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64-634: Before the Revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas and the notable actions of Croatian Ban Josip Jelačić , the northern Croatian lands were divided into the Kingdom of Croatia and the Kingdom of Slavonia as separate Habsburg crown lands, recognized as Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen and under the jurisdiction of the Kingdom of Hungary but effectively functioned a single kingdom, subordinate to

128-777: A Pan-Slavic congress in Prague between June 2 and June 12, 1848. It was primarily composed of Austroslavs who wanted greater freedom within the Empire, but their status as peasants and proletarians surrounded by a German middle class doomed their autonomy . They also disliked the prospect of annexation of Bohemia to a German Empire. Insurgents quickly lost in street fighting to King Ferdinand's troops led by General Radetzky , prompting several liberal government ministers to resign in protest. Ferdinand, now restored to power in Vienna , appointed conservatives in their places. These actions were

192-712: A Hungarian army. Jelačić then took military action against the Hungarian government without any official order. The national assembly of the Serbs in Austrian Empire was held between 1 and 3 May 1848 in Sremski Karlovci , during which the Serbs proclaimed autonomous Habsburg crownland of Serbian Vojvodina . The war started, leading to clashes as such in Srbobran , where on July 14, 1848, the first siege of

256-606: A considerable blow to the revolutionaries, and by August most of northern Italy was under Radetzky's control. In Bohemia , the leaders of both the German and Czech nationalist movements were both constitutional monarchists, loyal to the Habsburg Emperor. Only a few days after the Emperor reconquered northern Italy, Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz took provocative measures in Prague to prompt street fighting . Once

320-429: A culture that criticized Metternich's government from the city's coffeehouses , salons, and even stages, but prior to 1848 their demands had not even extended to constitutionalism or freedom of assembly , let alone republicanism . They had merely advocated relaxed censorship, freedom of religion , economic freedoms, and, above all, a more competent administration. They were opposed to outright popular sovereignty and

384-513: A desire to be part of an Italian confederacy of states; but for the Venetian government this lasted only five days, after the 1848 armistice between Austria and Piedmont . A new Hungarian government in Pest announced its intentions to break away from the Empire and elect Ferdinand its King, and a Polish National Committee announced the same for the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria . The victory of

448-705: A hopeless situation Görgey, signed a surrender at Világos (now Şiria, Romania ) to the Russians, who handed the army over to the Austrians. Slovak Uprising was an uprising of Slovaks against Magyar (i.e. ethnic Hungarian) domination in the Western parts of Upper Hungary (present-day Western Slovakia ), within the 1848/49 revolution in the Habsburg Monarchy. It lasted from September 1848 to November 1849. During this period Slovak patriots established

512-475: A nationalist Hungarian leader, Schwarzenberg faced uprisings by Hungarians. Playing on the long-standing Russian tradition of conservativism, he convinced Tsar Nicholas I to send Russian forces in. The Russian army quickly destroyed the rebellion, forcing the Hungarians back under Austrian control. In less than three years, Schwarzenberg had returned stability and control to Austria. However, Schwarzenberg had

576-693: A nationalist war on March 23 in the Austrian held northern Italian provinces that would consume the attention of the entire peninsula. The German nationalist movement faced the question of whether or not Austria should be included in the united German state, a quandary that divided the Frankfurt National Assembly . The liberal ministers in Vienna were willing to allow elections for the German National Assembly in some of

640-619: A separate administrative division of the Austrian part of the monarchy. When the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 created the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy, the Habsburg crownlands of Croatia and Slavonia were effectively merged and placed under Hungarian jurisdiction. Levin Rauch became the acting ban of Croatia , replacing Josip Šokčević . Ban Rauch prepared a new electoral law that

704-622: A stroke in 1852, and his successors failed to uphold the control Schwarzenberg had so successfully maintained. Croatian Military Frontier The Croatian Military Frontier ( Croatian : Hrvatska vojna krajina or Hrvatska vojna granica ) was a district of the Military Frontier , a territory in the Habsburg monarchy , first during the period of the Austrian Empire and then during Austria-Hungary . Founded in

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768-512: A united federal Germany composed of only 'German' lands. This would have led to the relationship between Austria and Hungary (as a 'non-German' area) being reduced to a personal union under the Habsburgs, rather than a united state, an unacceptable arrangement for both the Habsburgs and Austro-German liberals in Austria. In the end, Friedrich Wilhelm refused to accept the constitution written by

832-489: Is at the same time. The Austrian Constituent Assembly was divided into a Czech faction, a German faction, and a Polish faction, and within each faction was the political left-right spectrum. Outside the Assembly, petitions, newspapers, mass demonstrations, and political clubs put pressure on their new governments and often expressed violently many of the debates that were occurring within the assembly itself. The Czechs held

896-561: The Diet (parliament) of Lower Austria at Niederösterreichisches Landeshaus (Estates House of Lower Austria) in March demanded the resignation of Prince Metternich , the conservative State Chancellor and Foreign Minister. With no forces rallying to Metternich's defense, nor word from Ferdinand I of Austria to the contrary, he resigned on 13 March. Metternich fled to London, and Ferdinand appointed new, nominally liberal, ministers. By November,

960-466: The Habsburg lands, but it was undetermined which Habsburg territories would participate. Hungary and Galicia were clearly not German; German nationalists (who dominated the Bohemian Diet ) felt the old crown lands rightfully belonged to a united German state, despite the fact that the majority of the people of Bohemia and Moravia spoke Czech — a Slavic language . Czech nationalists viewed

1024-519: The House of Magnates of the Diet of Hungary , which controlled the military, the financial system, legislation and administration, Sea Law, Commercial Law, the law of Bills of Exchange and Mining Law, and generally matters of commerce, customs, telegraphs, Post Office, railways, harbors, shipping, and those roads and rivers which jointly concern Hungary and Croatia-Slavonia. Following the Settlement,

1088-658: The Kingdom of Hungary (pursuant to the article 66) and incorporation of the Croatian Military Frontier and the Slavonian Military Frontier in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia (pursuant to articles 65 and 66) in 1881. The manner by which Article 66 was handled left the issue of the port of Rijeka (Fiume) unresolved. Croatia saw it as part of its territory, but Hungary saw it as Corpus separatum . Revolutions of 1848 in

1152-465: The October Crisis in Vienna, when insurgents attacked a garrison on its way to Hungary to support Croatian forces under Jelačić. After Vienna was recaptured by imperial forces, General Windischgrätz and 70,000 troops were sent to Hungary to crush the Hungarian revolution and as they advanced the Hungarian government evacuated Pest. However the Austrian army had to retreat after heavy defeats in

1216-647: The Slavonian one). This part of the Military Frontier included the geographic regions of Lika , Kordun , Banovina and bordered the Adriatic Sea to the west, Venetian Republic to the south, Habsburg Kingdom of Croatia to the north-west, the Ottoman Empire to the south-east, Habsburg Kingdom of Slavonia to the east, and Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary to the north. It extended onto

1280-618: The Slavonian Military Frontier near the confluence of the Una river into the Sava . Like the rest of the Military Frontier, it ceased to exist as a political entity in the late 19th century. Croatian Military Frontier included three General Command ( Croatian : Generalat ) sections which were divided into eight Regiments: In 1802, the estimated population consisted of: In 1820, estimated population of Croatian Military Frontier included: According to Hungarian statistician Elek Fényes , in 1840

1344-723: The Slovak National Council as their political representation and military units known as the Slovak Volunteer Corps. The political, social and national requirements of the Slovak movement were declared in the document entitled "Demands of the Slovak Nation" from April 1848. The Serb Revolution of 1848 was an uprising of Serbs living in Délvidék against Magyar domination. The majority of

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1408-417: The universal franchise . More to the left was a radicalized, impoverished intelligentsia . Educational opportunities in 1840s Austria had far outstripped employment opportunities for the educated. The industrial revolution , which spread to Austria in the 1840s, has been cited as a key factor leading up to the 1848 revolution, and argued to be a far greater contributor than intellectual developments in

1472-721: The 19th century. The industrial revolution had hurt small businesses and brought poor working conditions, which made ordinary citizens - namely the middle and lower classes - more receptive to revolutionary thought. In 1845, potato blight arrived in Belgium from North America, thus starting the Hungry Forties . As the disease quickly spread throughout Europe, the major calorie source for the poorer population failed and food prices soared. In 1846 there had been an uprising of Polish nobility in Austrian Galicia , which

1536-522: The Assembly. Schwarzenberg dissolved the Hungarian Parliament in 1849, imposing his own constitution that conceded nothing to the liberal movement. Appointing Alexander Bach head of internal affairs, he oversaw the creation of the Bach system, which rooted out political dissent and contained liberals within Austria and quickly returned the status quo. After the deportation of Lajos Kossuth ,

1600-436: The Austrian Empire saw several short-lived liberal governments under five successive minister-presidents of Austria : Count Kolowrat (17 March–4 April), Count Ficquelmont (4 April–3 May), Baron Pillersdorf (3 May–8 July), Baron Doblhoff-Dier (8 July–18 July) and Baron Wessenberg (19 July–20 November). The established order collapsed rapidly because of the weakness of the Austrian armies. Field Marshal Joseph Radetzky

1664-520: The Austrian Empire. Lombardy-Venetia was quickly brought back under Austrian rule in the mainland, even because popular support for the revolution vanished: revolutionary ideals were often limited to part of middle and upper classes, which failed both to gain "hearts and minds" of lower classes and to convince the population about Italian nationalism . Most part of lower classes indeed were quite indifferent, and actually most part of Lombard and Venetian troops remained loyal. The only widespread support to

1728-480: The Croatian kingdom was referred to using the name Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia . Article 66 of the settlement specified lands of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, including Dalmatia in the list, even though Dalmatia remained part of Cisleithania until dissolution of Austria-Hungary . Practical territorial consequences of the settlement were creation of the city and port of Rijeka as Corpus separatum attached to

1792-529: The Habsburg areas Revolutionaries [REDACTED]   Austrian Empire The Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire were a set of revolutions that took place in the Austrian Empire from March 1848 to November 1849. Much of the revolutionary activity had a nationalist character: the Empire, ruled from Vienna , included ethnic Germans , Hungarians , Poles , Bohemians ( Czechs ), Ruthenians ( Ukrainians ), Slovenes , Slovaks , Romanians , Croats , Italians , and Serbs ; all of whom attempted in

1856-474: The Hungarian government ministers attempted to gain Habsburg support against Jelačić by offering to send troops to northern Italy. Additionally, they attempted to come to terms with Jelačić himself, but he insisted on the recentralization of Habsburg authority as a pre-condition to any talks. By the end of August, the imperial government in Vienna officially ordered the Hungarian government in Pest to end plans for

1920-615: The Hungarian nobility. These demands were not easy for the imperial court to accept, however, its weak position provided little choice. One of the first tasks of the Diet was abolishing serfdom, which was announced on March 18, 1848. The Hungarian government set limits on the political activity of both the Croatian and Romanian national movements. Croats and Romanians had their own desires for self-rule and saw no benefit in replacing one central government for another. Armed clashes between

1984-538: The Hungarians and the Croats , Romanians , Serbs , along one border and Slovaks on the other ensued. In some cases, this was a continuation and an escalation of previous tensions, such as the 1845 July victims in Croatia. The Habsburg Kingdom of Croatia and the Kingdom of Slavonia severed relations with the new Hungarian government in Pest and devoted itself to the imperial cause. Conservative Josip Jelačić , who

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2048-468: The Piedmontese return to war. Renewed military conflicts cost the Empire the little that remained of its finances. Another challenge to Habsburg authority came from Germany and the question of either "big Germany" (united Germany led by Austria) or "little Germany" (united Germany led by Prussia). The Frankfurt National Assembly proposed a constitution with Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia as monarch of

2112-560: The Serbs there sided with the Austrians. However, there were also some exceptions, e.g. General János Damjanich of the Hungarian Revolutionary Army . Revolutionary movements of 1849 faced an additional challenge: to work together to defeat a common enemy. Previously, national identity allowed Habsburg forces to conquer revolutionary governments by playing them off one another. New democratic initiatives in Italy in

2176-584: The Spring Campaign of the Hungarian Army from March to May 1849. Instead of pursuing the Austrian army, the Hungarians stopped to retake the Fort of Buda and prepared defenses. In June 1849 Russian and Austrian troops entered Hungary heavily outnumbering the Hungarian army. Kossuth abdicated on August 11, 1849, in favour of Artúr Görgey , who he thought was the only general who was capable of saving

2240-413: The arrival of Hungarian troops as the only force able to stand up against the court and ministry. The radicals took control of the city for only a short period of time. Windisch-Grätz led soldiers from Prussia to quickly defeat the insurgents. Windisch-Grätz restored imperial authority to the city. The reconquering of Vienna was seen as a defeat over German nationalism. At this point, Ferdinand I named

2304-704: The barricades went up, he led Habsburg troops to crush the insurgents. After having taken back the city, he imposed martial law, ordered the Prague National Committee dissolved, and sent delegates to the "Pan-Slavic" Congress home. These events were applauded by German nationalists, who failed to understand that the Habsburg military would crush their own national movement as well. Attention then turned to Hungary. War in Hungary again threatened imperial rule and prompted Emperor Ferdinand and his court to once more flee Vienna. Viennese radicals welcomed

2368-535: The central government in Vienna. After 1849, Slavonia and Croatia continued to function in the same capacity. Imperial officials referred to this kingdom simply as the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia. The southern Croatian land, the Kingdom of Dalmatia , was formed from the southern parts of the Illyrian Provinces that the Habsburg monarchy conquered from the French Empire in 1815 and it remained

2432-420: The course of the revolution to either achieve autonomy , independence , or even hegemony over other nationalities. The nationalist picture was further complicated by the simultaneous events in the German states , which moved toward greater German national unity. Besides these nationalists , liberal , and even socialist currents resisted the Empire's longstanding conservatism . The events of 1848 were

2496-459: The empire nearly bankrupt and in continual need of soldiers. Draft commissions led to brawls between soldiers and civilians. All of this further agitated the peasantry, who resented their remaining feudal obligations. Despite lack of freedom of the press and association, there was a flourishing liberal German culture among students and those educated in German universities. They published pamphlets and newspapers discussing education and language;

2560-520: The empire objected to that arrangement, that questionable session of Sabor confirmed the subordination of Croatia to Hungary by accepting the Nagodba on 24 September 1868. An agreement was reached between the Parliament of Hungary on the one hand and the Parliament of Croatia on the other hand, with regard to composing by a joint enactment the constitutional questions at issue between them. After

2624-443: The final break between Vienna and Pest occurred when Field Marshal Count Franz Philipp von Lamberg was given control of all armies in Hungary (including Jelačić's). In response to Lamberg being attacked on arrival in Hungary a few days later, the imperial court ordered the Hungarian parliament and government dissolved. Jelačić was appointed to take Lamberg's place. War between Austria and Hungary had officially begun. The war led to

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2688-717: The language as far more significant, calling for a boycott of the Frankfurt Parliament elections in Bohemia, Moravia, and neighboring Austrian Silesia (also partly Czech-speaking). Tensions in Prague between German and Czech nationalists grew quickly between April and May. After the abolition of serfdom on April 17, Supreme Ruthenian Council was established in Galicia to promote the unification of ethnic Ukrainian lands of Eastern Galicia, Transcarpathia and Bukovina in one province. Ukrainian language department

2752-594: The late 16th century out of lands of the Habsburg Kingdom of Croatia , it was initially a nominal part of that Kingdom, to be transferred in 1627 to direct imperial rule as part of the Military Frontier . The Frontier was located on the border with the Ottoman Empire . In the Frontier zone, the king-emperors promised free land and freedom of religion to people who came to the area with the majority of

2816-474: The leader of the lower gentry in the Diet. In 1848, news of the outbreak of revolution in Paris arrived as a new national cabinet took power under Kossuth, and the Diet approved a sweeping reform package, referred to as the " April laws " (also "March laws"), that changed almost every aspect of Hungary's economic, social, and political life: (The April laws based on the 12 points: In April 1848, Hungary became

2880-458: The most bitter. Despite this, the Hungarian government hired a new commander and attempted to unite with Romanian democrat Avram Iancu , who was known as Crăişorul Munţilor ("The Prince of the Mountains"). However, division and mistrust were too severe. Three days after the start of hostilities in Italy, Charles Albert of Sardinia abdicated the throne of Piedmont-Savoy, essentially ending

2944-623: The nation. However, in May 1849, Czar Nicholas I pledged to redouble his efforts against the Hungarian Government. He and Emperor Franz Joseph started to regather and rearm an army to be commanded by Anton Vogl, the Austrian lieutenant-field-marshal. The Czar was also preparing to send 30,000 Russian soldiers back over the Eastern Carpathian Mountains from Poland. On August 13, after several bitter defeats in

3008-629: The need for basic liberal reforms was assumed. These middle class liberals largely understood and accepted that forced labor is not efficient, and that the Empire should adopt a wage labor system. The question was how to institute such reforms. Notable liberal clubs of the time in Vienna included the Legal-Political Reading Club (established 1842) and Concordia Society (1840). They, like the Lower Austrian Manufacturers' Association (1840) were part of

3072-460: The noble Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg head of government. Schwarzenberg, a consummate statesman, persuaded the feeble-minded Ferdinand to abdicate the throne to his 18-year-old nephew, Franz Joseph . Parliamentarians continued to debate, but had no authority on state policy. Both the Czech and Italian revolutions were defeated by the Habsburgs. Prague was the first victory of counter-revolution in

3136-413: The ones who supported the broadest franchise, lost under the system they advocated because they were not the locally influential and affluent men. The mixed results led to confrontations similar to the "June Days" uprising in Paris. Additionally, these constituent assemblies were charged with the impossible task of managing both the needs of the people of the state and determining what that state physically

3200-711: The party of movement was looked at as an opportunity for lower classes to renew old conflicts with greater anger and energy. Several tax boycotts and attempted murders of tax collectors occurred in Vienna . Assaults against soldiers were common, including against Radetzky's troops retreating from Milan . The archbishop of Vienna was forced to flee, and in Graz, the convent of the Jesuits was destroyed. The demands of nationalism and its contradictions became apparent as new national governments began declaring power and unity. Charles Albert of Sardinia , King of Piedmont-Savoy, initiated

3264-483: The population being Croats, Serbs and Vlachs. In exchange, the people who lived in the area had an obligation to fight for the Empire, and to protect the land. In 1630 Emperor Ferdinand II enacted the Statuta Valachorum laws. It was known that the soldiers had to fulfill military service between the ages of 16 and 66. At the end of the 17th century, Habsburg Kingdom of Croatia expanded its borders so

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3328-642: The product of mounting social and political tensions after the Congress of Vienna of 1815. During the "pre-March" period, the already conservative Austrian Empire moved further away from ideas of the Age of Enlightenment , restricted freedom of the press, limited many university activities, and banned fraternities. Conflicts between debtors and creditors in agricultural production as well as over land use rights in parts of Hungary led to conflicts that occasionally erupted into violence. Conflict over organized religion

3392-470: The revolution was in the cities of Milan and Venice , with the Republic of San Marco lasting under siege until 28th of August, 1849 . The Hungarian Diet was reconvened in 1825 to handle financial needs. A liberal party emerged in the Diet. The party focused on providing for the peasantry in mostly symbolic ways because of their inability to understand the needs of the laborers. Lajos Kossuth emerged as

3456-535: The settlement was confirmed, enforced and sanctioned by His Imperial and Apostolic Royal Majesty, it was thereby incorporated as a joint fundamental law of Hungary and of Croatia , Slavonia and Dalmatia . With this compromise the Croatian Parliament elected twenty-nine (forty after reincorporation of Croatian Military Frontier and Slavonian Military Frontier in 1881) deputies to the House of Representatives and two members (three after 1881) to

3520-418: The spring of 1848 led to a renewed conflict with Austrian forces in the provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. At the very first anniversary of the first barricades in Vienna, German and Czech democrats in Bohemia agreed to put mutual hostilities aside and work together on revolutionary planning. Hungarians faced the greatest challenge of overcoming the divisions of the previous year, as the fighting there had been

3584-639: The territory of the Croatian Military Frontier was also expanded to include some former Ottoman territories in the east. In 1783 it was placed under the unified control of the Croatian General Command headquartered in Zagreb . The Military Frontier was demilitarized on 8 August 1873. The Croatian Military Frontier existed until 15 July 1881, when it was abolished and incorporated into the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia (like

3648-409: The third country of Continental Europe (after France , in 1791, and Belgium , in 1831) to enact a law implementing democratic parliamentary elections. The new suffrage law (Act V of 1848) transformed the old feudal parliament ( Estates General ) into a democratic representative parliament. This law offered the widest right to vote in Europe at the time. The April laws utterly erased all privileges of

3712-444: The town by Hungarian forces began under Baron Fülöp Berchtold. The army was forced to retreat due to a strong Serbian defense. With war raging on three fronts (against Romanians and Serbs in Banat and Bačka, and Romanians in Transylvania ), Hungarian radicals in Pest saw this as an opportunity. Parliament made concessions to the radicals in September rather than let the events erupt into violent confrontations. Shortly thereafter,

3776-404: Was appointed the new ban of Croatia-Slavonia in March by the imperial court, was removed from his position by the constitutional monarchist Hungarian government. He refused to give up his authority in the name of the monarch. Thus, there were two governments in Hungary issuing contradictory orders in the name of Ferdinand von Habsburg. Aware that they were on the path to civil war in mid-1848,

3840-416: Was imposed by the king on October 20, 1867; it reduced the number of elected representatives to 66 and increased the number of unelected ones (the so-called virilist members). In the election held from November 19 to December 23, 1867, the People's Party won only 14 seats, and Rauch's Unionist Party obtained a majority in the Sabor . Although many Croats who sought full autonomy for the South Slavs of

3904-461: Was only countered when peasants, in turn, rose up against the nobles. The economic crisis of 1845–47 was marked by recession and food shortages throughout the continent. At the end of February 1848, demonstrations broke out in Paris . Louis Philippe of France abdicated the throne, prompting similar revolts throughout the continent. After news broke of the February victories in Paris, uprisings occurred throughout Europe, including in Vienna , where

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3968-725: Was opened in Lviv University , and the first Ukrainian newspaper Zoria Halytska started publishing in Lviv on May 15, 1848. On July 1, serfdom was also abolished in Bukovina. By early summer, conservative regimes had been overthrown, new freedoms (including freedom of the press and freedom of association) had been introduced, and multiple nationalist claims had been exerted. New parliaments quickly held elections with broad franchise to create constituent assemblies, which would write new constitutions. The elections that were held produced unexpected results. The new voters, naïve and confused by their new political power, typically elected conservative or moderately liberal representatives. The radicals,

4032-455: Was pervasive in pre-1848 Europe. Tension came both from within Catholicism and between members of different confessions. These conflicts were often mixed with conflict with the state. Important for the revolutionaries were state conflicts including the armed forces and collection of taxes. As 1848 approached, the revolutions the Empire crushed to maintain longstanding conservative minister Klemens Wenzel von Metternich 's Concert of Europe left

4096-549: Was unable to keep his soldiers fighting Venetian and Milanese insurgents in Lombardy-Venetia , and instead had to order the remaining troops to evacuate. Social and political conflict as well as inter and intra confessional hostility momentarily subsided as much of the continent rejoiced in the liberal victories. Mass political organizations and public participation in government became widespread. However, liberal ministers were unable to establish central authority. Provisional governments in Venice and Milan quickly expressed

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