Asgard once was, and, there, untouched by Surtr's flames, Víðarr and Váli reside. Now possessing their father's hammer Mjölnir , Thor's sons Móði and Magni will meet them there, and, coming from Hel , Baldr and Höðr also arrive. Together, they all sit and recount memories, later finding
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#17327829928021212-463: A region in the center of the cosmos. Outside of the gods, humanity, and the jötnar, these Nine Worlds are inhabited by beings, such as elves and dwarfs . Travel between the worlds is frequently recounted in the myths, where the gods and other beings may interact directly with humanity. Numerous creatures live on Yggdrasil, such as the insulting messenger squirrel Ratatoskr and the perching hawk Veðrfölnir . The tree itself has three major roots, and at
1313-605: A religious context among adherents of Germanic Neopaganism . The historical religion of the Norse people is commonly referred to as Norse mythology . Other terms are Scandinavian mythology , North Germanic mythology or Nordic mythology . Norse mythology is primarily attested in dialects of Old Norse , a North Germanic language spoken by the Scandinavian people during the European Middle Ages and
1414-553: A spear downward at a wolf, his right foot in its mouth, while a large bird sits at his shoulder. Rundata dates it to 940, while Pluskowski dates it to the 11th century. This depiction has been interpreted as Odin, with a raven or eagle at his shoulder, being consumed by Fenrir at Ragnarök . On the other side of the stone is a depiction of a large cross and another image parallel to the Odin figure that has been described as Christ triumphing over Satan. These combined elements have led to
1515-423: A viþa vega; þer 'ro meþ asom / þer 'ro meþ alfom, sumar meþ visom vanom sumar hafa mennzkir menn. Þat ero bocrunar / þat ero biargrunar oc allar alrunar oc metar meginrunar hveim er þer kná oviltar / oc ospilltar ser at heillom hafa; niottu, ef þu namt, unz riufaz regin. 18. Shaved off were the runes that of old were written, And mixed with the holy mead, And sent on ways so wide; So
1616-519: A wood or even a forest in which the two keep themselves hidden, but rather as an alternative name for the world-tree Yggdrasill . Thus, the creation of mankind from tree trunks ( Askr, Embla ) is repeated after the Ragnarök as well." Simek says that in Germanic regions , the concept of mankind originating from trees is ancient, and additionally points out legendary parallels in a Bavarian legend of
1717-504: Is Njörðr's unnamed sister (her name is unprovided in the source material). However, there is more information about his pairing with the skiing and hunting goddess Skaði . Their relationship is ill-fated, as Skaði cannot stand to be away from her beloved mountains, nor Njörðr from the seashore. Together, Freyja, Freyr, and Njörðr form a portion of gods known as the Vanir . While the Aesir and
1818-504: Is aroar, and that the Æsir are in council. The dwarfs groan by their stone doors. Surtr advances from the south, his sword brighter than the sun. Rocky cliffs open and the jötnar women sink. The gods then do battle with the invaders: Odin is swallowed whole and alive fighting the wolf Fenrir , causing his wife Frigg her second great sorrow (the first being the death of her son, the god Baldr ). Odin's son Víðarr avenges his father by rending Fenrir's jaws apart and stabbing it in
1919-477: Is built from the spines of snakes, and resembles "a house with walls woven from branches"; the heads of the snakes face the inside of the house and spew so much venom that rivers of it flow throughout the hall, in which oath breakers and murderers must wade. Third here quotes Völuspá stanzas 38 to 39, with the insertion of original prose stating that the worst place of all to be is in Hvergelmir , followed by
2020-434: Is dealing with none other than Odin, whom he refers to as "the wisest of beings," adding that Odin alone could know this. Odin's message has been interpreted as a promise of resurrection to Baldr after Ragnarök . Ragnarök is briefly referenced in stanza 40 of the poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana II . Here, the valkyrie Sigrún 's unnamed maid is passing the deceased hero Helgi Hundingsbane 's burial mound . Helgi
2121-526: Is engineered by Loki , and Baldr thereafter resides in Hel , a realm ruled over by an entity of the same name . Odin must share half of his share of the dead with a powerful goddess, Freyja . She is beautiful, sensual, wears a feathered cloak, and practices seiðr . She rides to battle to choose among the slain and brings her chosen to her afterlife field Fólkvangr . Freyja weeps for her missing husband Óðr and seeks after him in faraway lands. Freyja's brother,
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#17327829928022222-470: Is known from all over the ancient Norse world." On the early 11th-century Skarpåker Stone , from Södermanland , Sweden, a father grieving his dead son used the same verse form, fornyrðislag , as in the Poetic Edda in the following engraving: Iarð skal rifna ok upphiminn Earth shall be riven and the over-heaven. Jansson (1987) notes that at the time of the inscription, everyone who read
2323-535: Is poisoned by the serpent, and manages to walk only nine steps before falling to the earth dead. Fenrir swallows Odin, though immediately afterwards his son Víðarr kicks his foot into Fenrir's lower jaw, grips the upper jaw, and rips apart Fenrir's mouth, killing the great wolf. Loki fights Heimdallr and the two kill each other. Surtr covers the earth in fire, causing the entire world to burn. High quotes stanzas 46 to 47 of Völuspá , and additionally stanza 18 of Vafþrúðnismál (the latter relating information about
2424-615: Is the body of myths belonging to the North Germanic peoples , stemming from Old Norse religion and continuing after the Christianization of Scandinavia as the Nordic folklore of the modern period. The northernmost extension of Germanic mythology and stemming from Proto-Germanic folklore , Norse mythology consists of tales of various deities, beings, and heroes derived from numerous sources from both before and after
2525-475: Is there with a retinue of men, surprising the maid. The maid asks if she is witnessing a delusion since she sees dead men riding, or if Ragnarök has occurred. In stanza 41, Helgi responds that it is neither. Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda quotes heavily from Völuspá and elaborates extensively in prose on the information there, though some of this information conflicts with that provided in Völuspá . In
2626-408: Is unable to assist Odin because he has engaged Jörmungandr in combat. According to High, Freyr fights fiercely with Surtr, but falls because he lacks the sword he once gave to his messenger, Skírnir . The hound Garmr (described here as the "worst of monsters") breaks free from his bonds in front of Gnipahellir , and fights the god Týr, resulting in both of their deaths. Thor kills Jörmungandr but
2727-635: The Ragnarök story, even by a scholar as cautious of such interpretations as David M. Wilson . The Ragnarök battle itself may be depicted on the north side. The cross features various figures depicted in Borre style , including a man with a spear facing a monstrous head, with one foot thrust into the beast's forked tongue and on its lower jaw, and the other is against its upper jaw, a scene interpreted as Víðarr fighting Fenrir. The 11th-century Ledberg stone in Sweden , similarly to Thorwald's Cross, features
2828-419: The völva ends her account with a description of the dragon Níðhöggr , corpses in his jaws, flying through the air. The völva then "sinks down." It is unclear if stanza 66 indicates that the völva is referring to the present time or if this is an element of the post- Ragnarök world. The Vanir god Njörðr is mentioned in relation to Ragnarök in stanza 39 of the poem Vafþrúðnismál . In
2929-534: The Poetic Edda , a collection of poems from earlier traditional material anonymously compiled in the 13th century. The Prose Edda was composed as a prose manual for producing skaldic poetry—traditional Old Norse poetry composed by skalds . Originally composed and transmitted orally, skaldic poetry utilizes alliterative verse , kennings , and several metrical forms. The Prose Edda presents numerous examples of works by various skalds from before and after
3030-452: The Poetic Edda poem Völuspá , references to Ragnarök begin from stanza 40 until 58, with the rest of the poem describing the aftermath. In the poem, a völva (a female seer) recites information to Odin . In stanza 41, the völva says: Fylliz fiǫrvi feigra manna, rýðr ragna siǫt rauðom dreyra. Svǫrt verða sólskin of sumor eptir, veðr ǫll válynd. Vitoð ér enn, eða hvat? It sates itself on
3131-458: The Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , various references are made to Ragnarök . Ragnarök is first mentioned in chapter 26, where the throned figure of High , king of the hall, tells Gangleri (King Gylfi in disguise) some basic information about the goddess Iðunn , including that her apples will keep the gods young until Ragnarök . In chapter 34, High describes the binding of
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3232-555: The calque Götterdämmerung 'Twilight of the Gods' in the German reception of Norse mythology). Other terms used to refer to the events surrounding Ragnarök in the Poetic Edda include aldar rök ( aldar means age, 'end of an age') from a stanza of Vafþrúðnismál , tíva rök from two stanzas of Vafþrúðnismál , þá er regin deyja ('when the gods die') from Vafþrúðnismál , unz um rjúfask regin ('when
3333-626: The 13th century by Snorri and Gesta Danorum , composed in Latin by Saxo Grammaticus in Denmark in the 12th century, are the results of heavy amounts of euhemerization. Numerous additional texts, such as the sagas , provide further information. The saga corpus consists of thousands of tales recorded in Old Norse ranging from Icelandic family histories ( Sagas of Icelanders ) to Migration period tales mentioning historic figures such as Attila
3434-518: The Christian Last Judgment , where the word Muspille appears, and the 9th-century Old Saxon epic poem Heliand about the life of Christ , where various other forms of the word appear. In both sources, the word is used to signify the end of the world through fire. Old Norse forms of the term also appear throughout accounts of Ragnarök , where the world is also consumed in flames, and, though various theories exist about
3535-695: The Christianization process and also frequently refers back to the poems found in the Poetic Edda . The Poetic Edda consists almost entirely of poems, with some prose narrative added, and this poetry— Eddic poetry—utilizes fewer kennings . In comparison to skaldic poetry, Eddic poetry is relatively unadorned. The Prose Edda features layers of euhemerization , a process in which deities and supernatural beings are presented as having been either actual, magic-wielding human beings who have been deified in time or beings demonized by way of Christian mythology . Texts such as Heimskringla , composed in
3636-562: The Hun ( legendary sagas ). Objects and monuments such as the Rök runestone and the Kvinneby amulet feature runic inscriptions —texts written in the runic alphabet , the indigenous alphabet of the Germanic peoples —that mention figures and events from Norse mythology. Objects from the archaeological record may also be interpreted as depictions of subjects from Norse mythology, such as amulets of
3737-656: The Norwegian woman Ragnhild Tregagås —convicted of witchcraft in Norway in the 14th century—and spells found in the 17th century Icelandic Galdrabók grimoire also sometimes make references to Norse mythology. Other traces, such as place names bearing the names of gods may provide further information about deities, such as a potential association between deities based on the placement of locations bearing their names, their local popularity, and associations with geological features. Central to accounts of Norse mythology are
3838-546: The Vanir retain distinct identification, they came together as the result of the Aesir–Vanir War . While they receive less mention, numerous other gods and goddesses appear in the source material. (For a list of these deities, see List of Germanic deities .) Some of the gods heard less of include the apple-bearing goddess Iðunn and her husband, the skaldic god Bragi ; the gold-toothed god Heimdallr , born of nine mothers ;
3939-599: The ancestor of modern Scandinavian languages . The majority of these Old Norse texts were created in Iceland , where the oral tradition stemming from the pre-Christian inhabitants of the island was collected and recorded in manuscripts. This occurred primarily in the 13th century. These texts include the Prose Edda , composed in the 13th century by the Icelandic scholar, lawspeaker , and historian Snorri Sturluson , and
4040-717: The ancient god Týr , who lost his right hand while binding the great wolf Fenrir ; and the goddess Gefjon , who formed modern-day Zealand , Denmark . Various beings outside of the gods are mentioned. Elves and dwarfs are commonly mentioned and appear to be connected, but their attributes are vague and the relation between the two is ambiguous. Elves are described as radiant and beautiful, whereas dwarfs often act as earthen smiths. A group of beings variously described as jötnar , thursar , and trolls (in English these are all often glossed as " giants ") frequently appear. These beings may either aid, deter, or take their place among
4141-578: The base of one of these roots live the Norns , female entities associated with fate. Elements of the cosmos are personified, such as the Sun ( Sól , a goddess), the Moon ( Máni , a god), and Earth ( Jörð , a goddess), as well as units of time, such as day ( Dagr , a god) and night ( Nótt , a jötunn). The afterlife is a complex matter in Norse mythology. The dead may go to the murky realm of Hel —a realm ruled over by
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4242-1157: The basis of much of the third act in Richard Wagner 's opera Siegfried . This fragment is one of the few direct invocations of the Norse gods which have been preserved, and it is sometimes dubbed a "pagan prayer". The first two stanzas are given below in close transcription (Bugge 1867), in normalized Old Norse (Finnur Jónsson 1932) and in the translations by Thorpe (1866) and of Bellows (1936): Heill dagr heilir dags syn ir heil not t oc nipt oreiþo m ꜹgo m litiþ ocr þinig oc gefit sitiondo m sigr Heilir ęs ir heilar asynior heil sia in fiolnyta fold mal oc manvit gefit ocr męrom tveim oc lęcnishendr meþ an lifo m (ed. Bugge 1867) Hęill dagr, hęilir dags synir, hęil nótt ok nipt; óręiðum augum lítið okr þinig ok gefið sitjǫndum sigr. Hęilir æsir, hęilar ǫ́synjur, hęil sjá hin fjǫlnýta fold, mál ok manvit gefið okr mærum tvęim ok læknishęndr, meðan lifum. (ed. Finnur Jónsson 1932) Hail Dag, Hail Dag's sons, Hail Nat and Nipt! Look down upon us With benevolent eyes And give victory to
4343-527: The battlefield Vígríðr). At the beginning of chapter 52, Gangleri asks "what will be after heaven and earth and the whole world are burned? All the gods will be dead, together with the Einherjar and the whole of mankind. Didn't you say earlier that each person will live in some world throughout all ages?" The figure of Third, seated on the highest throne in the hall, responds that there will be many good places to live, but also many bad ones. Third states that
4444-530: The best place to be is Gimlé in the heavens, where a place exists called Okolnir that houses a hall called Brimir —where one can find plenty to drink. Third describes a hall made of red gold located in Niðafjöll called Sindri , where "good and virtuous men will live." Third further relates an unnamed hall in Náströnd , the beaches of the dead, that he describes as a large repugnant hall facing north that
4545-471: The bridge will then break. The sons of Muspell (and their shining battle troop) advance to the field of Vígríðr , described as an expanse that reaches "a hundred leagues in each direction," where Fenrir, Jörmungandr, Loki (followed by "Hel's own"), and Hrym (accompanied by all frost jötnar ) join them. While this occurs, Heimdallr stands and blows the Gjallarhorn with all his might. The gods awaken at
4646-490: The cosmological tree Yggdrasil to gain knowledge of the runic alphabet, which he passed on to humanity, and is associated closely with death, wisdom, and poetry. Odin is portrayed as the ruler of Asgard , and leader of the Aesir . Odin's wife is the powerful goddess Frigg who can see the future but tells no one, and together they have a beloved son, Baldr . After a series of dreams had by Baldr of his impending death, his death
4747-569: The cross as being described as " syncretic art ," a mixture of pagan and Christian beliefs. The Gosforth Cross (920–950), in Cumbria , England, is a standing cross of a typical Anglo-Saxon form, carved on all sides of the long shaft, which is nearly square in section. Apart from panels of ornament, the scenes include a Christian crucifixion , and possibly another scene in Hell, but the other scenes are generally interpreted as narrative incidents from
4848-409: The early 20th century, philologist Geir Zoëga treats the two forms as two separate compounds, glossing ragnarök as 'the doom or destruction of the gods' and ragnarøkkr as 'the twilight of the gods.' The plural noun rök has several meanings, including 'development', 'origin', 'cause', 'relation', 'fate.' The word ragnarök as a whole is then usually interpreted as the 'final destiny of
4949-709: The earth will move, men will be scoured by hot water and burned by fire"). Surtr's fire receives a mention in stanza 10. John Lindow says that the poem may describe "a mix of the destruction of the race of giants and of humans, as in Ragnarök " but that "many of the predictions of disruption on earth could also fit the volcanic activity that is so common in Iceland." The events of Ragnarok are dramatized, albeit briefly, in Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale "The Marsh King's Daughter". Norse mythology Norse , Nordic , or Scandinavian mythology ,
5050-409: The east, his shield before him. The Midgard serpent Jörmungandr furiously writhes, causing waves to crash. "The eagle shrieks, pale-beaked he tears the corpse," and the ship Naglfar breaks free thanks to the waves made by Jormungandr and sets sail from the east. The fire jötnar inhabitants of Muspelheim come forth. The völva continues that Jötunheimr , the land of the jötnar ,
5151-540: The edition of Jonsson 1905). What is labelled as stanza 4 by Bellows (1936) is actually placed right after stanza 2, introduced only by Hon qvaþ ("she said"), marking it as the reply of the valkyrie to Sigmund's identification of himself in the second half of stanza 1. The following two stanzas are introduced as follows: Henry Adams Bellows stated in his commentary that stanzas 2-4 are "as fine as anything in Old Norse poetry " and these three stanzas constituted
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#17327829928025252-413: The events in Völuspá occurring after the death of the gods (the sun turning black, steam rising, flames touching the heavens, etc.) may be inspired by the volcanic eruptions on Iceland. Records of eruptions in Iceland bear strong similarities to the sequence of events described in Völuspá , especially the eruption at Laki that occurred in 1783. Bertha Phillpotts theorizes that the figure of Surtr
5353-399: The events of Ragnarök when an immense battle occurs between the gods and their enemies, and the world is enveloped in flames, only to be reborn anew. There the surviving gods will meet, and the land will be fertile and green, and two humans will repopulate the world. Norse mythology has been the subject of scholarly discourse since the 17th century when key texts attracted the attention of
5454-483: The first sign of Ragnarök will be Fimbulwinter , during which time three winters will arrive without a summer, and the sun will be useless. High details that, before these winters, three earlier winters will have occurred, marked with great battles throughout the world. During this time, greed will cause brothers to kill brothers, and fathers and sons will suffer from the collapse of kinship bonds. High then quotes stanza 45 of Völuspá . Next, High describes that
5555-456: The forest Gálgviðr . The golden rooster Gullinkambi crows to the Æsir in Valhalla , and the third, unnamed soot-red rooster crows in the halls of the underworld location of Hel in stanza 43. After these stanzas, the völva further relates that the hound Garmr produces deep howls in front of the cave of Gnipahellir . Garmr's bindings break and he runs free. The völva describes
5656-499: The forest of Hoddmímis holt , that they will consume the morning dew, and will produce generations of offspring. In stanza 46, Odin asks what sun will come into the sky after Fenrir has consumed the sun that exists. Vafþrúðnir responds that Sól will bear a daughter before Fenrir assails her and that after Ragnarök this daughter will continue her mother's path. In stanza 51, Vafþrúðnir states that, after Surtr's flames have been sated, Odin's sons Víðarr and Váli will live in
5757-535: The form of three gifts. After the cataclysm of Ragnarok, this process is mirrored in the survival of two humans from a wood; Líf and Lífþrasir . From these two humankind is foretold to repopulate the new and green earth. Sigrdr%C3%ADfum%C3%A1l Sigrdrífumál (also known as Brynhildarljóð ) is the conventional title given to a section of the Poetic Edda text in Codex Regius . It follows Fáfnismál without interruption, and it relates
5858-486: The god Freyr , is also frequently mentioned in surviving texts, and in his association with the weather, royalty, human sexuality, and agriculture brings peace and pleasure to humanity. Deeply lovesick after catching sight of the beautiful jötunn Gerðr , Freyr seeks and wins her love, yet at the price of his future doom. Their father is the powerful god Njörðr . Njörðr is strongly associated with ships and seafaring, and so also wealth and prosperity. Freyja and Freyr's mother
5959-503: The god Thor's hammer Mjölnir found among pagan burials and small silver female figures interpreted as valkyries or dísir , beings associated with war, fate or ancestor cults. By way of historical linguistics and comparative mythology , comparisons to other attested branches of Germanic mythology (such as the Old High German Merseburg Incantations ) may also lend insight. Wider comparisons to
6060-488: The gods had them, so the elves got them, And some for the Wanes so wise, And some for mortal men. 19. Beech-runes are there, birth-runes are there, And all the runes of ale. (And the magic runes of might;) Who knows them rightly and reads them true, Has them himself to help; (Ever they aid, till the gods are gone.) Stanzas 20-21 are again in the setting of the frame narrative, with Brynhild asking Sigurd to make
6161-474: The gods will be destroyed') from Vafþrúðnismál , Lokasenna , and Sigrdrífumál , aldar rof ('destruction of the age') from Helgakviða Hundingsbana II , regin þrjóta ('end of the gods') from Hyndluljóð , and, in the Prose Edda , þá er Muspellz-synir herja ('when the sons of Muspell move into battle') can be found in chapters 18 and 36 of Gylfaginning . The Poetic Edda contains various references to Ragnarök : In
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#17327829928026262-459: The gods. The Norns , dísir , and aforementioned valkyries also receive frequent mention. While their functions and roles may overlap and differ, all are collective female beings associated with fate. In Norse cosmology , all beings live in Nine Worlds that center around the cosmological tree Yggdrasil . The gods inhabit the heavenly realm of Asgard whereas humanity inhabits Midgard ,
6363-411: The gods. The cosmos in Norse mythology consists of Nine Worlds that flank a central sacred tree , Yggdrasil . Units of time and elements of the cosmology are personified as deities or beings. Various forms of a creation myth are recounted, where the world is created from the flesh of the primordial being Ymir , and the first two humans are Ask and Embla . These worlds are foretold to be reborn after
6464-583: The gods.' The singular form ragnarøk(k)r is found in a stanza of the Poetic Edda poem Lokasenna , and in the Prose Edda . The noun røk(k)r means 'twilight' (from the verb røkkva 'to grow dark'), suggesting a translation 'twilight of the gods.' This reading was widely considered a result of folk etymology , or a learned reinterpretation of the original term due to the merger of / ɔ / (spelled ǫ) and / ø / (spelled ø) in Old Icelandic after c. 1200 (nevertheless giving rise to
6565-415: The gold game pieces the Æsir once owned. Völuspá stanza 51 is then quoted. High reveals that two humans, Líf and Lífþrasir , will have also survived the destruction by hiding in the wood Hoddmímis holt . These two survivors consume the morning dew for sustenance, and from their descendants, the world will be repopulated. Vafþrúðnismál stanza 45 is then quoted. The personified sun, Sól, will have
6666-404: The golden game pieces that the gods are described as having once happily enjoyed playing games with long ago (attested earlier in the same poem). The reemerged fields grow without needing to be sown. The gods Höðr and Baldr return from Hel and live happily together. The völva says that the god Hœnir chooses wooden slips for divination and that the sons of two brothers will widely inhabit
6767-471: The great serpent Jörmungandr , also described as a child of Loki in the same source, will breach land as the sea violently swells onto it. The ship Naglfar, described in the Prose Edda as being made from the human nails of the dead, is released from its mooring and sets sail on the surging sea, steered by a jötunn named Hrym . At the same time, Fenrir, eyes and nostrils spraying flames, charges forward with his mouth wide open, his upper jaw reaching to
6868-509: The heart with his spear, thus killing the wolf. The serpent Jörmungandr opens its gaping maw, yawning widely in the air, and is met in combat by Thor . Thor, also a son of Odin and described here as protector of the earth, furiously fights the serpent, defeating it, but Thor is only able to take nine steps afterwards before collapsing dead from the Serpent's venom. The god Freyr fights Surtr and loses. After this, people flee their homes, and
6969-421: The heavens, and his lower jaw touching the earth. At Fenrir's side, Jörmungandr sprays venom throughout the air and the sea. During all of this, the sky splits into two. From the split, the "sons of Muspell " ride forth. Surtr rides first, surrounded by flames, his sword brighter than the sun. High says that "Muspell's sons" will ride across Bifröst , described in Gylfaginning as a rainbow bridge, and that
7070-512: The history of Germanic studies . The event is attested primarily in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . In the Prose Edda and in a single poem in the Poetic Edda , the event is referred to as Ragnarøkkr ( Old Norse for 'Twilight of the Gods';), a usage popularised by 19th-century composer Richard Wagner with
7171-512: The intellectual circles of Europe. By way of comparative mythology and historical linguistics , scholars have identified elements of Germanic mythology reaching as far back as Proto-Indo-European mythology . During the modern period, the Romanticist Viking revival re-awoke an interest in the subject matter, and references to Norse mythology may now be found throughout modern popular culture . The myths have further been revived in
7272-465: The life-blood of fated men, paints red the powers' homes with crimson gore. Black become the sun's beams in the summers that follow, weathers all treacherous. Do you still seek to know? And what? The völva then describes three roosters crowing: In stanza 42, the jötunn herdsman Eggthér sits on a mound and cheerfully plays his harp while the crimson rooster Fjalar ( Old Norse "hider, deceiver") crows in
7373-460: The lines would have thought of Ragnarök and the allusion that the father found fitting as an expression of his grief. Rudolf Simek theorizes that the survival of Líf and Lífþrasir at the end of Ragnarök is "a case of reduplication of the anthropogeny , understandable from the cyclic nature of the Eddic eschatology ." Simek says that Hoddmímis holt "should not be understood literally as
7474-513: The meaning and origins of the term, its etymology has not been solved. Parallels have been pointed out between the Ragnarök of Norse religion and the beliefs of other related Indo-European peoples . Subsequently, theories have been put forth that Ragnarök represents a later evolution of a Proto-Indo-European belief along with other cultures descending from the Proto-Indo-Europeans. These parallels include comparisons of
7575-401: The meeting of Sigurðr with the valkyrie Brynhildr , here identified as Sigrdrífa ("driver to victory"). Its content consists mostly of verses concerned with runic magic and general wisdom literature , presented as advice given by Sigrdrífa to Sigurd. The metre is differing throughout the poem. Most staves are wrote in ljóðaháttr , but there are also some in fornyrðislag and
7676-463: The mythology of other Indo-European peoples by scholars has resulted in the potential reconstruction of far earlier myths. Only a tiny amount of poems and tales survive of the many mythical tales and poems that are presumed to have existed during the Middle Ages, Viking Age, Migration Period, and before. Later sources reaching into the modern period, such as a medieval charm recorded as used by
7777-436: The mythology, Thor lays waste to numerous jötnar who are foes to the gods or humanity, and is wed to the beautiful, golden-haired goddess Sif . The god Odin is also frequently mentioned in surviving texts. One-eyed, wolf - and raven -flanked, with a spear in hand, Odin pursues knowledge throughout the nine realms. In an act of self-sacrifice, Odin is described as having hanged himself upside-down for nine days and nights on
7878-471: The pagan period, including medieval manuscripts, archaeological representations, and folk tradition. The source texts mention numerous gods such as the thunder-god Thor , the raven -flanked god Odin , the goddess Freyja , and numerous other deities . Most of the surviving mythology centers on the plights of the gods and their interaction with several other beings, such as humanity and the jötnar , beings who may be friends, lovers, foes, or family members of
7979-605: The plights of the gods and their interaction with various other beings, such as with the jötnar , who may be friends, lovers, foes, or family members of the gods. Numerous gods are mentioned in the source texts. As evidenced by records of personal names and place names, the most popular god among the Scandinavians during the Viking Age was Thor the thunder god , who is portrayed as unrelentingly pursuing his foes, his mountain-crushing, thunderous hammer Mjölnir in hand. In
8080-458: The poem appears to have been available to the author of the Völsungasaga , which cites from eighteen of its stanzas. The basis of the text appears to be a poem dealing with Sigurd's finding of Brynhild, but only five stanzas (2-4, 20-21) deal with this narrative directly. Stanza 1 is probably taken from another poem about Sigurd and Brynhild. Many critics have argued that it is taken from
8181-527: The poem, Odin, disguised as Gagnráðr , faces off with the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir in a battle of wits. Vafþrúðnismál references Njörðr's status as a hostage during the earlier Æsir–Vanir War , and that he will "come back home among the wise Vanir" at "the doom of men." In stanza 44, Odin poses the question to Vafþrúðnir as to who of mankind will survive the "famous" Fimbulwinter ("Mighty Winter"). Vafþrúðnir responds in stanza 45 that those survivors will be Líf and Lífþrasir and that they will hide in
8282-580: The preserved text is a set of counsels comparable to those in Loddfáfnismál . This passage is probably an accretion unrelated to the Brynhild fragment, and it contains in turn a number of what are likely interpolations to the original text. The first three stanzas are spoken by Sigrdrífa after she has been awoken by Sigurd (stanza 1 in Bellows 1936 corresponds to the final stanza 45 of Fáfnismál in
8383-406: The prophecies foretold that he would be the death of Odin." As a consequence of his role in the death of the god Baldr, Loki (described as father of Fenrir) is bound on top of three stones with the internal organs of his son Narfi (which are turned into iron) in three places. There, venom drops onto his face periodically from a snake placed by the jötunn Skaði . Loki's wife Sigyn collects
8484-403: The same original poem as stanzas 6-10 of Helreid Brynhildar . In stanzas 6-12, Brynhild teaches Sigurd the magic use of the runes . To this has been added similar passages on rune-lore from unrelated sources, stanzas 5 and 13-19. This passage is the most prolific source about historical runic magic which has been preserved. Finally, beginning with stanza 22 and running until the end of
8585-516: The sitting! Hail Asas, Hail Asynjes, Hail bounteous earth! Words and wisdom give to us noble twain, and healing hands in life! (Thorpe 1866) Hail, day ! Hail, sons of day! And night and her daughter now! Look on us here with loving eyes, That waiting we victory win. Hail to the gods ! Ye goddesses, hail, And all the generous earth! Give to us wisdom and goodly speech, And healing hands, life-long. (Bellows 1936) Stanzas 5-18 concern runic magic , explaining
8686-464: The sound, and they meet. Odin rides to Mímisbrunnr in search of counsel from Mímir. Yggdrasil shakes, and everything, everywhere fears. High relates that the Æsir and the Einherjar dress for war and head to the field. Odin, wearing a gold helmet and an intricate coat of mail , carries his spear Gungnir and rides before them. Odin advances against Fenrir, while Thor moves at his side, though Thor
8787-401: The state of humanity: Brœðr muno beriaz ok at bǫnom verða[z] muno systrungar sifiom spilla. Hart er í heimi, hórdómr mikill —skeggǫld, skálmǫld —skildir ro klofnir— vindǫld, vargǫld— áðr verǫld steypiz. Mun engi maðr ǫðrom þyrma. Brothers will fight and kill each other, sisters' children will defile kinship. It is harsh in
8888-412: The sun becomes black while the earth sinks into the sea, the stars vanish, steam rises, and flames touch the heavens. The völva sees the earth reappearing from the water and an eagle over a waterfall hunting fish on a mountain. The surviving Æsir meet together at the field of Iðavöllr . They discuss Jörmungandr, great events of the past, and the runic alphabet . In stanza 61, in the grass, they find
8989-665: The sword hilt, presumably referring to the t rune named for Tyr : Sigrúnar þú skalt kunna, ef þú vilt sigr hafa, ok rísta á hialti hiǫrs, sumar á véttrimum, sumar á valbǫstum, ok nefna tysvar Tý Victory runes you must know if you will have victory, and carve them on the sword's hilt, some on the grasp and some on the inlay, and name Tyr twice. The following stanzas address Ølrunar " Ale -runes" (7), biargrunar "birth-runes" (8), brimrunar "wave-runes" (9), limrunar "branch-runes" (10), malrunar "speech-runes" (11), hugrunar "thought-runes" (12). Stanzas 13-14 appear to have been taken from
9090-424: The tale, Thórd and his servant get lost while travelling to church in winter, and so take shelter for the night within a cave. Inside the cave they hear noises, witness a pair of immense burning eyes, and then the being with burning eyes recites a poem of 12 stanzas. The poem the being recites contains references to Norse mythology (including a mention of Thor) and also prophecies (including that "mountains will tumble,
9191-439: The temples of the gods, and that Thor's sons Móði and Magni will possess the hammer Mjolnir. In stanza 52, the disguised Odin asks the jötunn about his fate. Vafþrúðnir responds that "the wolf" will consume Odin, and that Víðarr will avenge him by sundering its cold jaws in battle. Odin ends the duel with one final question: what did Odin say to his son before preparing his funeral pyre? With this, Vafþrúðnir realizes that he
9292-442: The title of the last of his Der Ring des Nibelungen operas, Götterdämmerung (1876), which is "Twilight of the Gods" in German. The Old Norse compound word ragnarok has a long history of interpretation. Its first element is clear: ragna , the genitive plural of regin (n. pl.) 'the ruling powers, gods.' The second element is more problematic, as it occurs in two variants, -rök and -røkkr . Writing in
9393-608: The title. Its state of preservation is the most chaotic in the Eddaic collection. Its end has been lost in the Great Lacuna of the Codex Regius . The text is cut off after the first line of stanza 29, but this stanza has been completed, and eight others have been added, on the evidence of the much later testimony of paper manuscripts. The poem appears to be a compilation of originally unrelated poems. However, this state of
9494-470: The use of runes in various contexts. In stanza 5, Sigrdrífa brings Sigurd ale which she has charmed with runes: Biór fori ec þer / brynþings apaldr! magni blandinn / oc megintíri; fullr er hann lioþa / oc licnstafa, godra galdra / oc gamanrvna. Beer I bring thee, tree of battle, Mingled of strength and mighty fame; Charms it holds and healing signs, Spells full good, and gladness-runes. Stanza 6 advises to carve "victory runes" on
9595-457: The venom into a bucket, but whenever she leaves to empty it, the drops reach Loki's face, and the pain he experiences causes convulsions, resulting in earthquakes . Loki is further described as being bound this way until the onset of Ragnarök . Chapter 51 provides a detailed account of Ragnarök interspersed with various quotes from Völuspá , while chapters 52 and 53 describe the aftermath of these events. In Chapter 51, High states that
9696-515: The windy world. She sees a hall thatched with gold in Gimlé , where nobility will live and spend their lives pleasurably. Stanzas 65, found in the Hauksbók version of the poem, refers to a "powerful, mighty one" that "rules over everything" and who will arrive from above at the court of the gods (Old Norse regindómr ), which has been interpreted as a Christian addition to the poem. In stanza 66,
9797-401: The wolf will swallow the sun, then his brother will swallow the moon, and mankind will consider the occurrence as a great disaster resulting in much ruin. The stars will disappear. The earth and mountains will shake so violently that the trees will come loose from the soil, the mountains will topple, and all restraints will break, causing Fenrir to break free from his bonds. High relates that
9898-414: The wolf Fenrir by the gods, causing the god Týr to lose his right hand, and that Fenrir remains there until Ragnarök . Gangleri asks High why, since the gods could only expect destruction from Fenrir, they did not simply kill Fenrir once he was bound. High responds that "the gods hold their sacred places and sanctuaries in such respect that they chose not to defile them with the wolf's blood, even though
9999-510: The world, whoredom rife —an axe age, a sword age —shields are riven— a wind age, a wolf age— before the world goes headlong. No man will have mercy on another. The "sons of Mím " are described as being "at play," though this reference is not further explained in surviving sources. Heimdall raises the Gjallarhorn into the air and blows deeply into it, and Odin converses with Mím's head. The world tree Yggdrasil shudders and groans. The jötunn Hrym comes from
10100-405: Was inspired by Icelandic eruptions and that he was a volcano demon. Surtr's name occurs in some Icelandic place names, among them the lava tube Surtshellir , a number of dark caverns in the volcanic central region of Iceland. Parallels have been pointed out between a poem spoken by a jötunn found in the 13th-century þáttr Bergbúa þáttr ("the tale of the mountain dweller"). In
10201-425: Was the original format for the mythology. Various forms of a cosmological creation story are provided in Icelandic sources, and references to a future destruction and rebirth of the world— Ragnarok —are frequently mentioned in some texts. According to the Prose Edda and the Poetic Edda poem, Völuspá , the first human couple consisted of Ask and Embla ; driftwood found by a trio of gods and imbued with life in
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