In Norse mythology , the Æsir–Vanir War was a conflict between two groups of deities that ultimately resulted in the unification of the Æsir and the Vanir into a single pantheon . The war is an important event in Norse mythology, and the implications for the potential historicity surrounding accounts of the war are a matter of scholarly debate and discourse.
64-609: Fragmented information about the war appears in surviving sources, including Völuspá , a poem collected in the Poetic Edda in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources; in the book Skáldskaparmál in the Prose Edda , written or compiled in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson ; and in euhemerized form in the Ynglinga saga from Heimskringla , also often considered to have been written by Snorri Sturluson in
128-462: A fermented drink of the Slavic peoples . The common Slavic word stems from Proto-Slavic * kvasъ ("leaven", " fermented drink ") and ultimately from Proto-Indo-European base *kwh₂et- . This etymological connection, as considered by some scholars ( Alexander Afanasyev , Richard Heinzel , Jooseppi Julius Mikkola , Georges Dumézil , et al.), is motivated by the consideration of kvasir as
192-515: A glorious Judge beneath the earth. In the beginning, when naught was, there was neither sand nor sea nor the cold waves, nor was earth to be seen nor heaven above. There was a Yawning Chasm [chaos], but grass nowhere, ( Vigfússon & Powell 1883 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFVigfússonPowell1883 ( help ) † I remember of yore were born the Jötuns, they who aforetime fostered me : nine worlds I remember, nine in
256-459: A great army from " Asgard " to attack the people of " Vanaheim ." However, according to the author, the people of Vanaheim were well-prepared for the invasion; they defended their land so well that victory was up for grabs from both sides, and both sides produced immense damage and ravaged the lands of one another. The two sides eventually tired of the war and both agreed to meet to establish a truce. After doing so, they exchanged hostages . Vanaheim
320-534: A personification of fermented beverages. Rudolf Simek comments that kvasir likely originally referred to juice squeezed from berries and then fermented. In some ancient cultures, berries were communally chewed before being spat into a container, which exactly parallels Kvasir's mythical creation. Simek says that Snorri's description is further proven faithful by way of the (above-mentioned) 10th-century skaldic kenning "Kvasir’s blood" ( Old Norse Kvasis dreyra ). He also points out strong parallels exist between
384-449: A private talk. Upon Kvasir's arrival, the two dwarfs killed him and drained his blood into three objects. Two of the objects were vats, called Són and Boðn , and the third was a pot called Óðrerir . Fjalar and Galar mixed the blood with honey and made mead of it. Whoever drank of it would become a poet or scholar (Kvasir's blood had become the Mead of Poetry ). The two dwarfs explained to
448-459: A truce by way of both sides spitting into a vat. After they left, the gods kept the vat as a symbol of their truce, "and decided not to let it be wasted and out of it made a man". The man was named Kvasir, and he was extremely wise; he knew the answer to any question posed to him. Kvasir traveled far and wide throughout the world teaching mankind and spreading his vast knowledge. In time, two dwarfs , Fjalar and Galar , invited Kvasir to their home for
512-502: Is a common variation. The rest, about a quarter, are composed in ljóðaháttr ("song form"). The language of the poems is usually clear and relatively unadorned. Kennings are often employed, though they do not arise as frequently, nor are they as complex, as those found in typical skaldic poetry . Like most early poetry, the Eddic poems were minstrel poems, passed orally from singer to singer and from poet to poet for centuries. None of
576-662: Is arguably the most important extant source on Norse mythology and Germanic heroic legends . Since the early 19th century, it has had a powerful influence on Scandinavian literature , not only through its stories, but also through the visionary force and the dramatic quality of many of the poems. It has also been an inspiration for later innovations in poetic meter , particularly in Nordic languages , with its use of terse, stress -based metrical schemes that lack final rhymes, instead focusing on alliterative devices and strongly concentrated imagery. Poets who have acknowledged their debt to
640-475: Is described as having sent to Asgard its best men: Njörðr —described as wealthy—and his son Freyr in exchange for Asgard Hœnir —described here as large, handsome, and thought of by the people of Vanaheim well-suited to be a chieftain. Additionally, Asgard sends Mímir —a man of great understanding—in exchange for Kvasir , which the author describes as the wisest man of Vanaheim. Upon arrival in Vanaheim, Hœnir
704-476: Is distinct from the closely related Prose Edda , although both works are seminal to the study of Old Norse poetry . Several versions of the Poetic Edda exist: especially notable is the medieval Icelandic manuscript Codex Regius , which contains 31 poems. The Eddic poems are composed in alliterative verse . Most are in fornyrðislag ("old story metre "), while málaháttr ("speech form")
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#1732772169204768-517: Is given below: Ek man jǫtna ár of borna, þás forðum mik fœdda hǫfðu ; níu mank hęima, níu ívíði, mjǫtvið mæran fyr mold neðan. Ár vas alda þars Ymir byggði, vasa sandr né sær, né svalar unnir ; jǫrð fansk æva né upphiminn ; gap vas ginnunga, ęn gras hvęrgi. ( Finnur 1932 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFFinnur1932 ( help ) (unchanged orthography) The Jötuns I remember early born, those who me of old have reared. I nine worlds remember, nine trees,
832-773: The Codex Regius continues with heroic lays about mortal heroes, examples of Germanic heroic legend . The heroic lays are to be seen as a whole in the Edda , but they consist of three layers: the story of Helgi Hundingsbani , the story of the Nibelungs , and the story of Jörmunrekkr , king of the Goths . These are, respectively, Scandinavian, German, and Gothic in origin. As far as historicity can be ascertained, Attila , Jörmunrekkr , and Brynhildr actually existed, taking Brynhildr to be partly based on Brunhilda of Austrasia , but
896-550: The Codex Regius include Vilhelm Ekelund , August Strindberg , J. R. R. Tolkien , Ezra Pound , Jorge Luis Borges , and Karin Boye . The Codex Regius was written during the 13th century, but nothing was known of its whereabouts until 1643, when it came into the possession of Brynjólfur Sveinsson , then Bishop of Skálholt . At the time, versions of the Prose Edda were known in Iceland, but scholars speculated that there once
960-399: The dwarfs Fjalar and Galar killed Kvasir and drained him of his blood. The two mixed his blood with honey , thus creating the Mead of Poetry , a mead which imbued the drinker with skaldship and wisdom, and the spread of which eventually resulted in the introduction of poetry to mankind. Kvasir is attested in the Prose Edda and Heimskringla , both written by Snorri Sturluson in
1024-549: The "Dvergatal" or "Roster of Dwarfs", is considered by some scholars to be an interpolation . The problem of dating the poems is linked with the problem of determining where they were composed. Iceland was not settled until approximately 870, so anything composed before that time would necessarily have been elsewhere, most likely in Scandinavia . More recent poems, on the other hand, are likely Icelandic in origin. Scholars have attempted to localize individual poems by studying
1088-594: The 10th century Icelandic skald Einarr skálaglamm is provided, where the term "Kvasir's blood" for 'poetry' is used. Further, in chapter 3, a prose narrative mentions that the Kvasir's blood was made into the Mead of Poetry. Kvasir is mentioned in an euhemerized account of the origin of the gods in chapter 4 of Ynglinga saga , contained within Heimskringla . The chapter narrative explains that Odin waged war on
1152-529: The 13th century, and in the poetry of skalds . According to the Prose Edda , Kvasir was instrumental in the capture and binding of Loki , and an euhemerized account of the god appears in Heimskringla , where he is attested as the wisest among the Vanir. Scholars have connected Kvasir to methods of beverage production and peacemaking practices among ancient peoples. In the Prose Edda , Kvasir appears in
1216-405: The 13th century. In two stanzas of Völuspá , the war is recounted by a völva (who refers to herself here in the third person) while the god Óðinn questions her. The war is told rather vaguely, and the fact that it describes a war between the Æsir and the Vanir is not completely certain. In the first of the two stanzas, the völva says that she remembers the first war in the world, when Gullveig
1280-456: The 1670s. Some early translators relied on a Latin translation of the Edda , including Cottle . Opinions differ on the best way to translate the text, on the use or rejection of archaic language, and the rendering of terms lacking a clear English analogue. Still, Cottle's 1797 translation is now considered very inaccurate. A comparison of the second and third verses (lines 5–12) of the Vǫluspá
1344-464: The Earth Ymir struck camp when time began. No land, sand or sea folding on itself, no sky, earth or grass swaying atop its girth, only the cavern of chaos's gaping gulf. ( Dodds 2014 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFDodds2014 ( help ) I remember giants born early in time those nurtured me long ago; I remember nine worlds, I remember nine giant women, the mighty Measuring-Tree below
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#17327721692041408-502: The Eddic poems sometimes appear in poems by known poets. For example, Eyvindr skáldaspillir composed in the latter half of the 10th century, and he uses a couple of lines in his Hákonarmál that are also found in Hávamál . It is possible that he was quoting a known poem, but it is also possible that Hávamál , or at least the strophe in question, is the younger derivative work. The few demonstrably historical characters mentioned in
1472-575: The Learned , a larger-than-life 12th century Icelandic priest. Modern scholars reject that attribution, but the name Sæmundar Edda is still sometimes associated with both the Codex Regius and versions of the Poetic Edda using it as a source. Bishop Brynjólfur sent the manuscript as a present to the Danish king, hence the Latin name Codex Regius, lit. ' Royal Book ' . For centuries it
1536-521: The Old Norse tale of the theft of the Mead of Poetry by Odin (in the form of an eagle) and the Sanskrit tale of the theft of Soma (beverage of the gods) by the god Indra (or an eagle), and that these parallels point to a common Proto-Indo-European basis. Further, the mixing of spit in a vat between the two groups of gods points to an ancient basis for the myth: The customs of mixing spittle and
1600-542: The Tree, the glorious Fate Tree that springs 'neath the Earth. 'Twas the earliest of times when Ymir lived ; then was sand nor sea nor cooling wave, nor was Earth found ever, nor Heaven on high, there was Yawning of Deeps and nowhere grass : ( Bray 1908 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFBray1908 ( help ) I remember yet the giants of yore, Who gave me bread in
1664-434: The Tree. The wonderful Ash, way under the ground When Ymir lived long ago Was no sand or sea, no surging waves. Nowhere was there earth nor heaven above. But a grinning gap and grass nowhere. ( Auden & Taylor 1969 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFAudenTaylor1969 ( help ) I remember giants of ages past, those who called me one of their kin; I know how nine roots form nine worlds under
1728-619: The Vanir , yet the Vanir could not be defeated, and so the two decided to exchange hostages in a peace agreement. Kvasir, here a member of the Vanir and described as the "cleverest among them", is included among the hostages. The etymology of the name is uncertain. The root kvas- in Kvas-ir likely stems from the Proto-Germanic base * kvass -, meaning "to squeeze, squash, crush, bruise". Regarding this etymology, linguist Albert Morey Sturtevant comments that "fluids may result from
1792-456: The battle appears to have been precipitated by the entry of Gullveig/Heiðr among the Æsir. The first stanza relates a difficulty in reaching a truce which led to the all-out war described in the second stanza. However, the reference to "all the gods" could, in Lindow's view, indicate a movement towards a community involving both the Æsir and the Vanir. In his translation of the poem, Bellows inverts
1856-461: The books Gylfaginning and Skáldskaparmál . Kvasir is mentioned a single time in Gylfaginning ; in chapter 50, where the enthroned figure of High tells Gangleri ( Gylfi in disguise) of how Loki was caught by the gods after being responsible for the murder of the god Baldr . In the chapter, High says that while Loki was hiding from the gods, he often took the form of a salmon during
1920-549: The chronology has been reversed in the poems. Several of the legendary sagas contain poetry in the Eddic style. Their age and importance is often difficult to evaluate but the Hervarar saga , in particular, contains interesting poetic interpolations. The Elder or Poetic Edda has been translated numerous times, the earliest printed edition being that by Cottle 1797 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFCottle1797 ( help ) , though some short sections had been translated as early as
1984-455: The crushing or pressing of an object (cf. Dan . kvase 'to crush something in order to squeeze out the juice'). Hence we are justified in assuming the stem syllable in kvas-ir has reference to the fluid ( saliva ) out of which he was created and that the name Kvas-ir denotes the person who possesses the characteristic qualities inherent in this fluid, viz., poetic inspiration and wisdom." The same root kvas- may also be related to kvass ,
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2048-403: The day and swam in the waterfall Franangrsfors . Loki considered what sort of device the gods might craft to catch him there, and so, sitting in his four-door mountain lookout house, knotted together linen thread in "which ever since the net has been". Loki noticed that the gods were not far away from him and that Odin had spotted him from Hliðskjálf . Loki sat before a fire, and when he noticed
2112-413: The days gone by ; Nine worlds I knew, the nine in the tree With mighty roots beaneath the mold. Of old was the age when Ymir lived ; Sea nor cool waves nor sand there were ; Earth had not been, nor heaven above, But a yawning gap, and grass nowhere. ( Bellows 1923 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFBellows1923 ( help ) I call to mind
2176-486: The earth where the Ash Tree rises. Nothing was there when time began, neither sands nor seas nor cooling waves, Earth was not yet, nor the high heavens, but a gaping emptiness nowhere green. ( Terry 1990 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFTerry1990 ( help ) I, born of giants, remember very early those who nurtured me then; I remember nine worlds, I remember nine giant women,
2240-402: The earth. Early in time Ymir made his settlement, there was no sand nor sea nor cool waves; earth was nowhere nor the sky above, a void of yawning chaos, grass was there nowhere ( Larrington 2014 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFLarrington2014 ( help ) I remember the giants born so long ago; in those ancient days they raised me. I remember nine worlds, nine giantesses, and
2304-452: The famed tree of fate down under the earth. It was early in ages when Ymir made his home, there was neither sand nor sea, nor cooling waves; no earth to be found, nor heaven above: a gulf beguiling, nor grass anywhere. ( Orchard 2011 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFOrchard2011 ( help ) I remember being reared by Jotuns, in days long gone. If I look back, I recall nine worlds, nine wood-witches, that renowned tree of fate below
2368-589: The former became r- around the year 1000, but in some Eddic poems the word vreiðr , younger form reiðr , is seen to alliterate with words beginning in an original v- . This was observed already by Olaf ‘White Skald’ Thordarson , the author of the Third Grammatical Treatise , who termed this v before r the vindandin forna ; 'the ancient use of vend '. In some cases, old poems may have been interpolated with younger verses or merged with other poems. For example, stanzas 9–16 of Völuspá ,
2432-423: The geography, flora, and fauna to which they refer. This approach usually does not yield firm results. For example, there are no wolves in Iceland, but we can be sure that Icelandic poets were familiar with the species. Similarly, the apocalyptic descriptions of Völuspá have been taken as evidence that the poet who composed it had seen a volcanic eruption in Iceland – but this is hardly certain. The Codex Regius
2496-492: The gods were coming near him, he threw the net into the fire and jumped up, and slipped into the river. The gods reached Loki's house, and the first to enter was Kvasir, who the High describes as "the wisest of all". Kvasir saw the shape of the net in the ash of the fire, and so realized its purpose; to catch fish. And so Kvasir told the gods about it. The gods used the shape found in the ash as their model, and with it fished Loki from
2560-454: The great central tree, beneath the earth. There was in times of old, where Ymir dwelt, nor sand nor sea, nor gelid waves ; earth existed not, nor heaven above, 'twas a chaotic chasm, and grass nowhere, ( Thorpe 1866 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFThorpe1866 ( help ) I remember the Giants born of yore, who bred me up long ago. I remember nine Worlds, nine Sibyls,
2624-418: The ground. It was early in the ages when Ymir made his dwelling: There was not sand nor sea nor chill waves. Earth was not to be found nor above it heaven: a gulf was there of gaping voids and grass nowhere, ( Dronke 1997 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFDronke1997 ( help ) I recall those giants, born early on, who long ago brought me up; nine worlds I recall, nine wood-dwelling witches,
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2688-502: The kin of etins which long ago did give me life. Nine worlds I know, the nine abodes of the glorious world-tree the ground beneath. In earliest times did Ymir live: was nor sea nor land nor salty waves, neither earth was there nor upper heaven, but a gaping nothing, and green things nowhere. ( Hollander 1962 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFHollander1962 ( help ) I tell of Giants from times forgotten. Those who fed me in former days: Nine worlds I can reckon, nine roots of
2752-418: The meanings of the gildi and the adjective gildr to signal the core issue of whether the Æsir will surrender their monopoly on human tribute and join with the "all-too-popular" Vanir; as their only alternative, they attack again. In the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál , the god Bragi explains the origin of poetry. Bragi says that it originated in the Æsir–Vanir War, when during the peace conference
2816-404: The mention of Freyja introducing seiðr to the Æsir from the Vanir in Heimskringla . This is at times taken further, to suggest that their "corruption" of the Æsir led to the Æsir–Vanir War. Lindow states that even if the two are not identical, the various accounts of the war seem to share the idea of a disruptive entry of persons into a people. Lindow compares the appearance of Gullveig/Heiðr into
2880-461: The mighty Measuring-Tree below the earth. Young were the years when Ymir made his settlement, there was no sand nor sea nor cool waves; earth was nowhere nor the sky above, chaos yawned, grass was there nowhere. ( Larrington 1996 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFLarrington1996 ( help ) I remember giants born early in time, who long ago had reared me Nine worlds I remember, nine wood-ogresses, glorious tree of good measure, under
2944-485: The order of the two stanzas, stating that "This stanza and stanza 24 [the first and second stanzas] have been transposed from the order in the manuscripts, for the former describes the battle and the victory of the Wanes [Vanir], after which the gods took council, debating whether to pay tribute to the victors, or to admit them, as was finally done, to equal rights of worship." Ursula Dronke points to extensive wordplay on all
3008-505: The particle of , corresponding to ga- or ge- in other old Germanic languages, has been shown to occur more frequently in Skaldic poems of earlier date. Applying this criterion to Eddic poetry, Bjarne Fidjestøl found large variation, indicating that some of the poems were much older than others. Other dating criteria include the use of the negative adverb eigi 'not', and alliteration of vr- with v- . In western dialects of Old Norse
3072-632: The poems are also quoted in Snorri 's Prose Edda , but usually only in bits and pieces. What poems are included in an edition of the Poetic Edda depends on the editor. Those not found in the Codex Regius are sometimes called the "eddic appendix". Other Eddic-like poems not usually published in the Poetic Edda are sometimes called Eddica minora and were compiled by Andreas Heusler and Wilhelm Ranisch in their 1903 book titled Eddica minora: Dichtungen eddischer Art aus den Fornaldarsögur und anderen Prosawerken . English translators are not consistent on
3136-403: The poems are attributed to a particular author, though many of them show strong individual characteristics and are likely to have been the work of individual poets. While scholars have speculated on hypothetical authors, firm and accepted conclusions have never been reached. Accurate dating of the poems has long been a source of scholarly debate. Firm conclusions are difficult to reach; lines from
3200-777: The poems, such as Attila , provide a terminus post quem of sorts. The dating of the manuscripts themselves provides a more useful terminus ante quem . Individual poems have individual clues to their age. For example, Atlamál hin groenlenzku is claimed by its title to have been composed in Greenland and seems so by some internal evidence. If so, it must have been composed no earlier than about 985, since there were no Scandinavians in Greenland until that time. More certain than such circumstantial evidence are linguistic dating criteria. These can be arrived at by looking at Skaldic poems whose dates are more firmly known. For instance
3264-434: The power to speak to him and reveal to him secrets. Óðinn then appointed Njörðr and Freyr to be priests of sacrificial customs and they became Diar ("Gods") of the people of Asgard. Freyja , described as daughter of Njörðr, was the priestess of these sacrifices, and here she is described as introducing seiðr to Asgard. A number of theories surround the Æsir–Vanir War: As the Vanir are often considered fertility gods,
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#17327721692043328-465: The river to make him their prisoner, later binding him in torment until the coming of Ragnarök . In Skáldskaparmál , Kvasir is mentioned several times. In chapter 57 of the book, Ægir asks the skaldic god Bragi where the craft of poetry originated. Bragi says that the Æsir once wrangled with the Vanir (see Æsir–Vanir War ) but eventually came together to make peace. The two groups decided to form
3392-471: The seed from which Yggdrasil sprang. It was at the very beginning, it was Ymir's time, there was no sand, no sea, no cooling waves, no earth, no sky, no grass, just Ginnungagap. Kvasir In Norse mythology , Kvasir ( Old Norse : [ˈkwɑsez̠] ) was a being born of the saliva of the Æsir and the Vanir , two groups of gods. Extremely wise, Kvasir traveled far and wide, teaching and spreading knowledge. This continued until
3456-597: The translations of the names of the Eddic poems or on how the Old Norse forms should be rendered in English. Up to three translated titles are given below, taken from the translations of Bellows , Hollander , and Larrington with proper names in the normalized English forms found in John Lindow 's Norse Mythology and in Andy Orchard's Cassell's Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend . After the mythological poems,
3520-407: The Æsir and the Vanir formed a truce by all spitting into a vat. When they left, the gods decided that it should not be poured out, but rather kept as a symbol of their peace, and so from the contents made a man, Kvasir . Kvasir is later murdered, and from his blood is made the Mead of Poetry . In Heimskringla , the author presents a euhemerized account of the war. The account says that Óðinn led
3584-425: The Æsir that Kvasir had died from "suffocating in his own intelligence", as there were none among them who were so well educated as to be able to pose him questions. Bragi then tells how the Mead of Poetry, by way of the god Odin , ultimately came into the hands of mankind. In chapter 2 Skáldskaparmál , poetic ways of referring to poetry are provided, including "Kvasir's blood". In reference, part of Vellekla by
3648-429: The Æsir to Hœnir and Mímir's disruption among the Vanir in Heimskringla . Lindow further states that all three accounts share the notion of acquisition of tools for the conquest of wisdom; the practice of seiðr in two accounts and the head of Mímir in one. Poetic Edda The Poetic Edda is the modern name for an untitled collection of Old Norse anonymous narrative poems in alliterative verse . It
3712-553: The Æsir–Vanir War has been proposed as a reflection of the invasion of local fertility cults somewhere in regions inhabited by the Germanic peoples by a more aggressive, warlike cult. This has been proposed as an analogy of the invasion of the Indo-Europeans . Georges Dumézil stated that the war need not necessarily be understood in terms of historicity more than any other myth however. Scholars have cited parallels between
3776-557: The Æsir–Vanir War, The Rape of the Sabine Women from Roman mythology , and the battle between Devas and Asuras from Hindu mythology , providing support for a Proto-Indo-European "war of the functions." Explaining these parallels, J. P. Mallory states: Many scholars consider the figures of Gullveig/Heiðr and Freyja the same. This conclusion has been reached through comparisons between Gullveig/Heiðr's use of seiðr in Völuspá and
3840-405: Was always the favorite of wicked women: In two later stanzas, the völva tells Óðinn that all the powers went to the judgment seats and discussed whether the Æsir should pay a fine or if all of the gods should instead have equal tribute , then the völva provides the last of her account of the events surrounding the war. These stanzas are unclear, particularly the second half of the first stanza, but
3904-401: Was another Edda, an Elder Edda , which contained the pagan poems that Snorri quotes in his Prose Edda . When Codex Regius was discovered, it seemed that the speculation had proved correct, but modern scholarly research has shown that the Prose Edda was likely written first and that the two were, at most, connected by a common source. Brynjólfur attributed the manuscript to Sæmundr
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#17327721692043968-604: Was immediately made chief, and Mímir often gave him good counsel. However, when Hœnir was at meetings and at the Thing without Mímir by his side, he would always answer the same way: "Let others decide." Subsequently, the Vanaheim folk suspected they had been cheated in the exchange by the Asgard folk, so they seized Mímir and beheaded him and sent the head to Asgard. Óðinn took the head of Mímir, embalmed it with herbs so that it would not rot, and spoke charms over it, which gave it
4032-401: Was stabbed with spears and then burnt three times in one of Óðinn's halls, yet that Gullveig was reborn three times: In the second stanza, the völva says that they called Gullveig Heiðr (meaning "Bright One" or potentially "Gleaming" or "Honor") whenever she came to houses, that she was a wise völva, and that she cast spells. Heiðr performed seiðr where she could, did so in a trance , and
4096-645: Was stored in the Royal Library in Copenhagen , but in 1971 it was returned to Iceland. Because air travel at the time was not entirely trustworthy with such precious cargo, it was transported by ship, accompanied by a naval escort. Poems similar to those found in the Codex Regius are also included in many editions of the Poetic Edda . Important manuscripts containing these other poems include AM 748 I 4to , Hauksbók , and Flateyjarbók . Many of
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