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169-703: The requirement for detailed integration because of proximity, fires or movement is the determining factor. CAS may need to be conducted during shaping operations with special forces if the mission requires detailed integration with the fire and movement of those forces. A closely related subset of air interdiction , battlefield air interdiction , denotes interdiction against units with near-term effects on friendly units, but which does not require integration with friendly troop movements. CAS requires excellent coordination with ground forces, typically handled by specialists such as artillery observers , joint terminal attack controllers , and forward air controllers . World War I

338-407: A Beardmore, initially of 120 hp, although later F.E.2bs received the 160 hp (119 kW) model. The air brake of the "a" failed to deliver a worthwhile reduction in the landing run and was omitted to simplify production. The type could also carry an external bomb load, and was routinely fitted with a standard air-photography camera. A total of 1,939 F.E.2bs were built, only a few of them at

507-480: A Forward Air Support Link at each brigade to forward air support requests. When trained tentacle teams arrived in 1942, they cut response time on support requests to thirty minutes. It was also in the North Africa desert that the cab rank strategy was developed. It used a series of three aircraft, each in turn directed by the pertinent ground control by radio. One aircraft would be attacking, another in flight to

676-437: A concern – pilots did not know recognition signals and regularly bombed friendly units, until an A-36 was shot down in self-defense by Allied tanks. The expectation of losses to friendly fire from the ground during the planned invasion of France prompted the black and white invasion stripes painted on all Allied aircraft from 1944. In 1944, USAAF commander Lt. Gen. Henry ("Hap") Arnold acquired 2 groups of A-24 dive bombers,

845-456: A crew of two in a wood and canvas nacelle , and was powered by a 50 hp (37 kW) Gnome rotary engine . It made its maiden flight on 18 August 1911, flown by de Havilland. It was fitted with floats in April 1912, first flying in this form on 12 April 1912, but was underpowered and its engine was therefore replaced by a 70 hp (52 kW) Gnome, this allowed it to take off carrying

1014-442: A critical importance in places where the infantry had got pinned down. At this time, British doctrine came to recognize two forms of air support; trench strafing (the modern-day doctrine of CAS), and ground strafing (the modern-day doctrine of air interdiction ) – attacking tactical ground targets away from the land battle. As well as strafing with machine-guns, planes engaged in such operations were commonly modified with bomb racks;

1183-517: A day fighter, the F.E.2 proved very suitable for use at night and was used as a night fighter in home defence squadrons on anti- Zeppelin patrols and as a light tactical night bomber. It was first used as a night bomber in November 1916, with the first specialist F.E.2b night bomber squadrons being formed in February 1917. F.E.2bs were used as night bombers in eight bomber squadrons until the end of

1352-705: A declining supply of aircraft and fuel, crippled their ability to provide effective CAS on the western front after 1943. The Royal Air Force (RAF) entered the war woefully unprepared to provide CAS. In 1940 during the Battle of France , the Royal Air Force and Army headquarters in France were located at separate positions, resulting in unreliable communications. After the RAF was withdrawn in May, Army officers had to telephone

1521-517: A difficult opponent for even the best German aces. Rittmeister Baron von Richthofen was badly wounded in the head during combat with F.E.2d aircraft in June 1917 – the Red Baron, like most German pilots of the period, classed the F.E.2 as a "Vickers" type, confusing it with the earlier Vickers F.B.5 . In combat with single-seater fighters, the pilots of F.E.2b and F.E.2d fighters would form what

1690-433: A digitally-networked battlefield", whereas the "indirect approach includes empowering host nation forces, providing appropriate assistance to humanitarian agencies, and engaging key populations." Elements of national power must be deployed in concert without over-reliance on a single capability, such as special forces, that leaves the entire force unprepared and hollow across the spectrum of military operations. Throughout

1859-484: A fighter-reconnaissance aircraft – eventually about ⅔ of the F.E.2s were built as fighters (816) and ⅓ as bombers (395). The F.E.2b and F.E.2d variants remained in day operations well into 1917, while the "b" continued as a standard night bomber until August 1918. At its peak, the F.E.2b equipped 16 RFC squadrons in France and six Home Defence squadrons in England. On 18 June 1916, German flying ace Max Immelmann

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2028-766: A further and lower convergence point than aerial combat did. Of the Allied powers that fought in the Second World War, the Soviet Union used specifically designed ground attack aircraft more than the UK and US. Such aircraft included the Ilyushin Il-2 , the single most produced military aircraft at any point in world history. The Soviet military also frequently deployed the Polikarpov Po-2 biplane as

2197-450: A greater psychological effect on friendly and hostile forces alike. Moreover, unlike massive, indiscriminate artillery strikes, small aerial bombs would not render ground untrafficable, slowing attacking friendly forces. Although the prevailing view in official circles was largely indifferent to CAS during the interwar period, its importance was expounded upon by military theorists, such as J. F. C. Fuller and Basil Liddell Hart . Hart, who

2366-411: A ground attack aircraft. Special forces Special forces or special operations forces ( SOF ) are military units trained to conduct special operations . NATO has defined special operations as "military activities conducted by specially designated, organized, selected, trained and equipped forces using unconventional techniques and modes of employment". Special forces emerged in

2535-484: A high tempo of exploitation even when they outran their artillery assets. He also used a modified antiaircraft radar to track friendly attack aircraft to redirect them as necessary, and experimented with assigning fighter pilots to tours as forward air controllers to familiarize them with the ground perspective. In July 1944, Quesada provided VHF aircraft radios to tank crews in Normandy. When the armored units broke out of

2704-470: A key factor in the rapid advance and success of his Third Army. The American Navy and Marine Corps used CAS in conjunction with or as a substitute for the lack of available artillery or naval gunfire in the Pacific theater . Navy and Marine F6F Hellcats and F4U Corsairs used a variety of ordnance such as conventional bombs, rockets and napalm to dislodge or attack Japanese troops using cave complexes in

2873-479: A light tactical night bomber, and remained a standard type in this role for the rest of the war. Its climb rate and ceiling were too poor for it to make a satisfactory night fighter. The F.E.2a entered service in May 1915 with No. 6 Squadron RFC , which used the F.E.2 in conjunction with B.E.2s and a single Bristol Scout . The first squadron to be equipped entirely with the F.E.2 was 20 Squadron , deploying to France on 23 January 1916. At this stage it served as

3042-692: A meeting with the C-in-C Middle East, General Claude Auchinleck , his plan was endorsed by the Army High Command. The force initially consisted of five officers and 60 other ranks . Following extensive training at Kabrit camp , by the River Nile , L Detachment, SAS Brigade, undertook its first operations in the Western Desert . Stirling's vision was eventually vindicated after a series of successful operations. In 1942,

3211-768: A more cost-effective way of controlling large areas than the use of conventional land forces. It was effectively used to suppress the Great Iraqi Revolution of 1920 and various other tribal revolts. During the Spanish Civil War German volunteer aviators of the Condor Legion on the Nationalist side, despite little official support from their government, developed close air support tactics that proved highly influential for subsequent Luftwaffe doctrine. U.S. Marine Corps Aviation

3380-406: A passenger while fitted with floats. Later in the year the F.E.2, refitted with a landplane undercarriage, was modified to carry a Maxim machine gun on a flexible mount in the nose. The second F.E.2 was officially a rebuild of the first F.E.2, and may indeed have included some components from the earlier aircraft. It was, however, a totally new and much more modern design, larger and heavier than

3549-535: A product of the Reagan administration under Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger . Admiral William H. McRaven , formerly the ninth commanding officer of USSOCOM (2011–2014), described two approaches to special forces operations in the 2012 posture statement to the U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services : "the direct approach is characterized by technologically enabled small-unit precision lethality, focused intelligence , and inter-agency cooperation integrated on

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3718-585: A proposal to General Sir John Dill , the Chief of the Imperial General Staff . Dill, aware of Churchill's intentions, approved Clarke's proposal and on 23 June 1940, the first Commando raid took place. By the autumn of 1940 more than 2,000 men had volunteered and in November 1940 these new units were organised into a Special Service Brigade consisting of four battalions under the command of Brigadier J. C. Haydon. The Special Service Brigade

3887-464: A role previously dominated by FACs on the ground, and the use of B-52s for CAS . U.S. Marine Corps Aviation was much more prepared for the application of CAS in the Vietnam War, due to CAS being its central mission. In fact, as late as 1998, Marines were still claiming in their training manuals that "Close air support (CAS) is a Marine Corps innovation." One of the main debates taking place within

4056-436: A sector commander of Mukti Bahini , planned to deploy a special commando team. The task assigned to the team was to carry out commando operations and to terrorize Dhaka . The major objective of this team was to prove that the situation was not actually normal. Moreover, Pakistan, at that time, was expecting economic aid from World Bank, which was assumed to be spent to buy arms. The plan was to make World Bank Mission understand

4225-516: A separate combat arm. The Macheteros de Jara was an auxiliary cavalry regiment that was organized since August 15, 1932, before the Battle of Boquerón began. The regiment was recruited from former outlaws from Paraguay who fought against Bolivian officers and soldiers. The 50th Infantry Regiment (Cuchilleros de la Muerte) was a Bolivian infantry regiment that fought in the Chaco War. Nicknamed

4394-690: A sharpshooter under the command of General Licerio Gerónimo , killed General Henry Ware Lawton of the United States Army , making the latter the highest ranking casualty during the course of the war. The German Stormtroopers and the Italian Arditi were the first modern shock troops. They were both elite assault units trained to a much higher level than that of average troops and tasked to carry out daring attacks and bold raids against enemy defenses. Unlike Stormtroopers, Arditi were not units within infantry divisions, but were considered

4563-469: A standard infantry battalion , and it lacked any form of artillery , and had to rely on other units for logistical support. Its men were no longer parachute-trained, but relied on aircraft for transport. Some 750 men from the 2nd Raiding Brigade , of this group were assigned to attack American air bases on Luzon and Leyte on the night of 6 December 1944. They were flown in Ki-57 transports , but most of

4732-538: Is a well known example of a dive bomber built for precision bombing but which was successfully used for CAS. It was fitted with wind-blown sirens on its landing gear to enhance its psychological effect. Some variants of the Stuka were equipped with a pair of 37 mm (1.5 in) Bordkanone BK 3,7 cannons mounted in under-wing gun pods, each loaded with two six-round magazines of armour-piercing tungsten carbide -cored ammunition, for anti-tank operations. Other than

4901-690: The AN/MPQ-14 , a system that enabled radar-guided bomb release at night or in poor weather. Though the Marine Corps continued its tradition of intimate air–ground cooperation in the Korean War , the newly created United States Air Force (USAF) again moved away from CAS, now to strategic bombers and jet interceptors . Though eventually the Air Force supplied sufficient pilots and forward air controllers to provide battlefield support, coordination

5070-696: The Barisha Raid in Syria of 2019. The U.S. invasion of Afghanistan involved special forces from several coalition nations, who played a major role in removing the Taliban from power in 2001–2002. Special forces have continued to play a role in combating the Taliban in subsequent operations. Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2 Between 1911 and 1914, the Royal Aircraft Factory used

5239-463: The Battle of Ilomantsi , Soviet supply lines were harassed to the point that the Soviet artillery was unable to exploit its massive numerical advantage over Finnish artillery. Their operations were also classified as secret because of the political sensitivity of such operations. Only authorized military historians could publish on their operations; individual soldiers were required to take the secrets to

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5408-531: The Battle of Palembang , on Sumatra in the Netherlands East Indies , on 14 February 1942. The operation was well-planned, with 425 men of the 1st Parachute Raiding Regiment seizing Palembang airfield, while the paratroopers of the 2nd Parachute Raiding Regiment seized the town and its important oil refinery. Paratroops were subsequently deployed in the Burma campaign . The 1st Glider Tank Troop

5577-588: The Battle of the Somme . Robert Radcliffe's novel Across the Blood-Red Skies is narrated by an F.E.2 pilot, and offers an insight into the skills required to fly the aeroplane. William Stanley's novel One Spring in Picardy is the story of a night-bomber FE2b squadron in France in the spring of 1918. Captain W.E. Johns ' character Biggles starts his operational career in the fictional 169 Squadron, flying

5746-679: The F.E.2 ("Farman Experimental 2") designation for three quite different aircraft that shared only a common "Farman" pusher biplane layout. The third "F.E.2" type was operated as a day and night bomber and fighter by the Royal Flying Corps during the First World War . Along with the single-seat D.H.2 pusher biplane and the Nieuport 11 , the F.E.2 was instrumental in ending the Fokker Scourge that had seen

5915-706: The German Air Service establish a measure of air superiority on the Western Front from the late summer of 1915 to the following spring. The Farman Experimental 2 designation refers to three quite distinct designs – all pushers based on the general layout employed by the French aircraft designers, the Farman Brothers – but otherwise completely different aircraft. This "re-use" of the F.E.2 designation has caused much confusion. The first F.E.2

6084-947: The Iranian Embassy siege (London), the Air France Flight 8969 ( Marseille ), Operation Defensive Shield , Operation Khukri , the Moscow theater hostage crisis , Operation Orchard , the Japanese Embassy hostage crisis ( Lima ), in Sri Lanka against the LTTE , the raid on Osama Bin Laden's compound in Pakistan, the 2016 Indian Line of Control strike the 2015 Indian counter-insurgency operation in Myanmar and

6253-511: The Napoleonic wars , rifle regiments and sapper units were formed that held specialised roles in reconnaissance and skirmishing and were not committed to the formal battle lines. Between the 17th and 18th centuries, there were wars between American colonists and Native American tribes. In Colonial America specialized Rangers formed and first mentioned by Capt. John Smith , in 1622. Learning frontier skills from friendly Native Americans

6422-552: The No. 8 (Guards) Commando (later named " Layforce "). After Layforce was disbanded, Stirling remained convinced that due to the mechanized nature of war a small team of highly trained soldiers with the advantage of surprise could exact greater damage to the enemy's ability to fight than an entire platoon. His idea was for small teams of parachute trained soldiers to operate behind enemy lines to gain intelligence, destroy enemy aircraft, and attack their supply and reinforcement routes. Following

6591-764: The North African Campaign in 1941 the British Army and the Royal Air Force established Forward Air Support Links (FASL), a mobile air support system using ground vehicles. Light reconnaissance aircraft would observe enemy activity and report it by radio to the FASL which was attached at brigade level. The FASL was in communication (a two-way radio link known as a "tentacle") with the Air Support Control (ASC) Headquarters attached to

6760-945: The North American A-36 Apache , a P-51 Mustang modified with dive brakes, the Americans and British used no dedicated CAS aircraft in the Second World War, preferring fighters or fighter-bombers that could be pressed into CAS service. While some aircraft, such as the Hawker Typhoon and the P-47 Thunderbolt , performed admirably in that role, there were a number of compromises that prevented most fighters from making effective CAS platforms. Fighters were usually optimized for high-altitude operations without bombs or other external ordnance – flying at low level with bombs quickly expended fuel. Cannons had to be mounted differently for strafing – strafing required

6929-631: The Second Battle of the Aisne , the British debuted the first ground-attack aircraft, a modified F.E 2b fighter carrying 20 lb (9.1 kg) bombs and mounted machine-guns . After exhausting their ammunition, the planes returned to base for refueling and rearming before returning to the battle-zone. Other modified planes used in this role were the Airco DH.5 and Sopwith Camel – the latter

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7098-480: The Spanish Civil War lead to the creation of five ground-attack groups in 1938, four of which would be equipped with Stukas . The Luftwaffe matched its material acquisitions with advances in the air-ground coordination. General Wolfram von Richthofen organized a limited number of air liaison detachments that were attached to ground units of the main effort. These detachments existed to pass requests from

7267-588: The United States , the term special forces often refers specifically to the U.S. Army Special Forces , while the term special operations forces is used more broadly for these types of units. Special forces capabilities include the following: Other capabilities can include close personal protection ; waterborne operations involving combat diving/combat swimming , maritime boarding and amphibious missions; as well as support of air force operations . Special forces have played an important role throughout

7436-557: The United States Army Rangers specialist soldier dates back to the 17th through 19th century from military units such as United States Mounted Rangers , United States Rangers and Texas Rangers . In WWII mid-1942, Major-General Lucian Truscott of the U.S. Army, a General Staff submitted a proposal to General George Marshall onceived under the guidance of then Army Chief of Staff, General George C. Marshall, that selectively trained Ranger soldiers were recruited for

7605-769: The War Office in London to arrange for air support. The stunning effectiveness of German air-ground coordination spurred change. On the basis of tests in Northern Ireland in August 1940, Group Captain A. H. Wann RAF and Colonel J.D. Woodall (British Army) issued the Wann-Woodall Report, recommending the creation of a distinct tactical air force liaison officer (known colloquially as "tentacles") to accompany Army divisions and brigades. Their report spurred

7774-459: The invasion of Normandy , 33 divisions had received no joint air-ground training. The USAAF saw the greatest innovations in 1944 under General Elwood Quesada , commander of IX Tactical Air Command, supporting the First U.S. Army. He developed the "armored column cover", where on-call fighter-bombers maintained a high level of availability for important tank advances, allowing armor units to maintain

7943-576: The invasion of Normandy . CAS continued to advance during the conflicts of the Cold War , especially the Korean War and the Vietnam War ; major milestones included the introduction of attack helicopters , gunships , and dedicated CAS attack jets . The use of aircraft in the close air support of ground forces dates back to World War I , the first conflict to make significant military use of aerial forces. Air warfare, and indeed aviation itself,

8112-428: The 1911 aircraft, with the wingspan increased from 33 ft (10.06 m) to 42 ft (12.80 m) and a new, more streamlined nacelle. Loaded weight rose from 1,200 lb (545 kg) to 1,865 lb (848 kg). The new F.E.2 used the outer wings of the B.E.2a , with wing warping instead of ailerons for lateral control, and was powered by a 70 hp Renault engine. It was destroyed when it spun into

8281-422: The 1917 book, the F.E.2 suffers badly at the hands of the more advanced German aircraft and Harsker converts to a Sopwith. The Royal Air Force Museum London displays an F.E.2b. The wings and tail struts are replicas but the aircraft's nacelle and engine are original. The nacelle was made in 1918 by Richard Garrett & Sons , who were subcontracted to make the nacelles for Boulton & Paul Ltd , who assembled

8450-494: The 1973 Yom Kippur War , provided aircraft with an effective ranged anti-tank weapon. These considerations motivated armies to promote the helicopter from a support role to a combat arm. Though the U.S. Army controlled rotary-wing assets, coordination continued to pose a problem. During wargames, field commanders tended to hold back attack helicopters out of fear of air defenses, committing them too late to effectively support ground units. The earlier debate over control over CAS assets

8619-779: The 19th-20th century until the modern formation of the Army Ranger Battalions in WWII. The British Indian Army deployed two special forces during their border wars: the Corps of Guides formed in 1846 and the Gurkha Scouts (a force that was formed in the 1890s and was first used as a detached unit during the 1897–1898 Tirah Campaign ). During the Second Boer War (1899–1902) the British Army felt

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8788-422: The Allied lines by mis-directing convoys away from the front lines. A handful of his men were captured by the Americans and spread a rumor that Skorzeny was leading a raid on Paris to kill or capture General Dwight Eisenhower . Although this was untrue, Eisenhower was confined to his headquarters for several days and Skorzeny was labelled "the most dangerous man in Europe". In Italy , the Decima Flottiglia MAS

8957-409: The Allied system used to subsequently gain victory in the air over Germany in 1944 and devastate its cities and industries. The use of forward air control to guide close air support (CAS) aircraft, so as to ensure that their attack hits the intended target and not friendly troops, was first used by the British Desert Air Force in North Africa, but not by the USAAF until operations in Salerno. During

9126-430: The American colonies, including Knowlton's Rangers , an elite corps of Rangers who supplied reconnaissance and espionage for George Washington 's Continental Army. Daniel Morgan , was known as leader of The Corps of Rangers for the Continental Army . Rogers' Rangers on Roger's Island, in modern-day Fort Edward, New York, is regarded as the "spiritual home" of the United States Special Operations Forces , specifically

9295-404: The Australians also raised the Z Special Unit and M Special Unit . M Special Unit was largely employed in an intelligence-gathering role, while Z Special Force undertook direct action missions. One of its most notable actions came as part of Operation Jaywick , in which several Japanese ships were sunk in Singapore Harbour in 1943. A second raid on Singapore in 1944, known as Operation Rimau ,

9464-529: The British Special Forces, with the curricula differing according to each soldier's specialization. Their task, on deployment to Poland, was to sustain the structures of the Polish state, training the members of the Resistance in fighting the German occupant. This included taking part in the Warsaw Uprising . Following advice from the British, Australia began raising special forces. The first units to be formed were independent companies , which began training at Wilson's Promontory in Victoria in early 1941 under

9633-446: The British achieved air superiority over the German aircraft sent to aid the Ottoman Turks , squadrons of S.E 5a's and D.H. 4s were sent on wide-ranging attacks against German and Turkish positions near the Jordan river . Combined with a ground assault led by General Edmund Allenby , three Turkish armies soon collapsed into a full rout. In the words of the attacking squadron's official report: No 1 Squadron made six heavy raids during

9802-447: The British system. At the start of the War, the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) had, as its principal mission, the doctrine of strategic bombing. This incorporated the unerring belief that unescorted bombers could win the war without the advent of ground troops. This doctrine proved to be fundamentally flawed. However, during the entire course of the war the USAAF top brass clung to this doctrine, and hence operated independently of

9971-434: The CAS role. Though the Army gained more control over its own CAS due to the development of the helicopter gunship and attack helicopter, the Air Force continued to provide fixed-wing CAS for Army units. Over the course of the war, the adaptation of The Tactical Air Control System proved crucial to the improvement of Air Force CAS. Jets replaced propeller-driven aircraft with minimal issues. The assumption of responsibility for

10140-612: The Chindits and took part in similar operations in Burma. In late November 1943, the Alamo Scouts (Sixth Army Special Reconnaissance Unit) were formed to conduct reconnaissance and raider work in the Southwest Pacific Theater under the personal command of then Lt. General Walter Krueger , Commanding General, Sixth U.S. Army. Krueger envisioned that the Alamo Scouts, consisting of small teams of highly trained volunteers, would operate deep behind enemy lines to provide intelligence-gathering and tactical reconnaissance in advance of Sixth U.S. Army landing operations. In 1983, nearly 40 years after

10309-436: The Commando training depot at Achnacarry in the Scottish Highlands was established by Brigadier Charles Haydon. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Charles Vaughan, the Commando depot was responsible for training complete units and individual replacements. The training regime was for the time innovative and physically demanding, and far in advance of normal British Army training. The depot staff were all hand picked, with

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10478-400: The Commandos served in all theatres of war from the Arctic Circle to Europe and from the Mediterranean and Middle East to South-East Asia . Their operations ranged from small groups of men landing from the sea or by parachute to a brigade of assault troops spearheading the Allied invasions of Europe and Asia. The first modern special forces units were established by men who had served with

10647-490: The Commandos, including the Parachute Regiment , Special Air Service , and Special Boat Service . The No. 10 (Inter-Allied) Commando organised by British of volunteers from occupied Europe led to French Commandos Marine , Dutch Korps Commandotroepen , Belgian Paracommando Brigade . The first modern special forces unit was the Special Air Service (SAS), formed in July 1941 from an unorthodox idea and plan by Lieutenant David Stirling . In June 1940 he volunteered for

10816-451: The Desert Air Force, was steadily refined and perfected, during the campaigns in Italy, Normandy and Germany. By the time the Italian Campaign had reached Rome , the Allies had established air superiority . They were then able to pre-schedule strikes by fighter-bomber squadrons; however, by the time the aircraft arrived in the strike area, oftentimes the targets, which were usually trucks, had fled. The initial solution to fleeing targets

10985-417: The F.E.2 were sold to China in 1919 by Vickers as Vickers Instructional Machines (VIM), to be used as advanced trainers, having a redesigned nacelle fitted with dual controls and powered by a Rolls-Royce Eagle VIII engine. Derek Robinson 's novel War Story is about the fictional Hornet Squadron flying the F.E.2b, and later the F.E.2d, giving an account of flying the fighter in the months leading up to

11154-463: The F.E.2b, one to full airworthiness standards and fitted with a genuine Beardmore engine, have been manufactured by The Vintage Aviator of New Zealand. [REDACTED]   Australia [REDACTED]   United Kingdom During its widespread service, 48 aces flew the FE2 and 20 observers also became aces. F.E.2b pilot aces F.E.2d pilot aces F.E.2b observer aces F.E.2d observer aces Data from Warplanes of

11323-420: The F.E.2b. Grif Hosker's five book series about Royal Flying Corps air combat in WWI: 1914 , 1915–Fokker Scourge , 1916–Angels Over the Somme , 1917–Eagles Fall , and 1918–We Will Remember Them , vividly depict combat from an F.E.2. The protagonist, (a fictional character) Capt Bill Harsker, begins his flying career as an airman gunner in the front of a Vickers Gunbus and advances to become an ace pilot. By

11492-418: The First World War, with up to 860 being converted to, or built as bombers. Service as a night fighter was less successful, owing to the type's poor climb and ceiling. F.E.2bs were experimentally fitted with flotation bags for operation over water and were also used to conduct anti-submarine patrols, operating from the Isle of Grain at the mouth of the Thames River . A total of 35 aircraft derived from

11661-444: The Germans were first exposed to dive-bombing , which permitted greater accuracy while making attack aircraft more difficult to track by antiaircraft gunners. As a result, Ernst Udet , chief of the Luftwaffe's development, initiated procurement of close support dive bombers on the model of the U.S. Navy's Curtiss Helldiver , resulting in the Henschel Hs 123 , which was later replaced by the famous Junkers Ju 87 Stuka . Experience in

11830-483: The Knives of Death (Spanish: Cuchillos de la Muerte), the regiment relied almost exclusively on the use of blade weapons, particularly bayonets. Modern special forces emerged during the Second World War . In 1940, the British Commandos were formed following Winston Churchill 's call for "specially trained troops of the hunter class, who can develop a reign of terror down the enemy coast." A staff officer , Lieutenant Colonel Dudley Clarke , had already submitted such

11999-478: The Luftwaffe refused to provide Erwin Rommel with an air liaison officer for the Afrika Korps , because it "would be against the best use of the air force as a whole." German CAS was also extensively used on the Eastern Front during the period 1941–1943. Their decline was caused by the growing strength of the Red Air Force and the redeployment of assets to defend against American and British strategic bombardment. Luftwaffe's loss of air superiority, combined with

12168-457: The Marine Corps during the war was whether to adopt the helicopter gunship as a part of CAS doctrine and what its adoption would mean for fixed-wing CAS in the Marine Corps. The issue would eventually be put to rest, however, as the helicopter gunship proved crucial in the combat environment of Vietnam. Though helicopters were initially armed merely as defensive measures to support the landing and extraction of troops, their value in this role led to

12337-456: The Normandy beachhead, tank commanders were able to communicate directly with overhead fighter-bombers. However, despite the innovation, Quesada focused his aircraft on CAS only for major offensives. Typically, both British and American attack aircraft were tasked primarily to interdiction, even though later analysis showed them to be twice as dangerous as CAS. XIX TAC , under the command of General Otto P. Weyland used similar tactics to support

12506-504: The OSS. On February 16, 1942, the U.S. Marine Corps activated a battalion of Marines with the specific purpose of securing beach heads, and other special operations. The battalion became the first modern special operations force of the U.S. The battalion became known as Marine Raiders due to Admiral Chester Nimitz 's request for "raiders" in the Pacific front of the war. The history of

12675-493: The RAF to create an RAF Army Cooperation Command and to develop tentacle equipment and procedures placing an Air Liaison Officer with each brigade. Although the RAF was working on its CAS doctrine in London, officers in North Africa improvised their own coordination techniques. In October 1941, Sir Arthur Tedder and Arthur Coningham , senior RAF commanders in North Africa, created joint RAF-Army Air Support Control staffs at each corps and armored division headquarters, and placed

12844-623: The Rangers helped carry out offensive strikes " frontier combat " against hostile Natives. Thus Ranger companies were formed to provide reconnaissance, intelligence, light infantry, and scouting. Colonel Benjamin Church (c. 1639–1718) was the captain of the first Ranger force in America (1676). Many Colonial officers would take the philosophies of Benjamin Church's ranging and form their own Ranger units. Several Ranger companies were established in

13013-479: The Royal Aircraft Factory, as most construction was by private British manufacturers such as G & J Weir , Boulton & Paul Ltd and Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies . Early in the F.E.2b's career, a second Lewis gun was added in front of the pilot's cockpit, on a high telescopic mounting so that the pilot could fire forward, over his observer's head. In practice, this gun was appropriated by

13182-703: The SAS attacked Bouerat. Transported by the Long Range Desert Group (which carried out deep penetration, covert reconnaissance patrols, intelligence missions and attacks behind the enemy lines from 1940), they caused severe damage to the harbour, petrol tanks and storage facilities. This was followed up in March by a raid on Benghazi harbour with limited success but they did damage to 15 aircraft at Al-Berka . The June 1942 Crete airfield raids at Heraklion , Kasteli , Tympaki and Maleme significant damage

13351-610: The United Nations Commander, Gen. Mark Clark , to permanently attach an attack squadron to each of the four army corps in Korea. Though the request was denied, Clark allocated many more Navy and Air Force aircraft to CAS. Despite the rocky start, the USAF would also work to improve its coordination efforts. It eventually required pilots to serve 80 days as forward air controllers (FACs), which gave them an understanding of

13520-613: The United States Army Rangers. These early American light infantry battalions were trained under Robert Rogers' 28 "Rules of Ranging" , which is considered the first known manual of modern asymmetric warfare tactics used in modern special operations. Various military Ranger units such as the United States Mounted Rangers , United States Rangers , Loudoun Rangers , 43rd Virginia Rangers , and Texas Military Rangers continued throughout

13689-585: The ability to outperform any of the volunteers. Training and assessment started immediately on arrival, with the volunteers having to complete an 8-mile (13 km) march with all their equipment from the Spean Bridge railway station to the commando depot. Exercises were conducted using live ammunition and explosives to make training as realistic as possible. Physical fitness was a prerequisite, with cross country runs and boxing matches to improve fitness. Speed and endurance marches were conducted up and down

13858-839: The activity of the Panzers . Joseph Stalin paid the Il-2 a great tribute in his own inimitable manner: when a particular production factory fell behind on its deliveries, Stalin sent the following cable to the factory manager: "They are as essential to the Red Army as air and bread". From Navy experiments with the KGW-1 Loon , the Navy designation for the German V-1 flying bomb, Marine Captain Marian Cranford Dalby developed

14027-460: The air request net by the Air Force improved communication equipment and procedures, which had long been a problem. Additionally, a major step in satisfying the Army's demands for more control over their CAS was the successful implementation of close air support control agencies at the corps level under Air Force control. Other notable adaptations were the usage of airborne Forward Air Controllers (FACs),

14196-646: The air. Special forces have been used in both wartime and peacetime military operations such as the Laotian Civil War , Bangladesh Liberation War-1971 , Vietnam War , Portuguese Colonial War , South African Border War , Falklands War , The Troubles in Northern Ireland, the Jaffna University Helidrop , the first and second Gulf Wars, Afghanistan, Croatia , Kosovo , Bosnia , the first and second Chechen Wars ,

14365-705: The air. And in 1943, the USAAF changed their radios to a frequency incompatible with ground radios. The situation improved during the Italian Campaign , where American and British forces, working in close cooperation, exchanged CAS techniques and ideas. There, the AAF's XII Air Support Command and the Fifth U.S. Army shared headquarters, meeting every evening to plan strikes and devising a network of liaisons and radios for communications. However, friendly fire continued to be

14534-451: The aircraft by the blast of air or tossed out bodily if the pilot made a wrong move. There were no parachutes and no belts. No wonder they needed observers. The Royal Aircraft Factory was primarily a research establishment and other experiments were carried out using F.E.2bs, including the testing of a generator-powered searchlight attached between two .303 inch (7.7 mm) Lewis guns, apparently for night fighting duties. The F.E.2c

14703-718: The aircraft were shot down. Some 300 commandos managed to land in the Burauen area on Leyte. The force destroyed some planes and inflicted numerous casualties, before they were annihilated. During World War II, the Finnish Army and Border Guard organized sissi forces into a long-range reconnaissance patrol ( kaukopartio ) units. These were open only to volunteers and operated far behind enemy lines in small teams. They conducted both intelligence-gathering missions and raids on e.g. enemy supply depots or other strategic targets. They were generally highly effective. For example, during

14872-532: The army rather than the air force. Fighters and ground attack aircraft like the A-10 Thunderbolt II provide close air support using rockets, missiles, bombs, and strafing runs. During the Second World War, a mixture of dive bombers and fighters were used for CAS missions. Dive bombing permitted greater accuracy than level bombing runs, while the rapid altitude change made it more difficult for anti aircraft gunners to track. The Junkers Ju 87 Stuka

15041-599: The army version of the Navy's SBD-2, in response to the success of the Stuka and German CAS. Later, the USAAF developed a modification of the North American P-51 Mustang with dive brakes – the North American A-36 Apache . However, there was no training to match the purchases. Though Gen. Lesley McNair, commander of Army Ground Forces, pushed to change USAAF priorities, the latter failed to provide aircraft for even major training exercises. Six months before

15210-410: The battle area, while a third was being refuelled and rearmed at its base. If the first attack failed to destroy the tactical target, the aircraft in flight would be directed to continue the attack. The first aircraft would land for its own refuelling and rearming once the third had taken off. The CAS tactics developed and refined by the British during the campaign in North Africa served as the basis for

15379-542: The command of the divisional cavalry regiments that were re-designated as cavalry commando regiments. As a part of this structure, a total of 11 commando squadrons were raised. They continued to act independently and were often assigned at brigade level during the later stages of the war, taking part in the fighting in New Guinea, Bougainville and Borneo , where they were employed largely in long-range reconnaissance and flank protection roles. In addition to these units,

15548-571: The complete aircraft. However, this nacelle was unfinished and never built into a complete aircraft. It was retained by Garretts until 1976 when it was passed to the RAF Museum. In 1986, the museum began a restoration project and commissioned the construction of replica wings and tail; a Beardmore engine was bought in New Zealand in 1992. The lengthy restoration was finally completed and the aircraft put on display in 2009. Two reproductions of

15717-500: The conflict. Aviators, who wanted institutional independence from the Army, pushed for a view of air-power centered around interdiction, which would relieve them of the necessity of integrating with ground forces and allow them to operate as an independent military arm. They saw close air support as both the most difficult and most inefficient use of aerial assets. Close air support was the most difficult mission, requiring identifying and distinguishing between friendly and hostile units. At

15886-438: The corps or armoured division which could summon support through a Rear Air Support Link with the airfields. They also introduced the system of ground direction of air strikes by what was originally termed a "Mobile Fighter Controller" traveling with the forward troops. The controller rode in the "leading tank or armoured car" and directed a "cab rank" of aircraft above the battlefield. This system of close co-operation first used by

16055-421: The creation of the air liaison officer (ALO) position. The ALO is an aeronautically rated officer that has spent a tour away from the cockpit, serving as the primary adviser to the ground commander on the capabilities and limitations of airpower . The Korean War revealed important flaws in the application of CAS. Firstly, the USAF preferred interdiction over fire support while the Army regarded support missions as

16224-419: The creators of the combined-arms tactical doctrine commonly known as " blitzkrieg ", believed the best way to provide cover for the crossing would be a continuous stream of ground attack aircraft on French defenders. Though few guns were hit, the attacks kept the French under cover and prevented them from manning their guns. Aided by the sirens attached to Stukas , the psychological impact was disproportional to

16393-416: The day, dropped three tons of bombs and fired nearly 24,000 machine gun rounds. The close air support doctrine was further developed in the interwar period . Most theorists advocated the adaptation of fighters or light bombers into the role. During this period, airpower advocates crystallized their views on the role of air-power in warfare. Aviators and ground officers developed largely opposing views on

16562-665: The defeat of the Afghan military during the Third Anglo-Afghan War by harassing Afghani troops and breaking up their formations. Z Force, an RAF air squadron, was also used to support ground operations during the Somaliland campaign , in which the Darawiish king Diiriye Guure 's insurgency was defeated. Following from these successes, the decision was made to create a unified RAF Iraq Command to use air power as

16731-526: The destructive power of close air support (although as often as not, the Stukas were used as tactical bombers instead of close air support, leaving much of the actual work to the older Hs 123 units for the first years of the war). In addition, the reliance on air support over artillery reduced the demand for logistical support through the Ardennes. Though there were difficulties in coordinating air support with

16900-400: The difficulties from the ground perspective and helped cooperation when they returned to the cockpit. The USAF also provided airborne FACs in critical locations. The Army also learned to assist, by suppressing anti-aircraft fire prior to air strikes. The U.S. Army wanted a dedicated USAF presence on the battlefield to reduce fratricide , or the harm of friendly forces. This preference led to

17069-671: The early 20th century, with a significant growth in the field during World War II , when "every major army involved in the fighting" created formations devoted to special operations behind enemy lines. Depending on the country, special forces may perform functions including airborne operations , counter-insurgency , counter-terrorism , foreign internal defense , covert ops , direct action , hostage rescue , high-value targets / manhunt , intelligence operations , mobility operations , and unconventional warfare . In Russian-speaking countries, special forces of any country are typically called spetsnaz , an acronym for "special purpose". In

17238-880: The end of World War II, the US Army created the Special Forces Tab . It was later decided that personnel with at least 120 days' wartime service prior to 1955 in certain units, including the Devil's Brigade, the Alamo Scouts and the OSS Operational Groups, would receive the Tab for their services in World War ;II, placing them all in the lineage of today's U.S. and Canadian (via Devil's Brigade) Special Forces. The Axis powers did not adopt

17407-779: The enlisted members of the Tactical Air Control Party . Since their 1977 introduction into modern military practice for close air support purposes, General Crosbie E. Saint provided the AH-64 Apache the doctrinal cover for use in AirLand Battle operations such as in the NATO European theatre. Various aircraft can fill close air support roles. Military helicopters are often used for close air support and are so closely integrated with ground operations that in most countries they are operated by

17576-510: The fighters to map grid coordinates, or they might resort to a description of prominent terrain features as guidance. However, one drawback for the Rovers was the constant rotation of pilots, who were there for fortnightly stints, leading to a lack of institutional memory. US commanders, impressed by the British tactics at the Salerno landings, adapted their own doctrine to include many features of

17745-738: The first purpose-built ground attack aircraft , the Junkers J.I . During the 1918 German spring offensive , the Germans employed 30 squadrons, or Schlasta , of ground attack fighters and were able to achieve some initial tactical success. The British later deployed the Sopwith Salamander as a specialized ground attack aircraft, although it was too late to see much action. During the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of 1918, CAS aircraft functioned as an important factor in ultimate victory. After

17914-670: The grave. A famous LRRP commander was Lauri Törni , who later joined the U.S. Army to train U.S. personnel in special operations. In June 1971, during the Bangladesh Liberation War , the World Bank sent a mission to observe the situation in East Pakistan . The media cell of Pakistan's government was circulating the news that the situation in East Pakistan was stable and normal. Khaled Mosharraf ,

18083-495: The ground from 500 ft (150 m) on 23 February 1914, probably because of insufficient fin area. The pilot, R. Kemp, survived the crash, but his passenger was killed. Work started on another totally new design in mid-1914, the F.E.2a, specifically intended as a "fighter", or machine gun carrier – in the same class as the Vickers FB.5 "Gunbus" . Apart from the "Farman" layout it bore no direct relationship with either of

18252-600: The ground to the air, and receive reconnaissance reports, but they were not trained to guide aircraft onto targets. These preparations did not prove fruitful in the invasion of Poland , where the Luftwaffe focused on interdiction and dedicated few assets to close air support. But the value of CAS was demonstrated at the crossing of the Meuse River during the Invasion of France in 1940. General Heinz Guderian , one of

18421-583: The hazardous situation prevailing in East Pakistan and urged ending the military regime in East Pakistan. The Crack Platoon carried out several successful and important operations. The power supply in Dhaka was devastated which caused severe problems for the Pakistan Army and the military administration in Dhaka. Stemming from Resolution 598 , Operation Prime Chance was the first deployment of U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) troops, which were

18590-736: The history of warfare, whenever the aim was to achieve disruption by "hit and run" and sabotage , rather than more traditional conventional combat. Other significant roles lay in reconnaissance , providing essential intelligence from near or among the enemy and increasingly in combating irregular forces, their infrastructure and activities. Chinese strategist Jiang Ziya , in his Six Secret Teachings , described recruiting talented and motivated men into specialized elite units with functions such as commanding heights and making rapid long-distance advances. Hamilcar Barca in Sicily (249 BC) had specialized troops trained to launch several offensives per day. In

18759-504: The hope of producing a night fighter with superior performance. When tested at Martlesham Heath, it proved to be little better than the F.E.2b. Despite this, three more aircraft were converted to F.E.2h standard, these being fitted with a six-pounder (57 mm) Davis gun , mounted to fire downwards for ground attack purposes. While the F.E.2d was replaced by the Bristol Fighter , the older F.E.2b proved an unexpected success as

18928-716: The importance of CAS, views that would frame institutional battles for CAS in the 20th century. The inter-war period saw the use of CAS in a number of conflicts, including the Polish–Soviet War , the Spanish Civil War , the Iraqi revolt of 1920 and the Gran Chaco War . The British used air power to great effect in various colonial hotspots in the Middle East and North Africa during the immediate postwar period. The newly formed Royal Air force (RAF) contributed to

19097-428: The initial F.E.2a variant, with a large air brake under the top centre section, and a Green E.6 engine. The first F.E.2a made its maiden flight on 26 January 1915, but was found to be underpowered, and was re-engined with a Beardmore 120 hp (89 kW) liquid-cooled inline engine , as were the other eleven aircraft. The F.E.2a was quickly followed by the main production model, the F.E.2b , again powered by

19266-461: The late 1950s and early 1960s, the US Army began to identify a dedicated CAS need for itself. The Howze Board, which studied the question, published a landmark report describing the need for a helicopter-based CAS requirement. However, the Army did not follow the Howze Board recommendation initially. Nevertheless, it did eventually adopt the use of helicopter gunships and attack helicopters in

19435-1011: The late Roman or early Byzantine period, Roman fleets used small, fast, camouflaged ships crewed by selected men for scouting and commando missions. In the Middle Ages , special forces trained to conduct special operations were employed in several occasions. An example of this were the special forces of Gerald the Fearless , a Portuguese warrior and folk hero of the Reconquista . Muslim forces also had naval special operations units, including one that used camouflaged ships to gather intelligence and launch raids and another of soldiers who could pass for Crusaders who would use ruses to board enemy ships and then capture and destroy them. In Japan , ninjas were used for reconnaissance , espionage and as assassins , bodyguards or fortress guards, or otherwise fought alongside conventional soldiers. During

19604-575: The latter half of the 20th century and into the 21st century, special forces have come to higher prominence, as governments have found objectives can sometimes be better achieved by a small team of anonymous specialists than a larger and much more politically controversial conventional deployment. In both Kosovo and Afghanistan , special forces were used to co-ordinate activities between local guerrilla fighters and air power . Typically, guerrilla fighters would engage enemy soldiers and tanks causing them to move, where they could be seen and attacked from

19773-568: The latter part of the Second World War. The Soviet Union 's Red Air Force quickly recognized the value of ground-support aircraft. As early as the Battles of Khalkhyn Gol in 1939, Soviet aircraft had the task of disrupting enemy ground operations. This use increased markedly after the June 1941 Axis invasion of the Soviet Union . Purpose-built aircraft such as the Ilyushin Il-2 Sturmovik proved highly effective in blunting

19942-658: The loss of men who required such extensive and expensive training limited their operations to only the most critical ones. Two regiments of Teishin Shudan were formed into the 1st Raiding Group, commanded by Major General Rikichi Tsukada under the control of the Southern Expeditionary Army Group , during the Philippines campaign . Although structured as a division, its capabilities were much lower, as its six regiments had manpower equivalent to

20111-572: The main concern for air forces. Then, the Army advocated a degree of decentralization for good reactivity, in contrast with the USAF-favored centralization of CAS. The third point dealt with the lack of training and joint culture, which are necessary for an adequate air-ground integration. Finally, USAF aircraft were not designed for CAS: "the advent of jet fighters , too fast to adjust their targets, and strategic bombers , too big to be used on theatre, rendered CAS much harder to implement". During

20280-524: The modification of early helicopters as dedicated gunship platforms. Though not as fast as fixed-wing aircraft and consequently more vulnerable to anti-aircraft weaponry, helicopters could use terrain for cover, and more importantly, had much greater battlefield persistence owing to their low speeds. The latter made them a natural complement to ground forces in the CAS role. In addition, newly developed anti-tank guided missiles , demonstrated to great effectiveness in

20449-400: The nearby mountain ranges and over assault courses that included a zip-line over Loch Arkaig , all while carrying arms and full equipment. Training continued by day and night with river crossings, mountain climbing, weapons training, unarmed combat , map reading, and small boat operations on the syllabus. Reaching a wartime strength of over 30 individual units and four assault brigades ,

20618-602: The need for aerial support of ground operations. Though the Luftwaffe , like its counterparts, tended to focus on strategic bombing, it was unique in its willingness to commit forces to CAS. Unlike the Allies, the Germans were not able to develop powerful strategic bombing capabilities, which implied industrial developments they were forbidden to take according to the Treaty of Versailles . In joint exercises with Sweden in 1934,

20787-555: The need for more specialised units. Scouting units such as the Lovat Scouts , a Scottish Highland regiment made up of exceptional woodsmen outfitted in ghillie suits and well practised in the arts of marksmanship , field craft , and military tactics filled this role. This unit was formed in 1900 by Lord Lovat and early on reported to an American, Major Frederick Russell Burnham , the Chief of Scouts under Lord Roberts . After

20956-574: The newly established special operations Army Ranger Battalion . The United States and Canada formed the 1st Special Service Force as a sabotage ski brigade for operations in Norway. Later known as the "Devil's Brigade" (and called "The Black Devils" by mystified German soldiers), the First Special Service Force was dispatched to the occupied Aleutian Islands, Italy and Southern France. Merrill's Marauders were modeled on

21125-450: The observers, especially when they discovered that by climbing onto the rim of their cockpits they could fire backwards over the top wing – to some extent overcoming the notorious deficiency of pusher types in rear defence, although even this failed to cover a very large blind spot under the tail. The observer's perch was a precarious one, especially when firing the "rear gun", and he was liable to be thrown out of his cockpit, although his view

21294-437: The plane would fly in very low to the ground and release the bombs just above the trenches. The Germans were also quick to adopt this new form of warfare and were able to deploy aircraft in a similar capacity at Cambrai. While the British used single-seater planes, the Germans preferred the use of heavier two-seaters with an additional machine gunner in the aft cockpit . The Germans adopted the powerful Hannover CL.II and built

21463-631: The platoon split and deployed in different areas surrounding Dhaka city. The basic objectives of the Crack Platoon were to demonstrate the strength of Mukti Bahini, terrorising Pakistan Army and their collaborators. Another major objective was proving to the international community that the situation in East Pakistan was not normal. That commando team also aimed at inspiring the people of Dhaka, who were frequently victims of killing and torture. The Crack Platoon successfully fulfilled these objectives. The World Bank mission, in its report, clearly described

21632-455: The production aircraft were fitted with a normal "V" type undercarriage. This was not universally popular and when a method was devised of removing the nose wheel in the field without disturbing the shock absorbers, this became the most common form of the F.E.2 undercarriage. The "V" undercarriage remained standard for F.E.2 night bombers, as it permitted the carriage of a large bomb under the nacelle. The first production batch consisted of 12 of

21801-527: The rapid advance, the Germans demonstrated consistently superior CAS tactics to those of the British and French defenders. Later, on the Eastern front , the Germans would devise visual ground signals to mark friendly units and to indicate direction and distance to enemy emplacements. Despite these accomplishments, German CAS was not perfect and suffered from the same misunderstanding and interservice rivalry that plagued other nations' air arms, and friendly fire

21970-483: The rapid armored advance of General Patton 's Third Army in its drive across France. Armed reconnaissance was a major feature of XIX TAC close air support, as the rapid advance left Patton's Southern flank open. Such was the close nature of cooperation between the Third Army and XIX TAC that Patton actually counted on XIX TAC to guard his flanks. This close air support from XIX TAC was credited by Patton as having been

22139-546: The regular Filipino army soldiers. Most of the members of this unit came from the old Spanish Army filipino members which fought during the Philippine Revolution . The sharpshooters became famous for their fierce fighting and proved their worth by being the usual spearheading unit in every major battle in the Philippine–American War . In the Battle of Paye on December 19, 1899, Bonifacio Mariano,

22308-500: The rest of the Army. Thus it was initially unprepared to provide CAS, and in fact, had to be dragged "kicking and screaming" into the CAS function with the ground troops. USAAF doctrinal priorities for tactical aviation were, in order, air superiority, isolation of the battlefield via supply interdiction, and thirdly, close air support. Hence, during the North African Campaign , CAS was poorly executed, if at all. So few aerial assets were assigned to U.S. troops that they fired on anything in

22477-427: The same time, targets engaged in combat are dispersed and concealed, reducing the effectiveness of air attacks. They also argued that the CAS mission merely duplicated the abilities of artillery, whereas interdiction provided a unique capability. Ground officers contended there was rarely sufficient artillery available, and the flexibility of aircraft would be ideal for massing firepower at critical points, while producing

22646-425: The so-called " Fokker scourge " had ended. By autumn 1916, the arrival of more modern German fighters such as the Albatros D.I and Halberstadt D.II meant that even the F.E.2d was outperformed and by April 1917, it had been withdrawn from offensive patrols. Despite its obsolescence in 1917, the F.E.2 was still well liked by its crews for its strength and good flight characteristics and it still occasionally proved

22815-413: The standard aircraft. The final production model was the F.E.2d (386 built) which was powered by a Rolls-Royce Eagle engine with 250 hp (186 kW). While the more powerful engine made little difference in maximum speed, especially at low altitude, it did improve altitude performance, with an extra 10 mph at 5,000 ft. The Rolls-Royce engine also improved payload, so that in addition to

22984-426: The start of World War II “September campaign,” the Polish Government did not sign the capitulation, but moved to Paris and then to London. In an attempt to achieve its aims the government in exile gave orders to the Polish resistance and formed a special military unit in Britain with the soldiers called Cichociemni (“silent and unseen”) paratroopers to be deployed into Poland. The Cichociemni were trained similar to

23153-424: The target. If it can identify the target, it can't hit it. But if it does hit the target, it doesn't do a great deal of damage anyway." It is unsurprising, then, that MacArthur excluded USAF aircraft from the airspace over the Inchon Landing in September 1950, instead relying on Marine Aircraft Group 33 for CAS. In December 1951, Lt. Gen. James Van Fleet , commander of the Eighth U.S. Army , formally requested

23322-411: The true situation of East Pakistan and to stop sanctioning the aid. Khaled, along with A. T. M. Haider , another sector commander, formed the Crack Platoon . Initially, the number of commandos in the platoon was 17, trained in Melaghar Camp . From Melaghar, commandos of Crack Platoon headed for Dhaka on 4 June 1971 and launched a guerrilla operation on 5 June. Later, the number of commandos increased,

23491-494: The tutelage of British instructors. With an establishment of 17 officers and 256 men, the independent companies were trained as "stay behind" forces, a role that they were later employed in against the Japanese in the South West Pacific Area during 1942–43, most notably fighting a guerrilla campaign in Timor , as well as actions in New Guinea . In all, a total of eight independent companies were raised before they were re-organised in mid-1943 into commando squadrons and placed under

23660-404: The two earlier designs: the outer wing panels were identical with those of the B.E.2c . It was a two-seater with the observer in the nose of the nacelle and the pilot sitting above and behind. The observer was armed with a .303 in Lewis machine gun firing forward on a specially designed, "witches broomstick" mounting that gave it a wide field of fire. The first production order for 12 aircraft

23829-450: The two observer's guns, an additional one or two Lewis guns could be mounted to fire forward, operated by the pilot. At least two F.E.2bs were fitted with 150 hp (110 kW) RAF 5 engines (a pusher version of the RAF 4 engine) in 1916 but no production followed. The F.E.2h was an F.E.2 powered by a 230 hp (170 kW) Siddeley Puma . The prototype ( A6545 ) was converted in February 1918 by Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies, in

23998-403: The universal acceptance of the integration of air power into combined arms warfare, with all of the war's major combatants having developed effective air-ground coordination techniques by the conflict's end. New techniques, such as the use of forward air control to guide CAS aircraft and identifying invasion stripes , also emerged at this time, being heavily shaped by the Italian Campaign and

24167-409: The use of special forces on the same scale as the British. The German army's Brandenburger Regiment was founded as a special forces unit used by the Abwehr for infiltration and long distance reconnaissance in Fall Weiss of 1939 and the Fall Gelb and Barbarossa campaigns of 1940 and 1941. Later during the war the 502nd SS Jäger Battalion , commanded by Otto Skorzeny , sowed disorder behind

24336-469: The war, Lovat's Scouts went on to formally become the British Army's first sniper unit. Additionally, the Bushveldt Carbineers , formed in 1901, can be seen as an early unconventional warfare unit. The Luna Sharpshooters , also known as the " Marksmen of Death " ( Spanish : Tiradores de la Muerte ), was an elite unit formed on 1899 by General Antonio Luna to serve under the Philippine Revolutionary Army . They became famous for fighting fiercer than

24505-451: Was a hollow steel rod with a swivel mount to which the gun was anchored. This gun covered a huge field of fire forward. Between the observer and the pilot a second gun was mounted, for firing over the F.E.2b's upper wing to protect the aircraft from rear attack ... Adjusting and shooting this gun required that you stand right up out of the nacelle with your feet on the nacelle coaming. You had nothing to worry about except being blown out of

24674-471: Was an advocate of what later came to be known as ' Blitzkrieg ' tactics, thought that the speed of armoured tanks would render conventional artillery incapable of providing support fire. Instead he proposed that: actual 'offensive' support must come from an even more mobile artillery moving alongside. For this purpose the close co-operation of low-flying aircraft ... is essential As a continental power intent on offensive operations, Germany could not ignore

24843-409: Was an experimental night fighter and bomber variant of the F.E.2b, the main change being the switching of the pilot's and observer's positions so that the pilot had the best view for night landings. Two were built in 1916, with the designation being re-used in 1918 for a similar night bomber version of the F.E.2b, which was used by 100 Squadron . In the end, the observer-first layout was retained for

25012-426: Was caused, and raids at Fuka and Mersa Matruh airfields destroyed 30 aircraft. In the Burma Campaign , the Chindits , whose long-range penetration groups were trained to operate from bases deep behind Japanese lines, contained commandos ( King's Regiment (Liverpool) , 142 Commando Company) and Gurkhas . Their jungle expertise, which would play an important part in many British special forces operations post-war,

25181-445: Was designed by Geoffrey de Havilland at the Royal Aircraft Factory in 1911. Although it was claimed to be a rebuild of the F.E.1 , a pusher biplane designed and built by de Havilland before he joined the Factory's staff, it was in fact an entirely new aircraft, with construction completed before the F.E.1 was wrecked in a crash in August 1911. The new aircraft resembled the final form of the F.E.1, with no front elevator , but seated

25350-410: Was excellent in all directions except directly to the rear. The arrangement was described by Frederick Libby , an American ace who served as an F.E.2b observer in 1916: When you stood up to shoot, all of you from the knees up was exposed to the elements. There was no belt to hold you. Only your grip on the gun and the sides of the nacelle stood between you and eternity. Toward the front of the nacelle

25519-413: Was formed in 1943, with four Type 95 Ha-Go light tanks. The paratroop brigades were organized into the Teishin Shudan as the first division-level raiding unit, at the main Japanese airborne base, Karasehara Airfield, Kyūshū , Japan. However, as with similar airborne units created by the Allies and other Axis powers , the Japanese paratroops suffered from a disproportionately high casualty rate, and

25688-416: Was formed under Cavalry Major Antonios Stefanakis in Palestine, with 200 men. In 1942, the unit was renamed Sacred Band . In close cooperation with the commander of the British SAS Regiment, Lt. Colonel David Stirling , the company moved to the SAS base at Qabrit in Egypt to begin its training in its new role. The special forces unit fought alongside the SAS in the Western Desert and the Aegean . During

25857-453: Was killed in combat with F.E.2bs of No. 25 Squadron RFC . The squadron claimed the kill, but the German version of the encounter is either that Immelmann's Fokker Eindecker broke up after his synchroniser gear failed and he shot off his own propeller, or that he was hit by friendly fire from German anti-aircraft guns. In any case, by this time the F.E.2b was at least encountering the German monoplane fighters on more or less even terms and

26026-441: Was learned at a great cost in lives in the jungles of Burma fighting the Japanese. Immediately after the German occupation of Greece in April–May 1941, the Greek government fled to Egypt and started to form military units in exile. Air Force Lt. Colonel G. Alexandris suggested the creation of an Army unit along the lines of the British SAS. In August 1942 the Company of Chosen Immortals ( Greek : Λόχος Επιλέκτων Αθανάτων )

26195-450: Was not uncommon. For example, on the eve of the Meuse offensive, Guderian's superior cancelled his CAS plans and called for high-altitude strikes from medium bombers, which would have required halting the offensive until the air strikes were complete. Fortunately for the Germans, his order was issued too late to be implemented, and the Luftwaffe commander followed the schedule he had previously worked out with Guderian. As late as November 1941,

26364-500: Was not until 1916 that an air support doctrine was elaborated and dedicated fighters for the job were put into service. By that point, the startling and demoralizing effect that attack from the air could have on the troops in the trenches had been made clear. At the Battle of the Somme , 18 British armed reconnaissance planes strafed the enemy trenches after conducting surveillance operations. The success of this improvised assault spurred innovation on both sides. In 1917, following

26533-400: Was particularly successful in this role. Aircraft support was first integrated into a battle plan on a large scale at the 1917 Battle of Cambrai , where a significantly larger number of tanks were deployed than previously. By that time, effective anti-aircraft tactics were being used by the enemy infantry and pilot casualties were high, although air support was later judged as having been of

26702-535: Was placed "off the drawing board" (i.e. prior to first flight) shortly after the outbreak of the First World War. By this time, the "pusher" configuration was aerodynamically obsolescent, but was retained to allow a clear forward field of fire. The undercarriage of the "third" F.E.2 was particularly well designed – a small nose wheel prevented nose-overs when landing on soft ground, and the oleo type shock absorbers were also appreciated by crews landing in rough, makeshift fields. In order to reduce weight and drag some of

26871-470: Was probably the first use of what later became known as a Lufbery circle (defensive circle). In the case of the F.E.2, the intention was that the gunner of each aircraft could cover the blind spot under the tail of his neighbour and several gunners could fire on any enemy attacking the group. On occasion formations of F.E.2s fought their way back from far over the lines, while under heavy attack from German fighters, using this tactic. Although outclassed as

27040-425: Was quickly expanded to 12 units which became known as Commandos. Each Commando had a lieutenant colonel as the commanding officer and numbered around 450 men (divided into 75 man troops that were further divided into 15 man sections ). In December 1940 a Middle East Commando depot was formed with the responsibility of training and supplying reinforcements for the Commando units in that theatre. In February 1942

27209-437: Was reiterated between ground commanders and aviators. Nevertheless, the US Army incrementally gained increased control over its CAS role. In the mid-1970s, after Vietnam, the USAF decided to train an enlisted force to handle many of the tasks the ALO was saturated with, to include terminal attack control . Presently, the ALO mainly serves in the liaison role, the intricate details of mission planning and attack guidance left to

27378-475: Was relatively difficult at this early date to co-ordinate these attacks due to the primitive nature of air-to-ground radio communication . Though most air-power proponents sought independence from ground commanders and hence pushed the importance of interdiction and strategic bombing, they nonetheless recognized the need for close air support. From the commencement of hostilities in 1914, aviators engaged in sporadic and spontaneous attacks on ground forces , but it

27547-434: Was responsible for the sinking and damage of considerable British tonnage in the Mediterranean . Also there were other Italian special forces like A.D.R.A. ( Arditi Distruttori Regia Aeronautica ). This regiment was used in raids on Allied airbases and railways in North Africa in 1943. In one mission they destroyed 25 B-17 Flying Fortress bombers. The Imperial Japanese Army first deployed army paratroops in combat during

27716-645: Was still in its infancy – and the direct effect of rifle caliber machine guns and light bombs of World War I aircraft was very limited compared with the power of (for instance) an average fighter bomber of World War II, but CAS aircraft were still able to achieve a powerful psychological impact. The aircraft was a visible and personal enemy – unlike artillery – presenting a personal threat to enemy troops, while providing friendly forces assurance that their superiors were concerned about their situation. The most successful attacks of 1917–1918 had included planning for co-ordination between aerial and ground units, although it

27885-434: Was still lacking. Since pilots operated under centralized control, ground controllers were never able to familiarize themselves with pilots, and requests were not processed quickly. Harold K. Johnson, then commander of the 8th Cavalry Regiment , 1st Cavalry Division (later Army Chief of Staff ) commented regarding CAS: "If you want it, you can't get it. If you can get it, it can't find you. If it can find you, it can't identify

28054-478: Was the British "Rover" system. These were pairings of air controllers and army liaison officers at the front but able to switch communications seamlessly from one brigade to another – hence Rover. Incoming strike aircraft arrived with pre-briefed targets, which they would strike 20 minutes after arriving on station only if the Rovers had not directed them to another more pressing target. Rovers might call on artillery to mark targets with smoke shells, or they might direct

28223-444: Was the first conflict to make extensive use of CAS, albeit using relatively primitive methods in contrast to later warfare, though it was made evident that proper coordination between aerial and ground forces via radio made attacks more effective. Several conflicts during the interwar period —including the Polish–Soviet War , the Spanish Civil War , the Iraqi Revolt , and the Chaco War —made notable use of CAS. World War II marked

28392-399: Was unsuccessful. The United States formed the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) during World War II under the Medal of Honor recipient William J. Donovan . This organization was the predecessor of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and was responsible for both intelligence and special forces missions. The CIA's elite Special Activities Division is the direct descendant of

28561-401: Was used as an intervention force in support of U.S. Marine Corps ground forces during the Banana Wars , in places such as Haiti , the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua . Marine Aviators experimented with air-ground tactics and in Haiti and Nicaragua they adopted the tactic of dive bombing . The observers and participants of these wars would base their CAS strategies on their experience of

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