153-582: Zhang Zuolin (March 19, 1875 – June 4, 1928) was a Chinese warlord who ruled Manchuria from 1916 to 1928. He led the Fengtian clique , one of the most important factions during China 's Warlord Era . During the last year of his life, he briefly installed himself as Generalissimo of the Republic of China . Born to a poor peasant's family in Manchuria, Zhang became a prominent bandit in
306-687: A 1973 coup , which resulted in the April Revolution of 1978 . Historically, power in Afghanistan has been decentralized and governance delegated locally to ethnic tribal leadership. Tribal leaders often act as local warlords, representing either a tribal confederacy, a tribal kinship group or a smaller tribal lineage grouping, and are expected to provide security , justice and social services to their respective "constituencies". There are four dominant ethnic tribes in Afghanistan ( Pashtuns , Tajiks , Hazaras , and Uzbeks ), as well as
459-535: A Mongol officer under Zhang, was instrumental in bringing Oomoto leader Onisaburo Deguchi , and Aikido founder Morihei Ueshiba , to Mongolia in 1924. At the beginning of the 1920s, Zhang transformed Manchuria from an unimportant frontier region to one of the most prosperous parts of China. He had inherited a financially weak provincial government—in 1917 Fengtian faced ten outstanding loans from foreign-controlled consortia and banks totaling over 12 million yuan. Zhang chose Wang Yongjiang , who had served as head of
612-411: A private military company (PMC) which does not supply any fighters but is used to export military training services. It realised a profit of €222 million in 2019. It is an offence "to recruit" German citizens "for military duty in a military or military-like facility in support of a foreign power" ( §109h StGB ). Furthermore, a German citizen who enlists in the armed forces of a state they are also
765-536: A sovereign state to the rest of the world. This opened up Georgia and Tajikistan as states eligible to receive international aid , which thereafter became a major source of " rent " for the warlords, providing them with resources to increase their power and influence over these societies. As Driscoll observed, the "warlords colluded to create a state". One political theory, pioneered by American economist Mancur Olson , posits that warlords can function as stationary bandits. In some African states, warlord politics can be
918-527: A central government that is unable to establish a monopoly over the use of force within its national territory. As political scientist Dr. Ariel Hernandez documented, one example is the Philippines , where successive presidential administrations—at least since Ferdinand Marcos secured power in 1965—have "franchised violence to regional warlords" to counter the inroads of communist insurgents , Islamic rebels and organized criminal gangs . This has led to
1071-541: A citizen of risks the loss of their citizenship ( §28 StAG ). In 1998, South Africa passed the Foreign Military Assistance Act that banned citizens and residents from any involvement in foreign wars, except for humanitarian operations, unless a government committee approved deployment. In 2005, the legislation was reviewed by the government because: As of 2010, South Africa forbids citizens from fighting in foreign wars unless they are under
1224-515: A city called Daedala or Daidala ( Ancient Greek : Δαίδαλα ) in India, which he called Indo-Cretan, most probably because it was a settlement of Cretan mercenaries. In the late Roman Empire , it became increasingly difficult for Emperors and generals to raise military units from the citizenry for various reasons: lack of manpower, lack of time available for training, lack of materials, and, inevitably, political considerations. Therefore, beginning in
1377-533: A county in southern Fengtian province (modern Liaoning ) in northeastern China, to poor parents. He received little formal education , and the only non-military trade that he learned in his lifetime was a small amount of veterinary science . His grandfather had come to the northeast after fleeing a famine in Zhili (modern Hebei ) in 1821. As a child, Zhang was known by the nickname "Pimple." He spent his early youth hunting, fishing and brawling. He hunted hares in
1530-592: A divisional commander of the North China Zhili clique , which was based in the province of Zhili that surrounded Beijing. In the spring of 1922, Zhang personally took the position of Commander-in-Chief of the Fengtian Army , and on April 19 his forces entered China proper. As his men took Beijing three days later, fighting soon broke out. On May 4, the Fengtian Army was seriously defeated by
1683-559: A farce. The soldiers freed some of their comrades who had been imprisoned as contacts, and they escaped to the mining town of Dalainor on the Amur River , where a quarter of the population died. In the other direction, all of the towns along the Chinese Eastern Railway as far as Vladivostok were infected. Around 9,000 died, while only a few contacts were able to reach south Manchuria. The Japanese posed more of
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#17327765676861836-564: A large number of local militias into his army, and thus prevented Manchuria from falling into the chaos which reigned in China proper at the time. Jilin province was ruled by a military governor, who was said to be a cousin of Zhang; Heilongjiang had its own regional warlord, who never displayed any ambitions outside the province. Although Manchuria officially remained a part of the Republic of China , it became more or less an independent state isolated from China by its geography and protected by
1989-677: A mercenary. While mercenaries do not enjoy the same protection as prisoners of war do, they must still be treated humanely according to the rules of the Protocol and they may not be punished without a trial. On 4 December 1989, the United Nations passed resolution 44/34, the International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries. It entered into force on 20 October 2001 and
2142-444: A new governor, whose only job was to supply the Fengtian Army with large amounts of money. He issued new provincial bonds and forced businesses and local communities to purchase them. (Early in 1927, he even entered into the opium trade by selling expensive licenses for the sale and use of opium.) Bank reserves and railway revenues were plundered, and ever more paper notes were issued. The best indicator of Manchuria's economic decline
2295-541: A number of local warlords with infamous reputations, such as Zhang Zongchang . Although Chiang Kai-shek ascended with legitimacy into his role of leadership of the KMT by succeeding Sun Yat-sen and was recognized by foreign nations, Chiang was accused by some of being a warlord because of his rise by military campaign. The two-year Northern Expedition campaign (1926–28) not only defeated the Beiyang Army but also toppled
2448-558: A number of proportionally smaller tribes. The Pashtuns are the largest and most dominant ethnic tribe in the country, whose name translates to "Land of the Pashtuns". The Durand Line , which forms the border between modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, has proved a source of contention in Afghanistan and a source of challenge for the tribal authorities of Afghanistan. The line, which was negotiated between British diplomat and civil servant Mortimer Durand and Afghan Emir Abdur Khan ,
2601-770: A plethora of businessmen—local and foreign—who were bent on making money in Liberia and disregarded UN disapproval. Taylor was detained by the UN-backed Special Court for Sierra Leone in 2006 after a period of enforced exile in Nigeria. He was found guilty in April 2012 of all 11 charges levied by the Special Court, including terror, murder and rape. In May 2012 he was sentenced to 50 years in prison. Local warlords with their own militias began to emerge in
2754-593: A problem. After the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05 they had gained two important outposts in south Manchuria: The Kwantung Leased Territory consisted of a 218-square-mile (560 km) peninsula in the southernmost part of Manchuria. It included the ice-free port of Dairen (Chinese: Dalian), which became the main link to Japan. Reaching northward from the colony, the South Manchurian Railway passed through Shenyang (referred to as Mukden by
2907-502: A product of endowment-rich, extractable resources. Some nations, such as Liberia and Sierra Leone, have had stationary bandits who use extraction of resources such as diamonds, cobalt and timber (" conflict resources ") in order to increase their political power. They often enforce their right to these resources by claiming to be protecting the people. These warlords, or stationary bandits, often partner with compliant foreign firms and create symbiotic relationships to yield greater power for
3060-467: A profit, by either providing services involving the potential exercise of [armed] force in a systematic way and by military means, and/or by the transfer of that potential to clients through training and other practices, such as logistics support, equipment procurement, and intelligence gathering". Private paramilitary forces are functionally mercenary armies, though they may serve as security guards or military advisors; however, national governments reserve
3213-444: A region. In both cases there is an inherent inefficiency in the model, as "resources are wasted on unproductive arming and fighting." However, the functionality is often sustainable because it presents citizens with no choice but to accept rent levies in exchange for protection. Charles Tilly , an American political scientist and sociologist, theorized that organized crime can function as a means for war and state making. He argues that
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#17327765676863366-479: A regional tax office, for the task of solving Fengtian's financial problems. He was appointed director of the bureau of finance. A number of currencies were circulating in the province, as was the custom in China, and the paper notes issued by the provincial government had experienced a steady depreciation in value. Wang decided to switch to a silver standard and set the initial value of the new silver yuan equal to
3519-530: A restoration was ever attempted. In 1917 he plotted with Zhang Xun , a Qing-loyalist general, to restore the abdicated Puyi to the throne. Zhang Zuolin proposed talking to the National Assembly about a possible restoration. After Zhang Xun rebelled, Zhang Zuolin remained neutral and actually supported Duan Qirui in suppressing Zhang Xun after it became clear that Duan would win. Zhang was able to absorb soldiers of nearby commanders who had been linked to
3672-641: A result of the collapse of empires . Warlord states are disproportionately concentrated within two regions—the former European colonies of Africa and the former Soviet republics of Eurasia. While warlords are commonly viewed as regional leaders who threaten the sovereignty of a state, there are a number of states where the central government functions in collusion with warlords to achieve its goal of exercising its sovereignty over regions that would otherwise fall outside its control. In such decentralized states, particularly those where armed groups challenge national sovereignty , warlords can serve as useful allies of
3825-404: A review of government-sponsored firms . From 1918, revenues rose steadily, and by 1921 all outstanding loans had been repaid and there was even a budget surplus. Wang was rewarded by being appointed Civil Governor of Fengtian province while remaining director of the bureau of finance. He retained the title of Military Governor of Fengtian. Still, more than two-thirds of the budget was allocated to
3978-516: A reward, Zhang was granted control over most of Inner Mongolia to the west of Manchuria. In December 1921, Zhang visited Beijing; at his request, the entire cabinet, led by Jin Yunpeng , resigned, leaving him free to appoint a new government. Installing Liang Shiyi as premier, he proposed a new constitution and the resolution of the republic's financial difficulties. Now a figure of national prominence, he quickly came into conflict with Wu Peifu ,
4131-769: A separation of civil and military administration in all of the three provinces. Wang returned on August 6, thereby ensuring Manchuria's continued stability. In the following years Wang realized a far-reaching development plan. He tried to bring more workers into the booming Manchurian economy. Most had come on a temporary basis , returning to their homes in North China in winter. The Manchurian government now encouraged them to bring women and children, and settle permanently. As an incentive, they were made eligible for reduced fares on all Chinese-owned railways in Manchuria, received funds to build dwellings and were promised total ownership after five years of continuous occupation. Rent for
4284-470: A series of telegrams, advising them to oppose Sun's administration. To gain Zhang's loyalty, Yuan sent him a large shipment of military provisions; Zhang sent Yuan an enormous (and costly) ginseng root in return to symbolize their friendship. Zhang then murdered a number of leading figures in his base city of Shenyang (then known as "Mukden"), and was rewarded with a series of impressive-sounding titles by
4437-950: A situation when the recognized central power had collapsed, such as in the Great Interregnum in Germany (1254–78), in France during the Hundred Years' War after the Battle of Poitiers , or in the Kingdom of Scotland during the Wars of Scottish Independence . Free company mercenary captains, such as Sir John Hawkwood , Roger de Flor of Catalan Company or Hugh Calveley , could be considered warlords. Several condottieri in Italy can also be classified as warlords. Ygo Gales Galama
4590-498: A surplus of experienced soldiers. Also, Colombian soldiers are much cheaper than soldiers from developed countries . PMCs from several Middle Eastern countries have signed contracts with the Colombian Defense Ministry to carry out security or military activities. The United Nations questions whether PMC soldiers are sufficiently accountable for their war zone actions. A common argument for using PMCs (used by
4743-601: A videotaped attack; the killings and subsequent dismemberments were a cause for the First Battle of Fallujah . Afghan war operations also boosted the business. The United States has made extensive use of PMCs in Afghanistan since 2001, mostly in a defensive role. PMC teams have been used to guard bases and to protect VIPs from Taliban assassins, but almost never in offensive operations. One mercenary stated about his work in Afghanistan: "We are there purely to protect
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4896-576: Is common in periphery regions of countries which do not have a strong central government. Modern-day Afghanistan is a multiethnic, multilingual country inhabited by distinct and often competing tribal societies, its national borders defined only following the Treaty of Rawalpindi of 1919 between the United Kingdom and the Emirate of Afghanistan . Afghanistan was briefly a democratic state until
5049-582: Is inaccurate and demeaning to men and women who put their lives on the line to protect people and facilities every day." Tamil poems described the Greek soldiers who served as mercenaries for Indian kings as: "The valiant-eyed Yavanas (Greeks), whose bodies were strong and of terrible aspect". Alfred Charles Auguste Foucher said that some of the troops of Mara in the Gandhara sculptures may represent Greek mercenaries. Stephanus of Byzantium wrote about
5202-660: Is not endorsed by some countries, including the United States. The Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts ( Protocol I ), 8 June 1977 states: Art 47. Mercenaries All the criteria, as listed in 2(a) through 2(f), must be met, according to the Geneva Convention, for a combatant to be considered
5355-581: Is often applied in the context of China around the end of the Qing dynasty , especially during the Warlord Era . The term may also be used for a supreme military leader . The first appearance of the word "warlord" dates to 1856, when used by American philosopher and poet Ralph Waldo Emerson in a highly critical essay on the aristocracy in England, "Piracy and war gave place to trade, politics and letters;
5508-462: Is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a member of any other official military . Mercenaries fight for money or other forms of payment rather than for political interests. Beginning in the 20th century, mercenaries have increasingly come to be seen as less entitled to protection by rules of war than non-mercenaries. The Geneva Conventions declare that mercenaries are not recognized as legitimate combatants and do not have to be granted
5661-527: Is that this authorized contractors to engage in combat on behalf of the US government. It is the combatant commander's responsibility to ensure that private security contract mission statements do not authorize performance of inherently governmental military functions, i.e. preemptive attacks, assaults, or raids, etc. On 18 August 2006, the US Comptroller General rejected bid protest arguments that
5814-412: Is the default condition of humanity." Economist Stergios Skaperdas views warlordism as a default—albeit inefficient—competitive economic model that emerges in states where state capacity is low, but that innately evolves into an institution governing political order that uses violence or the threat of it to secure its access to " rent "-producing resources. It may actually have a stabilizing effect on
5967-604: Is usually known as the UN Mercenary Convention . Article 1 of the UN Mercenary Convention contains the definition of a mercenary. Article 1.1 is similar to Article 47 of Protocol I. Article 1.2 broadens the definition to include a non-national recruited to overthrow a "Government or otherwise undermin[e] the constitutional order of a State; or Undermin[e] the territorial integrity of a State"; and "Is motivated to take part therein essentially by
6120-534: Is viewed by Pashtun leaders as a threat to their dominance within Afghanistan, emboldening rival ethnic tribes, and has provoked cross-border tensions between Afghanistan and Pakistan. While having significant political, economic and social impact on Afghanistan, the intervention of the Soviet Union (1979–89), Afghan Civil War (1989–96), Taliban regime (1996–2001, 2021–present) and United States invasion and occupation (2001–2021) have not noticeably disrupted
6273-563: The condottiero was a military chief offering his troops, the condottieri , to Italian city-states . The condottieri were extensively used by the Italian city-states in their wars against one another. At times, the condottieri seized control of the state, as one condottiero , Francesco Sforza , made himself the Duke of Milan in 1450. During the ages of the Taifa kingdoms of
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6426-626: The Ancien Régime , the French Revolution and democratization in Europe, that commitment was contingent upon a bargaining process in which the king or queen had to guarantee additional territory, revenue, status or other privileges, meaning that these early European states were weak and the relationship between the crown and feudal lords constituted the form of interdependent warlordism known as cooperative warlord politics. Under
6579-720: The Beiyang government . Chiang also conquered and conscripted the forces of rival warlords in the Central Plains War of 1930. This war essentially ended the Warlord Era, albeit with the continuing autonomy of several provinces. After the fall of the Mongol Empire , Mongolia was divided between the Eastern and Western Mongols . At the time of disintegration, many warlords tried to enthrone themselves or rule
6732-632: The Duchy of Athens . The Great Company ruled much of central and southern Greece until 1388–1390 when a rival mercenary company, the Navarrese Company were hired to oust them. Catalan and German mercenaries also had prominent role in the Serbian victory over Bulgarians in the Battle of Velbuzd in 1330. During the later Middle Ages, Free Companies (or Free Lances ) were formed, consisting of companies of mercenary troops. Nation-states lacked
6885-758: The Middle Ages and up into the Early Modern period ; such examples include Brian Boru of Ireland and Guthrum of the Danelaw , who was the commander of the Great Heathen Army and nearly conquered all of England, Alfred of Anglo-Saxon England , first man to unify the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Europe, although it would not be completed until Edward the Elder 's reign, in which he conquered
7038-583: The Muslim conflict in Gansu (1927–30) . In June 1926, Zhang managed to capture Beijing, and rumors swirled that he was planning to proclaim himself emperor. Instead, a year later, with Kuomintang forces rapidly closing in, he combined his military forces with those of the other warlords, including Zhang Zongchang and Sun Chuanfang , into the National Pacification Army and fought against
7191-782: The Northern Expedition . At the same time, he proclaimed himself Generalissimo of the Republic of China, and thus led China's internationally recognized government as a dictator. However, the Nationalists led by Chiang Kai-shek attacked his forces, and in May 1928, the Fengtian Army had to retreat towards Beijing. In addition, Japan applied pressure on Zhang to leave Beijing and to return to Manchuria and underscored that by bringing reinforcements to Tianjin . Zhang left Beijing on June 3, 1928. The next morning, his train reached
7344-664: The October Revolution . The line of the Chinese Eastern Railway , which was under Russian control, ran through northern Manchuria and the land immediately on either side of the tracks was considered to be Russian territory. From 1917 to about 1924 the new Communist government in Moscow was having such difficulties establishing itself in Siberia that often it was not clear who was in charge of operating
7497-595: The United States Army contracts violated the Anti-Pinkerton Act by requiring that contractors provide armed convoy escort vehicles and labor, weapons, and equipment for internal security operations at Victory Base Complex in Iraq. The Comptroller General reasoned the act was unviolated because the contracts did not require contractors to provide quasi-military forces as strikebreakers. In 2007,
7650-631: The Warlord Era lasted until the Kuomintang (KMT; Chinese Nationalist Party) consolidated its rule over much of the country under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek in 1928. Among the prominent leaders called warlords were Yan Xishan in Shanxi province, Feng Yuxiang , and Wu Peifu , who had reputations as reformers; Zhang Zuolin , who ruled in Manchuria until the Japanese invasion of 1931; and
7803-408: The Warlord Era . In China, Junfa is applied retroactively to describe the leaders of regional armies who threatened or used violence to expand their rule, including those who rose to lead and unify kingdoms. The other major consideration in categorizing warlords is through the lens of history. Warlordism was a widespread, dominant political framework that ordered many of the world's societies until
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#17327765676867956-562: The khanate jointly; however, there had been powerful de facto leaders in all parts of the Mongol Empire before. The empire and the states that emerged from it were born and shaped in part from the heavy influence of roving bandits. These warlords, such as Genghis Khan and his immediate successors, conquered nearly all of Asia and European Russia. Roving bandits, contrary to the concept of stationary bandits offered by Mancur Olson , extract from region to region and stay mobile. Warlords in Mongolia could be characterized by this title because of
8109-465: The modern state became globally ubiquitous. Often warlord governance in pre-modern state history was constructed along tribal or kinship lines and was congruent with early perception of " nation ". In colonial empires warlords served in both cooperative political capacities and as leaders of rebellions. In modern states the presence of warlords is often seen as an indicator of state weakness or failure. American historian David G. Herrmann noted, "Warlordism
8262-462: The "University of the Green Forest", as he was illiterate. During his time of banditry, he became close with some figures who later occupied important positions in his military clique. In 1900 the Boxer Rebellion broke out, and Zhang's gang joined the imperial army . In peacetime he hired his men out as security escorts for traveling merchants. In the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05 the Japanese Army employed Zhang and his men as mercenaries . At
8415-427: The ' war-lords to the law-lord; the privilege was kept, whilst the means of obtaining it were changed." During the First World War , the term appeared in China as Junfa ( 軍閥 ), taken from the Japanese gunbatsu . It was not widely used until the 1920s, when it was used to describe the chaos after 1918, when provincial military leaders took local control and launched the period that would come to be known in China as
8568-425: The 1990s. Liberia's former president Charles Taylor was indicted as a diamond -embezzling warlord who aided and abetted African rebels who committed heinous atrocities against millions of African people. After seizing power from President Samuel Doe in a rebellion, Taylor won elections in 1997 . His critics say that he bullied and bought his way to power, and once he obtained it he established himself as one of
8721-683: The 7 June 1978 Letter to the heads of Federal Departments and Agencies, the Comptroller General interpreted this decision in a way that carved out an exemption for "Guard and Protective Services". A United States Department of Defense (DoD) interim rule revised DoD Instruction 3020.41 to authorize contractors, other than private security contractors, to use deadly force against enemy armed forces only in self-defense (71 Fed. Reg. 34826), effective 16 June 2006. Per that interim rule, private security contractors were authorized to use deadly force when protecting their client's assets and persons, consistent with their contract's mission statement . One interpretation
8874-407: The Act and the legislative history reveal that an organization was "similar" to the Pinkerton Detective Agency only if it offered for hire mercenary, quasi-military forces as strikebreakers and armed guards. It had the secondary effect of deterring any other organization from providing such services lest it be branded a "similar organization." The legislative history supports this view and no other. In
9027-413: The Anti-Pinkerton Act as forbidding the U.S. government from employing companies offering "mercenary, quasi-military forces" for hire (United States ex rel. Weinberger v. Equifax , 557 F.2d 456, 462 (5th Cir. 1977), cert. denied, 434 U.S. 1035 (1978)). There is disagreement over whether this proscription is limited to strikebreakers only, because Weinberger v. Equifax states the following: The purpose of
9180-479: The Big Companies and French Companies and placed a decisive role in putting Enrique on the Castilian throne in 1369, who styled himself King Enrique II, the first Castilian monarch of the House of Trastámara. The White Company commanded by Sir John Hawkwood is the best known English Free Company of the 14th century. Between the 13th and 17th centuries the Gallowglass fought within the Islands of Britain and also mainland Europe. A Welshman Owain Lawgoch (Owain of
9333-404: The British Army (specifically units that are administered by the Brigade of Gurkhas ) and the Indian Army. Although they are nationals of Nepal, a country that is not part of the Commonwealth, they still swear allegiance (either to the Crown or the Constitution of India ) and abide by the rules and regulations under which all British or Indian soldiers serve. French Foreign Legionnaires serve in
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#17327765676869486-511: The Fengtian Army. The only pass at Shanhaiguan , where the Great Wall meets the sea, could easily be closed. In a time when the central government was barely able to pay the salaries of its civil servants , no more revenues were forwarded to Beijing . In 1922 Zhang took control of the only rail link, the Beijing–Shenyang Railway , north of the Great Wall and also kept tax revenues from this railroad. Only postal and customs revenues continued to be sent to Beijing, because they had been pledged to
9639-405: The Foreign Enlistment Act. It was unclear whether or not the Greek rebels constituted a 'state', but the law was later clarified to indicate that they were. The British government considered using the Act against British subjects fighting for the International Brigades in the Spanish Civil War and the FNLA in the Angolan Civil War , but on both occasions chose not to do so. Civilians with
9792-460: The French Crown lacked the necessary military and economic strength to put an end to their activities. To rid France of the rampaging mercenaries and to overthrow the pro-English King Pedro the Cruel of Castile, Marshal Bertrand du Guesclin was directed by King Charles V of France to take the Free Companies into Castile with the orders to put the pro-French Enrique de Trastámara on the Castilian throne. Guesclin's mercanaries were organized into
9945-412: The French Foreign Legion, which deploys and fights as an organized unit of the French Army . This means that as members of the armed forces of Britain, India, and France these soldiers are not classed as mercenary soldiers per APGC77 Art 47.e and 47.f . Volunteers for the Ukraine Foreign legion have three-year contracts, and are eligible for Ukrainian citizenship (the probation period being the duration of
10098-485: The Iberian peninsula, Christian knights like El Cid could fight for a Muslim ruler against his Christian or Muslim enemies. The Almogavars originally fought for the counts of Barcelona and kings of Aragon , but as the Catalan Company , they followed Roger de Flor in the service of the Byzantine Empire . In 1311, the Catalan Great Company defeated at the Battle of Halmyros their former employer, Walter V, Count of Brienne , after he refused to pay them, and took over
10251-420: The Japanese gold yen, which was accepted throughout Korea and Manchuria. Much to the surprise of the Chinese, the new currency even gained in value against the gold yen, although Japanese businessmen claimed that it was not backed up by sufficient silver reserves. Wang then used the newly gained credibility to introduce another note, the Fengtian dollar , which was not convertible into silver anymore. However, it
10404-428: The Japanese), linking up with the Chinese Eastern Railway in Changchun . The land on either side of the railway tracks remained extraterritorial , now being controlled by the Japanese Kwantung Army . This army maintained 7,000-14,000 men in Manchuria, tolerating and being tolerated by the Fengtian Army , although Zhang kept up a war of words, playing on anti-Japanese sentiments in the Chinese public . Lu Zhankui ,
10557-419: The Manchurian countryside to help feed his family. In appearance he was thin and short. Zhang asserted that he was a Han Chinese Bannerman . When he became old enough to work, he got a job at a stable in an inn, where he became familiar with many bandit gangs operating in Manchuria at the time. At the age of twenty, he enlisted as a cavalry soldier to fight in the First Sino–Japanese War (1894–1895). After
10710-431: The Mongol Empire's lack of definitive borders and consistent expansion and conquest during the 13th and 14th centuries. The Twelve Warlords War was a period ranging from 966–968 characterized by chaos and civil war. The reason this period received the title of "Twelve Warlords War", or Anarchy of the 12 Warlords , is because of the struggle for power after the illegitimate succession to the throne by Dương Tam Kha after
10863-518: The Official Bank of the Three Eastern Provinces, and became its general director. By this he tried to create a development bank and at the same time keep accurate records of military spending. After the disastrous defeat of 1922, Zhang had reorganized his Fengtian Army, started a training program, and bought new equipment, including mobile radios and machine guns. In the autumn of 1924, fighting broke out again in Central China . Zhang saw an opportunity to capture North China and Beijing and become head of
11016-670: The PMCs themselves), is that PMCs may be able to help combat genocide and civilian slaughter where the UN or other countries are unwilling or unable to intervene. Yet, after considering using PMCs to support UN operations, Kofi Annan , the Secretary-General of the United Nations , decided against it. In October 2007, the United Nations released a two-year study that stated, that although hired as "security guards", private contractors were performing military duties. The report found that
11169-703: The Red Hand) formed a free company and fought for the French against the English during the Hundred Years' War , before being assassinated by a Scot named Jon Lamb, under the orders of the English Crown, during the siege of Mortagne in 1378. Swiss mercenaries were sought during the late 15th and early 16th centuries as being an effective fighting force, until their somewhat rigid battle formations became vulnerable to arquebuses and artillery being developed at
11322-684: The Roman practice and contracted foreigners especially for their personal corps guard called the Varangian Guard . They were chosen among war-prone peoples, of whom the Varangians (Norsemen) were preferred. Their mission was to protect the Emperor and Empire and since they did not have links to the Greeks, they were expected to be ready to suppress rebellions. One of the most famous guards was
11475-608: The Stratioti were mostly Albanians. According to a study by a Greek author, around 80% of the listed names attributed to the stradioti were of Albanian origin while most of the remaining ones, especially those of officers, were of Greek origin; a small minority were of South Slavic origin. Among their leaders there were also members of some old Byzantine Greek noble families such as the Palaiologoi and Comneni . The stratioti were pioneers of light cavalry tactics during this era. In
11628-715: The Third Infantry Division charged with Baghdad security after the 2003 invasion of Iraq, said of DynCorp and other PMCs: These guys run loose in this country and do stupid stuff. There's no authority over them, so you can't come down on them hard when they escalate force... They shoot people, and someone else has to deal with the aftermath. It happens all over the place. In 2004, the US and Coalition governments hired PMCs for security in Iraq. In March 2004, four Blackwater employees escorting food supplies and other equipment were attacked and killed in Fallujah in
11781-485: The Transbaikalia region, and the 'Bloody Baron' Ungern von Sternberg was the dictator of Mongolia for a short time. Meanwhile, generals such as Kolchak or Denikin are typically not considered warlords as they created more stable military and governing structures that claimed legitimacy from the prewar Tsarist state. The term "warlord" was frequently used when Russian and Chechen conflicts were reignited in
11934-664: The US Armed Forces lose their law of war protection from direct attack if, and for such time as, they directly participate in hostilities. The Anti-Pinkerton Act of 1893 ( 5 U.S.C. § 3108 ) forbids the US government from using Pinkerton National Detective Agency employees or similar private police companies. In 1977, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit interpreted
12087-653: The US Army was temporarily barred from awarding a $ 475 million security contract in Iraq, the largest one at that time, because of a lawsuit filed by a US citizen alleging violation of the Anti-Pinkerton Act of 1893. Three of the candidates under final consideration for the contract (to include intelligence services and security for reconstruction work by the United States Army Corps of Engineers ) included British firms Aegis Defence Services and Erinys Iraq , as well as Blackwater of North Carolina. The case
12240-700: The Varangians ceased to be in the service of the Roman Empire remains unclear. In England at the time of the Norman Conquest , Flemings (natives of Flanders ) formed a substantial mercenary element in the forces of William the Conqueror with many remaining in England as settlers under the Normans . Contingents of mercenary Flemish soldiers were to form significant forces in England throughout
12393-853: The Yangtze, managed to push back the Fengtian Army again. By November, Zhang held only a small corner of north China, including a corridor connecting Beijing with Manchuria. Attacks on Beijing continued into the spring of 1926. Manchuria was placed under martial law again, and its economy disintegrated under the burden of the insatiable war machine. Old taxes were increased and new taxes invented. Zhang demanded that more paper money be printed , out of step with silver reserves . An extremely serious crisis erupted in November 1925, when Guo Songling revolted and ordered his troops to turn back and march on Shenyang. The Japanese brought in reinforcements to protect their interests in Manchuria, but Zhang managed to put down
12546-756: The Zhili Army in what came to be known as the First Zhili–Fengtian War . Three-thousand troops had been killed and 7,000 wounded, and Zhang's units retreated to Shanhai Pass . Zhili forces were in control of Beijing and Zhang's image as a national leader had been destroyed and he reacted by declaring Manchuria independent from Beijing in May 1922. On June 22, Wang left Shenyang for Japanese-controlled Dalian , allegedly for treatment of an eye infection. From there he challenged Zhang by demanding restrictions to military spending and complete control over civil affairs. Zhang gave in, lifted martial law and agreed to
12699-488: The army, and they were used in the battles. By August 1925, the Fengtian Army controlled four large provinces within the Great Wall — Zhili (where Beijing was located but not Beijing itself), Shandong , Jiangsu and Anhui . One unit even marched as far south as the city of Shanghai . However, the military situation was so unstable that Sun Chuanfang , a Zhili clique warlord whose sphere of influence extended along
12852-403: The behavior of citizens within a particular geographical space". Driscoll termed this warlordism "militia coalition politics". A truce was reached without any disarmament of militias; instead, the warlord coalitions reached a non-violent "order producing equilibrium", and eventually agreed upon a warlord-friendly civilian figurehead to assume head-of-state duties to demonstrate the legitimacy as
13005-408: The central government is unable to extend political, military or bureaucratic control over large swaths of territories outside the capital—functions cooperatively within the framework of the state, at times. The warlords, with their established militias, are able to maintain a monopoly of violence within certain territories. They form coalitions with competing warlords and local tribal leaders to present
13158-502: The central government with a challenge, and often the state will bargain to gain access to resources or " rent ", loyalty from the warlord and peace in the region. In exchange for peaceful coexistence, the warlord coalitions are granted special status and privileges, including the right to maintain de facto political rule within the agreed-upon territory, exert force to retain their monopoly over violence and extract rent and resources. "By limiting access to these privileges, members of
13311-545: The central government. While most other warlord armies fought along the Yangtze River , Zhang attacked North China, thus beginning the Second Zhili–Fengtian War . In a surprise move, a Zhili commander, Feng Yuxiang , toppled Cao Kun and took control of Beijing. He shared power with Zhang, and both appointed the same Duan Qirui whom he had ousted in 1920. Zhang purchased 14 more FT tanks in 1924 and 1925 for
13464-467: The country outside of Kabul. While most warlords have power vested in them through traditional tribal customs, some hold formal regional government positions, but in both cases cooperation with the central government remains voluntary and reliant on incentives. Beginning in 2008, as it became increasingly evident that the central government in Kabul was incapable of extending its power and control to much of
13617-922: The country, the US military and diplomatic corps began exploring the option of engaging ethnic tribal warlords in negotiations, a strategy that continued through the Obama administration. Warlordism was widespread in Civil War-era Russia (1918–22). Many territories were not under the control of either the Red government in Petrograd (later in Moscow) or the White governments in Omsk and Rostov . These territories were controlled by warlords of various political colors. The Cossack ataman Semyonov held territories in
13770-507: The death of Ngô Quyền . The ensuing two years were marked by local warlords rebelling in order to seize power within their local governments and challenging the Dương court. As a result, the country fractured into 12 regions, each led by a warlord. Warlordism in Europe is usually connected to various mercenary companies and their chieftains, which often were de facto powerholders in the areas where they resided. Such free companies would arise in
13923-462: The desire for significant private gain and is prompted by the promise or payment of material compensation". Under Article 1.2, a person does not have to take a direct part in the hostilities in a planned coup d'état to be a mercenary. If a person is proven to have worked as a mercenary for any other country while retaining Austrian citizenship, their Austrian citizenship will be revoked. In 2003, France criminalized mercenary activities, as defined by
14076-669: The direct control of their own national armed forces. In the United Kingdom, the Foreign Enlistment Act 1819 and the Foreign Enlistment Act 1870 make it unlawful for British subjects to join the armed forces of any state warring with another state at peace with Britain. During the Greek War of Independence , British volunteers fought with the Greek rebels, which could have been unlawful per
14229-420: The dominant warlord coalition create credible incentives to cooperate rather than fight among themselves." In the case of Afghanistan, state–warlord bargaining sometimes extends beyond these informal accords and elevates to the status of political clientelism , in which the warlords are appointed to formal government positions, such as regional governor; a title which provides them political legitimacy . During
14382-612: The early 16th century heavy cavalry in the European armies was principally remodeled after Albanian stradioti of the Venetian army, Hungarian hussars and German mercenary cavalry units (Schwarzreitern). They employed hit-and-run tactics, ambushes, feigned retreats and other complex maneuvers. In some ways, these tactics echoed those of the Ottoman sipahis and akinci. They had some notable successes also against French heavy cavalry during
14535-583: The effort to defeat the Taiping Rebellion of the 1860s as the Manchu bannerman armies faltered and the central authorities lost much of their control. The Republic of China was led by Yuan Shikai , a dictator. The modern Warlord Era began in 1916 upon his death. The national government existed and handled foreign affairs, but it had little internal control until the late 1920s. A period of provincial and local rule under military strongmen known as
14688-554: The end of the Qing dynasty Zhang managed to have his men recognised as a regiment of the regular Chinese army, patrolling the borders of Manchuria and suppressing other bandit gangs. The American surgeon Louis Livingston Seaman met Zhang during the Russo-Japanese War, and took several photographs of him and his troops as well as writing an account of his journey. During the 1911 Xinhai Revolution some military commanders wanted to declare independence for Manchuria; but
14841-478: The end of the war, he returned to his hometown and became a bandit. In one version of his beginnings as a warlord, during a hunting trip he spotted a wounded bandit ( Honghuzi ) on horseback, killed him, took his horse and became a bandit himself. By his late 20s he had formed a small personal army, acquiring something of a Robin Hood reputation. His bandit career was euphemistically referred to as his experience in
14994-584: The extraction of rent—which can refer to natural resources, territory, labor, revenue or privilege. In his study of warlordism in Georgia and Tajikistan, Driscoll cites " land reform , property ownership and transfers, privatization in non-transparent closed-bid settings, complex credit swaps cemented via marriages, money laundering , price-fixing schemes , and bribery", as principal sources of exchange in redistribution politics. Noted theorist Max Weber suggested that classic feudalism in pre-modern-state Europe
15147-435: The feudal system of Europe, nobility—whether feudal lords, knights, princes or barons—were warlords in that they served as regional leaders who exercised military, economic and political control over subnational territories and maintained private armies to maintain that status. While their political power to exercise social order, welfare and regional defense within their territory was derived from hereditary rights or edicts from
15300-531: The formation of at least 93 "Partisan Armed Groups", armed militias loyal to regional warlords who, in exchange for their loyalty and willingness to use their private armies to quell the threats from these opposition groups, are granted a degree of autonomy within designated regions, the exclusive right to use violence and the right "to profit from the 'economy of violence' that they establish in their own areas". Warlordism in Afghanistan—another state where
15453-511: The former US Ambassador to Colombia Myles Frechette has said: "Congress and the American people don't want any servicemen killed overseas. So it makes sense that if contractors want to risk their lives, they get the job". Not only have foreign PMCs worked in Colombia, but a disproportionate number of the mercenaries with PMCs are Colombian, as Colombia's long history of civil war has led to
15606-462: The funds needed to maintain standing forces, so they tended to hire free companies to serve in their armies during wartime. Such companies typically formed at the ends of periods of conflict, when men-at-arms were no longer needed by their respective governments. The veteran soldiers thus looked for other forms of employment, often becoming mercenaries. Free Companies would often specialize in forms of combat that required longer periods of training that
15759-571: The future king Harald III of Norway , also known as Harald Hardrada ("Hard-counsel"), who arrived in Constantinople in 1035 and was employed as a Varangian Guard. He participated in eighteen battles and was promoted to akolythos , the commander of the Guard, before returning home in 1043. He was killed at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066 when his army was defeated by an English army commanded by King Harold Godwinson . The point at which
15912-479: The kind of risks that can turn the tide of a battle, but may cost them their lives. He also noted that a mercenary who failed was obviously no good, but one who succeeded may be even more dangerous. He astutely pointed out that a successful mercenary army no longer needs its employer if it is more militarily powerful than its supposed superior. This explained the frequent, violent betrayals that characterized mercenary/client relations in Italy, because neither side trusted
16065-434: The land was canceled for the first years. Most were sent to the interior of Manchuria, where they reclaimed land for agriculture, or worked in forestry or mines. Between 1924 and 1929 the amount of land under tillage increased from 20 million acres (81,000 km) to 35 million acres (140,000 km). Manchuria's economy boomed while chaos and uncertainty reigned in the rest of China. An especially ambitious project
16218-647: The last remnants of the Danelaw. Other countries and territories with warlords include, Iraq, Myanmar ( Wa State ), the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Libya, Sudan, Somalia, Pakistan ( Pashtun Tribal Areas ), Syria and Tajikistan (Gorno-Badakhshan). Other areas include the eastern part of Ukraine, Lebanon, South Sudan, Mexico, Colombia, and Haiti. Mercenary A mercenary , is a private individual who joins an armed conflict for personal profit,
16371-466: The late 4th century, the empire often contracted whole bands of barbarians either within the legions or as autonomous foederati . The barbarians were Romanized and surviving veterans were established in areas requiring population. The Varangian Guard of the Byzantine Empire is the best known formation made up of barbarian mercenaries (see next section). Byzantine emperors followed
16524-491: The life of Zhang Zuolin, including: Warlord Warlords are groups of individuals who exercise military , economic , and political control over a region , often one without a strong central or national government , typically through informal control over local armed forces . Warlords have existed throughout much of history, albeit in a variety of different capacities within the political, economic, and social structure of states or ungoverned territories . The term
16677-569: The military. In 1919 France had left Renault FT tanks in Vladivostok after the joint Allied intervention , and Zhang Zuolin soon incorporated them into the Manchurian Army. In the summer of 1920, Zhang made a foray into North China on the other side of the Great Wall, trying to topple Duan Qirui , the leading warlord of Beijing. He did this by supporting another warlord, Cao Kun , with troops and they successfully ousted Duan. As
16830-500: The monarch, their military strength afforded them independence and strength to negotiate for privileges. Should the feudal lord or other noble withdraw his support from the king , either in rebellion or to form an alliance with a rival kingdom , that feudal lord or noble was now ascribing to the political order of ungoverned warlordism. Within political science there is a growing body of research and analysis on warlordism that has emerged within weak states that have gained independence as
16983-436: The monopoly of crime by the state—in this case being the warlords—is in order to receive protection from external rivals as well as internal political rivals. Political scientist Jesse Driscoll uses the term "redistribution politics" to classify the bargaining process between warlords and the regime in states where cooperative warlord politics prevails, and when that bargaining leads to accords or informal arrangements concerning
17136-597: The most brutal and murderous warlords in Africa. During his term of office Taylor was accused of war crimes and crimes against humanity as a result of his involvement in the Sierra Leone Civil War (1991–2002). His close friends included the late Col. Muammar Gaddafi of Libya; the conservative former ruler of Ivory Coast, Félix Houphouët-Boigny ; the President of Burkina Faso, Blaise Compaoré ; and
17289-654: The most powerful figure in the Beiyang government and proclaimed himself Generalissimo in 1927. Zhang's troops were defeated by the Kuomintang 's Northern Expedition in 1928. During his retreat, he was assassinated by officers of the Japanese Kwantung Army . He was succeeded in Manchuria by his son, Zhang Xueliang , who recognized the Nationalist government . Zhang was born in 1875 in Haicheng ,
17442-659: The nearly defunct Qing court. When it became obvious to Zhang that Yuan would usurp control of the central government, he endorsed Yuan's rule over that of either Sun or the Manchus. After Zhang put down a rebellion in June 1912, Yuan raised him to the rank of Lieutenant-General. In 1913 Yuan attempted to move Zhang away from Manchuria by having him transferred to Mongolia , but Zhang reminded Yuan of his successful efforts to keep local order, and refused. In 1915, when it became clear that Yuan intended to declare himself emperor, Zhang
17595-402: The new central government named Zhang both military and civil governor of Liaoning, the essential components of a successful warlord . Zhang, a pragmatist, had always remained cordial with Puyi , the last Emperor of China , and had sent him a gift of £ 1,600 for his wedding as a token of loyalty. Zhang sought good relations with Puyi in order to increase his power and cement his legitimacy if
17748-651: The now-exiled Beiyang Government, by his eldest son, Zhang Xueliang , the so-called "Young Marshal." The government-in-exile would not last very long since by July, Beiyang had reached an armistice with the Kuomintang ; and by the end of the year, the Northeast Flag Replacement occurred, nominally reunifying China under the Kuomintang banner. Zhang had six wives and 14 children (eight sons and six daughters), among which include his son and successor, Zhang Xueliang , as well as Zhang Xueming . He
17901-642: The other. He believed that citizens with a real attachment to their home country will be more motivated to defend it and thus make much better soldiers. The Stratioti or Stradioti (Italian: Stradioti or Stradiotti; Greek: Στρατιώτες, Stratiotes) were mercenary units from the Balkans recruited mainly by states of southern and central Europe from the 15th until the middle of the 18th century. The stradioti were recruited in Albania , Greece, Dalmatia , Serbia and later Cyprus . Most modern historians have indicated that
18054-678: The outskirts of Shenyang. Here the line passed through the Japanese-operated South Manchuria Railroad . In what came to be known as the Huanggutun incident , Colonel Kōmoto Daisaku, an officer of the Japanese Kwantung Army , planted a bomb along a railroad bridge, which exploded when Zhang's train passed it; mortally wounded, Zhang died a few days later. At the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal in 1946, Okada Keisuke testified that Zhang
18207-495: The primacy of ethnic tribal authority, and thus the power and influence of warlords, in ordering Afghan society. Although the United States and its coalition allies have expended a considerable amount of time, effort and resources attempting to foment the centralization of government and consolidation of power in the state with its seat of power in Kabul , tribal warlords continue to maintain political influence and power throughout
18360-420: The principals and get them out, we're not there to get into huge firefights with the bad guys". One team from DynCorp provided bodyguards for President Hamid Karzai . In 2006, a US congressional report listed a number of PMCs and other enterprises that have signed contracts to carry out anti-narcotics operations and related activities as part of Plan Colombia . Referring to the use of American PMCs in Colombia,
18513-574: The pro-Manchu governor used Zhang's regiment to set up a "Manchurian People's Peacekeeping Council", intimidating would-be rebels and revolutionaries. For his efforts in preventing civil disturbance and revolution, Zhang was named the Vice Minister of Military Affairs. On January 1, 1912 Sun Yat-sen became the first President of the Republic of China in Nanjing . Yuan Shikai , operating out of Beijing , sent other northern military commanders
18666-538: The property or resources from the people and land and redistribute the riches in exchange for monetary value . When people live in a particular region dominated by a warlord, they can choose to flee or live within the political structure the warlords have created. If the warlords provide protection against external threats of violence, the people will be likely to stay and continue living and working in that region, even though they are being extorted . The trade-off becomes protection for extraction, and this political framework
18819-599: The protocol to the Geneva convention for French citizens, permanent residents, and legal entities (Penal Code, L436-1 , L436-2 , L436-3 , L436-4 , L436-5 ). This law does not prevent French citizens from serving as volunteers in foreign forces. The law applies to military activities with a specifically mercenary motive or with a mercenary level of remuneration. However, due to jurisdictional loopholes several French companies provide mercenary services. The French state owns 50% of Défense conseil international , which it founded,
18972-616: The railway on the Russian side. Still, Zhang avoided a showdown and after 1924 the Soviets re-established their dominance over the railroad. The situation's precariousness was demonstrated by an outbreak of pneumonic plague in Hailar , a town at the western end of the Chinese Eastern Railway , in October 1920. Chinese troops were present in great number and turned railway quarantine into
19125-462: The rebellion, increasing his own power. He intervened and took control of China's northernmost province, Heilongjiang , after a rebellion there forced the local governor to flee. Because the governor of Jilin province had been linked to the attempt to restore the monarchy, Zhang had allies from Jilin successfully agitate for the governor's dismissal in Beijing. By 1918 Zhang's control of Manchuria
19278-687: The region in the 1890s. After the Boxer Rebellion , his troops became a regiment of the Qing dynasty 's army, and during the Russo-Japanese War , they were hired by the Japanese Army as mercenaries. During the 1911 Revolution , Zhang initially fought against the revolutionaries, and after the foundation of the Republic of China supported the Beiyang government . Zhang founded the Fengtian clique and gradually expanded his Northeastern Army , which established his supremacy over
19431-592: The revolt in December. Even more seriously, Wang Yongjiang , now the civil governor of Manchuria, realized that his work of nine years had been in vain. He left Shenyang in February 1926 and resigned. Before his death from kidney failure on November 1, 1927, Wang, totally disillusioned, did not reply when Zhang asked him to return. Instead, Wang severed all connections with Zhang. With the loss of his financial expert, Zhang took drastic action. In March 1926 he appointed
19584-680: The right to control the number, nature, and armaments of such private armies , arguing that, provided they are not pro-actively employed in front-line combat, they are not mercenaries. In February 2002, a British Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) report about PMCs noted that the demands of the military service from the UN and international civil organizations might mean that it is cheaper to pay PMCs than use soldiers. PMC "civilian contractors" tend to have poor reputations among professional government soldiers and officers—the U.S. Military Command has questioned their war zone behavior. In September 2005, Brigadier General Karl Horst, deputy commander of
19737-716: The rise of militant, independence-seeking nationalist movements within the republics —particularly within the Central Asian and Caucasus regions—resulting in armed conflict and civil war. Many strongmen warlords had served in the Soviet military , police units or intelligence services and had experience operating within highly organized bureaucracies. These warlords formed well-structured militias that not only established political and economic control over territories, but institutionalized bureaucracies to establish and maintain their monopolies over violence and rent and "incentivizing
19890-488: The same legal protections as captured service personnel of the armed forces. In practice, whether or not a person is a mercenary may be a matter of degree, as financial and political interests may overlap. Protocol Additional GC 1977 (APGC77) is a 1977 amendment protocol to the Geneva Conventions . Article 47 of the protocol provides the most widely accepted international definition of a mercenary, though it
20043-498: The same time. The Swiss Guard in particular were employed by the Papal States from 1506 (continuing to serve today as the military of Vatican City ). It was then that the German landsknechts , colourful mercenaries with a redoubtable reputation, took over the Swiss forces' legacy and became the most formidable force of the late 15th and throughout the 16th century, being hired by all the powers in Europe and often fighting at opposite sides. Sir Thomas More in his Utopia advocated
20196-410: The state–warlord bargaining phase, warlords in Afghanistan have a high motivation to prolong war to create political instability, expose weakness of the central state, prompt regional criticism against the government and continue economic extraction. In his study of warlordism in Georgia and Tajikistan , political scientist Jesse Driscoll emphasizes how the collapse of the Soviet Union precipitated
20349-434: The three northeastern provinces ( Fengtian , Jilin and Heilongjiang ). Zhang's government in Manchuria initiated important reforms and investments in agriculture and industry, resulting in good development. He was supported by the Japanese, who viewed him as best representing their economic interests. Seeking to extend his power to northern China, Zhang fought wars against the Anhui and Zhili cliques , after which he became
20502-400: The time of the Norman and early Plantagenet dynasties (11th and 12th centuries). A prominent example of these were the Flemings who fought during the English civil wars, known as the Anarchy or the Nineteen-Year Winter (AD 1135 to 1154), under the command of William of Ypres , who was King Stephen 's chief lieutenant from 1139 to 1154 and who was made Earl of Kent by Stephen. In Italy,
20655-403: The time). In 1925 his personal fortune was estimated at over 18 million yuan (roughly $ 2.6 million). His power rested on the Fengtian Army , which was composed of about 100,000 men in 1922 and almost triple that number by the end of the decade. It had obtained large stocks of weapons left over from World War I and included naval units, an air force and an armaments industry. Zhang integrated
20808-499: The use of contractors such as Blackwater was a "new form of mercenary activity" and illegal under international law . Most countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom, are not signatories to the 1989 United Nations Mercenary Convention banning the use of mercenaries. A spokesman for the U.S. Mission to U.N. denied that Blackwater security guards were mercenaries, saying "Accusations that U.S. government-contracted security guards, of whatever nationality, are mercenaries
20961-415: The use of mercenaries in preference to citizens. The barbarian mercenaries employed by the Utopians are thought to be inspired by the Swiss mercenaries. At approximately the same period, Niccolò Machiavelli argued against the use of mercenary armies in his book of political advice The Prince . His rationale was that since the sole motivation of mercenaries is their pay, they will not be inclined to take
21114-430: The victorious foreign powers after the failed Boxer Rebellion of 1900, and Zhang feared their intervention. It was proposed that Zhang Zuolin's domain (the "Three Eastern Provinces") take Outer Mongolia under its administration by the Bogda Khan and Bodo in 1922 after pro-Soviet Mongolian Communists seized control of Outer Mongolia. Manchuria shared a long border with Russia , which had been weakened militarily after
21267-475: The war). The private military company (PMC) is a private company providing armed combat or security services for financial gain. PMCs refer to their personnel as security contractors or private military contractors. PMC contractors are civilians (in governmental, international, and civil organizations) authorized to accompany an army to the field; thus, the term civilian contractor . PMCs may use armed force, defined as: "legally established enterprises that make
21420-475: The warlords and a source of wealth for external firms. The result is a political system in which a dominant coalition of warlords' strips and distributes valuable assets in exchange for bureaucratic services and security from foreign firms. Stationary bandits can amass power because of their economic connections with foreign firms. Oftentimes warlords will exert violence on a particular region in order to gain control. Once in control, these warlords can expropriate
21573-493: Was a Buddhist . A pragmatist, Zhang supported different movements depending on what would gain him the most power and legitimacy, and even supported the restoration of the Qing dynasty in 1917. His nicknames include the "Old Marshal" (大帥, P: Dàshuài , W: Ta-shuai ), "Rain Marshal" (雨帥, P: Yǔshuài , W: Yü-shuai ) and "Mukden Tiger". The American press referred to him as "Marshal Chang Tso-lin, Tuchun of Manchuria". There are numerous movies, TV shows and radio shows depicting
21726-415: Was a famous Frisian warlord, and so was his cousin Pier Gerlofs Donia , who was the leader of the Arumer Zwarte Hoop . The Imperial commanders-in-chief during the reign of Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I did hold the title Kriegsherr , of which the direct translation was "warlord", but they were not warlords in the sense of the word today. Other warlords could be found in the British Isles during
21879-408: Was a political boundary drawn in 1893 which clearly defined and demarcated the border between Afghanistan and the British Raj . Afghanistan unilaterally disputes the legitimacy of the border. Pashtuns are the prominent ethnic group in eastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan, and the Durand Line served to split their traditional homeland between two nation states. The partitioning of their tribal lands
22032-403: Was accepted by the government for the payment of taxes, a sign of faith in its own currency. Next, Wang turned to the chaotic tax collecting system. Because of his former job, he was well acquainted with the abuses of the system and introduced a number of controls. The provincial government had also invested government funds in various enterprises, many of which were poorly managed. Wang ordered
22185-452: Was an example of warlordism, as the state regime was unable to "exercise a monopoly on the use of force within its territory" and the monarch relied on the commitment of loyal knights and other nobility to mobilize their private armies in support of the crown for specific military campaigns. As noted French philosopher Alexis de Tocqueville and political scientists such as E. J. Hobsbawm and Theda Skocpol observed in their analyses of
22338-476: Was complete, except for the small areas held by the Japanese Empire . A Tianjin -based honghuzi leader negotiated with Zhang Zuolin. In 1920 Zhang was the supreme ruler of Manchuria. The central government acknowledged this by appointing him Governor-General of the Three Eastern Provinces. He began to surround himself in luxury, building a chateau-style home near Shenyang , and had at least five wives (an accepted practice of any powerful or wealthy Chinese at
22491-485: Was later dismissed. The better-known combat units in which foreign nationals serve in another country's armed forces are the Gurkha regiments of the British Army and Indian Army , the French Foreign Legion , the Spanish Legion and the Ukraine Foreign Legion . Recruits from countries of the Commonwealth of Nations in the British Army swear allegiance to the British monarch and are liable to operate in any unit. Gurkhas, however, operate in dedicated Gurkha units of
22644-402: Was murdered because the Kwantung Army was infuriated by his failure to stop Chiang's army, which was backed by Moscow, Tokyo's strategic rival. For two weeks, Zhang's death was kept secret while the scramble for power was decided. That is why according to an announcement issued by the Fengtian Army, he officially died on June 21, 1928. Zhang was succeeded, both as warlord of Manchuria and head of
22797-448: Was not available in the form of a mobilized militia. The Routiers formed a distinctive subculture in medieval France who alternated between serving as mercenaries in wartime and bandits in peacetime. The routiers were very destructive and became a significant social problem. After the Treaty of Brétigny ended the war between England and France in 1360, the French countryside was overrun by Free Companies of routiers while
22950-410: Was one of the few officials who supported him. Besides political opportunism, Zhang saw Yuan as a central, unifying, and legitimate figure. Furthermore, Yuan had promoted him to military governor of Fengtian to gain his support. Zhang's main rival for power in Manchuria, Zhang Xiluan , had been asked about Yuan's ambitions, and suggested to Yuan that he "think about it a bit more", for which Zhang Xiluan
23103-490: Was recalled to Beijing while Zhang Zuolin was promoted. In March 1916, after many southern provinces revolted against Yuan Shikai's government, Zhang supported him but expelled a local military governor sent by Duan Qirui to replace him, with some support from local Japanese officers in the Kwantung Army . Beijing accepted Zhang's authority and Yuan appointed Zhang superintendent of military affairs in Liaoning (known as " Fengtian " until 1929). After Yuan died in June 1916,
23256-410: Was the value of the Fengtian dollar (yuan), which had started on parity with the Japanese gold yen, but by February 1928, 40 yuan was equivalent to 1 gold yen. In the winter of 1926, Manchuria's economy collapsed. Workers went on strike, and hungry immigrants flooded back into Shenyang because they could not find any work. Zhang provided weapons to anti- Guominjun Muslim rebels led by Ma Tingrang during
23409-457: Was to break the Japanese monopoly on cotton textiles by creating a large mill which, much to Japan's sorrow, succeeded. The government also invested in other enterprises, among them quite a number of Sino-Japanese companies. During this time, the Fengtian Army successfully repressed Manchuria's many bandits. Various railway lines were built, among them the Shenyang- Hailong line, which opened in 1925. In 1924 Wang amalgamated three regional banks into
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