A dialect is a variety of language spoken by a particular group of people. It can also refer to a language subordinate in status to a dominant language, and is sometimes used to mean a vernacular language.
155-682: Cockney is a dialect of the English language , mainly spoken in London and its environs, particularly by Londoners with working-class and lower middle-class roots. The term Cockney is also used as a demonym for a person from the East End , or, traditionally, born within earshot of Bow Bells . Estuary English is an intermediate accent between Cockney and Received Pronunciation , also widely spoken in and around London, as well as in wider South Eastern England. In multicultural areas of London,
310-609: A Survey of English Dialects fieldworker, concluded that this was not a universal feature of Cockneys but that it was more common to hear this in the London area than elsewhere in Britain. This description may also be a result of mishearing the labiodental R as /w/ , when it is still a distinct phoneme in Cockney. An unstressed final -ow may be pronounced [ ə ] . In broad Cockney, this can be lowered to [ ɐ ] . This
465-453: A dialect of a language defined in this way. In these terms, Danish and Norwegian , though mutually intelligible to a large degree, are considered separate languages. In the framework of Heinz Kloss , these are described as languages by ausbau (development) rather than by abstand (separation). In other situations, a closely related group of varieties possess considerable (though incomplete) mutual intelligibility, but none dominates
620-508: A dialect cluster is defined as a central variety together with a collection of varieties whose speakers can understand the central variety at a specified threshold level (usually between 70% and 85%) or higher. It is not required that peripheral varieties be understood by speakers of the central variety or of other peripheral varieties. A minimal set of central varieties providing coverage of a dialect continuum may be selected algorithmically from intelligibility data. In many societies, however,
775-461: A dialect continuum . The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social class or ethnicity . A dialect associated with a particular social class is called a sociolect ; one associated with a particular ethnic group is an ethnolect ; and a geographical or regional dialect is a regiolect (alternative terms include 'regionalect', 'geolect', and 'topolect' ). Any variety of
930-479: A multiethnolect particularly common amongst young people from diverse backgrounds. Nevertheless, the glottal stop , double negatives, and the vocalisation of the dark L (and other features of Cockney speech) are among the Cockney influences on Multicultural London English, and some rhyming slang terms are still in common usage. An influential July 2010 report by Paul Kerswill , professor of sociolinguistics at Lancaster University , Multicultural London English:
1085-480: A "cokenay" as "a child tenderly brought up" and, by extension, "an effeminate fellow" or "a milksop ". This may have developed from the sources above or separately, alongside such terms as " cock " and " cocker " which both have the sense of "to make a nestle-cock ... or the darling of", "to indulge or pamper". By 1600, this meaning of cockney was being particularly associated with the Bow Bells area. In 1617,
1240-513: A "dialect", as it is the dominant language in a particular state, be it in terms of linguistic prestige , social or political (e.g. official ) status, predominance or prevalence, or all of the above. The term "dialect" used this way implies a political connotation, being mostly used to refer to low-prestige languages (regardless of their actual degree of distance from the national language), languages lacking institutional support, or those perceived as "unsuitable for writing". The designation "dialect"
1395-644: A Sicilian-speaking person would have a greater degree of mutual intelligibility with a speaker of the more closely related Neapolitan language, but far less mutual intelligibility with a person speaking Sicilian Gallo-Italic, a language that developed in isolated Lombard emigrant communities on the same island as the Sicilian language. Today, the majority of Italian nationals are able to speak Italian, though many Italians still speak their regional language regularly or as their primary day-to-day language, especially at home with family or when communicating with Italians from
1550-465: A Yiddish speaker would consult a Yiddish dictionary rather than a German dictionary in such a case, and is classified as its own language. Within this framework, W. A. Stewart defined a language as an autonomous variety in addition to all the varieties that are heteronomous with respect to it, noting that an essentially equivalent definition had been stated by Charles A. Ferguson and John J. Gumperz in 1960. A heteronomous variety may be considered
1705-456: A central variety together with all those varieties whose speakers understand the central variety at a specified threshold level or higher. If the threshold level is high, usually between 70% and 85%, the cluster is designated as a language . Another occasionally used criterion for discriminating dialects from languages is the sociolinguistic notion of linguistic authority . According to this definition, two varieties are considered dialects of
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#17327654646381860-710: A chi-rho monogram found at Brentwood . The late Roman period, and the period shortly after, was the setting for the King Cole legends based around Colchester . One version of the legend concerns St Helena , the mother of Constantine the Great . The legend makes her the daughter of Coel, Duke of the Britons ( King Cole ) and in it she gives birth to Constantine in Colchester. This, and related legends , are at variance with biographical details as they are now known, but it
2015-424: A county, which will be ignored in the sorting process. Sewardstone in the south-west of the ceremonial county, was outside the former Essex postal county, being covered by the London post town ( E4 ). The deep estuaries on the east coast give Essex, by some measures, the longest coast of any county. These estuaries mean the county's North Sea coast is characterised by three major peninsulas, each named after
2170-533: A distinct language from Arabic and not merely a dialect thereof. During the civil war , Christians often used Lebanese Arabic officially, and sporadically used the Latin script to write Lebanese, thus further distinguishing it from Arabic. All Lebanese laws are written in the standard literary form of Arabic, though parliamentary debate may be conducted in Lebanese Arabic. In Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco,
2325-402: A given language can be classified as "a dialect", including any standardized varieties . In this case, the distinction between the "standard language" (i.e. the "standard" dialect of a particular language) and the " nonstandard " (vernacular) dialects of the same language is often arbitrary and based on social, political, cultural, or historical considerations or prevalence and prominence. In
2480-556: A given language can be classified as a "dialect", including standardized ones . A second usage, which refers to colloquial settings, typically diglossic , in a few countries like Italy , such as dialetto , patois in France , much of East Central Europe, and the Philippines , may carry a pejorative undertone and underlines the politically and socially subordinated status of an autochthonous non-national language to
2635-443: A high proportion of the population commute to London, and the wages earned in the capital are typically significantly higher than more local jobs. Many parts of Essex therefore, especially those closest to London, have a major economic dependence on London and the transport links that take people to work there. Part of the south-east of the county, already containing the major population centres of Basildon , Southend and Thurrock ,
2790-415: A language with a writing system will operate at different degrees of distance from the standardized written form. Some dialects of a language are not mutually intelligible in spoken form, leading to debate as to whether they are regiolects or separate languages. A standard dialect , also known as a "standardized language", is supported by institutions. Such institutional support may include any or all of
2945-478: A legal forest) and known as Epping Forest and Hainault Forest ). The Black Death significantly reduced England's population, leading to a change in the balance of power between the working population on one hand, and their masters and employers on the other. Over a period of several decades, national government brought in legislation to reverse the situation, but it was only partially successful and led to simmering resentment. By 1381, England's economic situation
3100-466: A matter of dispute. Macedonian , which is largely mutually intelligible with Bulgarian and certain dialects of Serbo-Croatian ( Torlakian ), is considered by Bulgarian linguists to be a Bulgarian dialect, while in North Macedonia , it is regarded as a language in its own right. Before the establishment of a literary standard of Macedonian in 1944, in most sources in and out of Bulgaria before
3255-652: A new, melting-pot mixture of all those people living here who learned English as a second language ", Kerswill said. A series of new and expanded towns have often had a strong influence on local speech. Many areas beyond the capital have become Cockney-speaking to a greater or lesser degree, including the new towns of Hemel Hempstead , Basildon , and Harlow , and expanded towns such as Grays , Chelmsford and Southend . However, this is, except where least mixed, difficult to discern because of common features: linguistic historian and researcher of early dialects Alexander John Ellis in 1890 stated that Cockney developed owing to
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#17327654646383410-787: A number of different families follow the last two major groups: the Gallo-Romance languages ( French , Occitan and its Vivaro-Alpine dialect , Franco-Provençal ); the Rhaeto-Romance languages ( Friulian and Ladin ); the Ibero-Romance languages ( Sardinia 's Algherese ); the Germanic Cimbrian , Southern Bavarian , Walser German and the Mòcheno language ; the Albanian Arbëresh language ;
3565-478: A particular dialect, often the sociolect of the elite class, comes to be identified as the "standard" or "proper" version of a language by those seeking to make a social distinction and is contrasted with other varieties. As a result of this, in some contexts, the term "dialect" refers specifically to varieties with low social status . In this secondary sense of "dialect", language varieties are often called dialects rather than languages : The status of "language"
3720-580: A population of 1,832,751. After Southend-on-Sea (182,305), the largest settlements are Colchester (130,245), Basildon (115,955) and Chelmsford (110,625). The south of the county is very densely populated, and the remainder, besides Colchester and Chelmsford, is largely rural. For local government purposes Essex comprises a non-metropolitan county , with twelve districts, and two unitary authority areas: Thurrock and Southend-on-Sea . The districts of Chelmsford, Colchester and Southend have city status. The county historically included north-east Greater London,
3875-651: A recording from a long-time resident of Hackney in the 1950s, and the BBC made another recording in 1999 which showed how the accent had changed. One of the characteristic pronunciations of Cockney is th-fronting . The early development of Cockney vocabulary is obscure, but appears to have been heavily influenced by Essex and related eastern dialects, while borrowings from Yiddish , including kosher (originally Hebrew, via Yiddish, meaning legitimate ) and shtum ( /ʃtʊm/ originally German, via Yiddish, meaning mute ), as well as Romani , for example wonga (meaning money , from
4030-497: A review of his invasion force on Lexden Heath where the army formally proclaimed him Imperator . The invasion force that assembled before him included four legions , mounted auxiliaries and an elephant corps – a force of around 30,000 men. At Colchester, the kings of 11 British tribes surrendered to Claudius. Colchester became a Roman Colonia , with the official name Colonia Claudia Victricensis ('the City of Claudius' Victory'). It
4185-454: A secure base, which eventually became the Tower of London could be established in the city. While at Barking William received the submission of some of England's leading nobles. The invaders established a number of castles in the county, to help protect the new elites in a hostile country. There were castles at Colchester , Castle Hedingham , Rayleigh , Pleshey and elsewhere. Hadleigh Castle
4340-438: A separate and parallel way and may thus better fit various parties' criteria for a separate language. Despite this, these "dialects" may often be historically cognate and share genetic roots in the same subfamily as the dominant national language and may even, to a varying degree, share some mutual intelligibility with the latter. In this sense, unlike in the first usage, the national language would not itself be considered
4495-683: A separate language, because Literary Arabic is the liturgical language of Islam and the language of the Islamic sacred book, the Qur'an . Although, especially since the 1960s, the Darijas are occupying an increasing use and influence in the cultural life of these countries. Examples of cultural elements where Darijas' use became dominant include: theatre, film, music, television, advertisement, social media, folk-tale books and companies' names. Essex Essex ( / ˈ ɛ s ɪ k s / ESS -iks )
4650-430: A sequence of varieties, where each mutually intelligible with the next, but may not be mutually intelligible with distant varieties. Others have argued that mutual intelligibility occurs in varying degrees, and the potential difficulty in distinguishing between intelligibility and prior familiarity with the other variety. However, recent research suggests that there is some empirical evidence in favor of using some form of
4805-399: A similar way, the definitions of the terms "language" and "dialect" may overlap and are often subject to debate, with the differentiation between the two classifications often grounded in arbitrary or sociopolitical motives, and the term "dialect" is sometimes restricted to mean "non-standard variety", particularly in non-specialist settings and non-English linguistic traditions. The term
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4960-441: A similar way, the definitions of the terms "language" and "dialect" may overlap and are often subject to debate, with the differentiation between the two classifications often grounded in arbitrary or sociopolitical motives. The term "dialect" is however sometimes restricted to mean "non-standard variety", particularly in non-specialist settings and non-English linguistic traditions. Conversely, some dialectologists have reserved
5115-529: A small Royalist cavalry force from Essex, fought a battle with local parliamentarians at Bow Bridge , then crossed the River Lea into Essex. The combined force, bolstered by extra forces, marched towards Royalist held Colchester , but a Parliamentarian force caught up with them just as they were about to enter the city's medieval walls, and a bitter battle was fought but the Royalists were able to retire to
5270-582: A socio-cultural approach, is possible. This is illustrated by the frequency with which the army-navy aphorism is cited. By the definition most commonly used by linguists, any linguistic variety can be considered a "dialect" of some language—"everybody speaks a dialect". According to that interpretation, the criteria above merely serve to distinguish whether two varieties are dialects of the same language or dialects of different languages. The terms "language" and "dialect" are not necessarily mutually exclusive, although they are often perceived to be. Thus there
5425-649: A speaker of purely Eastern Lombard , a language in Northern Italy 's Lombardy region that includes the Bergamasque dialect , would have severely limited mutual intelligibility with a purely Italian speaker and would be nearly completely unintelligible to a Sicilian -speaking individual. Due to Eastern Lombard's status as a Gallo-Italic language, an Eastern Lombard speaker may, in fact, have more mutual intelligibility with an Occitan, Catalan , or French speaker than with an Italian or Sicilian speaker. Meanwhile,
5580-426: A variety of spellings, including Cockayne , Cocknay , and Cockney , and became humorously associated with the English capital London . The current meaning of Cockney comes from its use among rural Englishmen (attested in 1520) as a pejorative term for effeminate town-dwellers, from an earlier general sense (encountered in " The Reeve's Tale " of Geoffrey Chaucer 's The Canterbury Tales c. 1386 ) of
5735-616: Is a ceremonial county in the East of England , and one of the home counties . It is bordered by Cambridgeshire and Suffolk to the north, the North Sea to the east, Kent across the Thames Estuary to the south, Greater London to the south-west, and Hertfordshire to the west. The largest settlement is Southend-on-Sea , and the county town is Chelmsford . The county has an area of 3,670 km (1,420 sq mi) and
5890-457: Is a correlation between the two geographic definitions under the typical prevailing wind conditions. The term can apply to East Londoners who do not speak the dialect and those who do. The traditional core districts of the East End include the Middlesex towns of Bethnal Green , Whitechapel , Spitalfields , Stepney , Wapping , Limehouse , Poplar , Haggerston , Aldgate , Shoreditch ,
6045-667: Is also transcribed as a semivowel [w] by some linguists, e.g., Coggle and Rosewarne. However, according to Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996) , the vocalized dark l is sometimes an unoccluded lateral approximant, which differs from the RP [ɫ] only by the lack of the alveolar contact. Relatedly, there are many possible vowel neutralisations and absorptions in the context of a following dark L ( [ɫ] ) or its vocalized version; these include: Cockney has been occasionally described as replacing /ɹ/ with /w/ . For example, thwee (or fwee ) instead of three , fwasty instead of frosty . Peter Wright,
6200-503: Is also used popularly to refer to the unwritten or non-codified languages of developing countries or isolated areas, where the term " vernacular language " would be preferred by linguists. John Lyons writes that "Many linguists [...] subsume differences of accent under differences of dialect." In general, accent refers to variations in pronunciation, while dialect also encompasses specific variations in grammar and vocabulary . There are three geographical zones in which Arabic
6355-504: Is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social class or ethnicity . A dialect that is associated with a particular social class can be termed a sociolect . A dialect that is associated with a particular ethnic group can be termed an ethnolect . A geographical/regional dialect may be termed a regiolect (alternative terms include 'regionalect', 'geolect', and 'topolect' ). According to this definition, any variety of
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6510-528: Is common to most traditional, Southern English dialects except for those in the West Country . Regarding grammar, Cockney uses me instead of my , for example, "At's me book you got 'ere" [ˈæʔs mɪ ˈbʊk jə ˈɡɔʔ eː] . (where 'ere' means 'there'). It cannot be used when "my" is emphasized; e.g., "At's my book you got 'ere" [æʔs ˈmɑj ˈbʊk jə ˈɡɔʔ eː] . It also uses the term ain't , as well as double negatives , for example, "I didn't see nuffink". By
6665-466: Is commonly found, and typical Scottish features such as the postvocalic /r/ are reduced. Research suggests the use of English speech characteristics is likely to be a result of the influence of London and South East England accents featuring heavily on television, such as the popular BBC One soap opera EastEnders . However, such claims have been criticized. Certain features of Cockney – Th -fronting , L -vocalisation , T -glottalisation , and
6820-542: Is heavily based on the Florentine dialect of Tuscan . The Tuscan-based language that would eventually become modern Italian had been used in poetry and literature since at least the 12th century , and it first spread outside the Tuscan linguistic borders through the works of the so-called tre corone ("three crowns"): Dante Alighieri , Petrarch , and Giovanni Boccaccio . Florentine thus gradually rose to prominence as
6975-716: Is likely that Constantine, and his father, Constantius spent time in Colchester during their years in Britain. The presence of St Helena in the country is less certain. The name Essex originates in the Anglo-Saxon period of the Early Middle Ages and has its root in the Anglo-Saxon ( Old English ) name Ēastseaxe ("East Saxons"), the eastern kingdom of the Saxons who had come from the continent and settled in Britain. Excavations at Mucking have demonstrated
7130-486: Is most prevalent. Italy is in fact home to a vast array of separate languages , most of which lack mutual intelligibility with one another and have their own local varieties; twelve of them ( Albanian , Catalan , German , Greek , Slovene , Croatian , French , Franco-Provençal , Friulian , Ladin , Occitan and Sardinian ) underwent Italianization to a varying degree (ranging from the currently endangered state displayed by Sardinian and southern Italian Greek to
7285-613: Is not solely determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and political development. Romansh came to be a written language, and therefore it is recognized as a language, even though it is very close to the Lombardic alpine dialects and classical Latin. An opposite example is Chinese , whose variations such as Mandarin and Cantonese are often called dialects and not languages in China, despite their mutual unintelligibility. National boundaries sometimes make
7440-557: Is not wholly correct as they are found in other places across London, including Peckham and Penge in south London. Dialect The more common usage of the term in English refers to a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakers. The dialects or varieties of a particular language are closely related and, despite their differences, are most often largely mutually intelligible , especially if geographically close to one another in
7595-778: Is nothing contradictory in the statement "the language of the Pennsylvania Dutch is a dialect of German ". There are various terms that linguists may use to avoid taking a position on whether the speech of a community is an independent language in its own right or a dialect of another language. Perhaps the most common is " variety "; " lect " is another. A more general term is " languoid ", which does not distinguish between dialects, languages, and groups of languages, whether genealogically related or not. The colloquial meaning of dialect can be understood by example, e.g. in Italy (see dialetto ), France (see patois ) and
7750-454: Is often considered to be purely linguistic, is that of mutual intelligibility : two varieties are said to be dialects of the same language if being a speaker of one variety has sufficient knowledge to understand and be understood by a speaker of the other dialect; otherwise, they are said to be different languages. However, this definition has often been criticized, especially in the case of a dialect continuum (or dialect chain), which contains
7905-405: Is only used for the traditional regional varieties. That allows them to be distinguished from the regional varieties of modern standard German. The German dialects show a wide spectrum of variation. Some of them are not mutually intelligible. German dialectology traditionally names the major dialect groups after Germanic tribes from which they were assumed to have descended. The extent to which
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#17327654646388060-518: Is said to be autonomous. In contrast, speakers in the Netherlands of Low Saxon varieties similar to Westphalian would instead consult a dictionary of Standard Dutch , and hence is categorized as a dialect of Dutch instead. Similarly, although Yiddish is classified by linguists as a language in the High German group of languages and has some degree of mutual intelligibility with German,
8215-641: Is spoken (Jastrow 2002). Zone I is categorized as the area in which Arabic was spoken before the rise of Islam. It is the Arabian Peninsula, excluding the areas where southern Arabian was spoken. Zone II is categorized as the areas to which Arabic speaking peoples moved as a result of the conquests of Islam. Included in Zone II are the Levant , Egypt , North Africa , Iraq , and some parts of Iran . The Egyptian, Sudanese, and Levantine dialects (including
8370-496: Is supported by the Académie Française institution. A nonstandard dialect also has a complete grammar and vocabulary, but is usually not the beneficiary of institutional support. The distinction between the "standard" dialect and the " nonstandard " (vernacular) dialects of the same language is often arbitrary and based on social, political, cultural, or historical considerations or prevalence and prominence. In
8525-588: Is thought to have been flourishing among the Trinovantes in the fourth century, indications include the remains of a probable church at Colchester, the church dates from sometime after 320, shortly after the Constantine the Great granted freedom of worship to Christians in 313. Other archaeological evidence include a chi-rho symbol etched on a tile at a site in Wickford , and a gold ring inscribed with
8680-431: Is traditionally described as having the unaspirated variants. Also, in broad Cockney at least, the degree of aspiration is typically greater than in RP, and may often also involve some degree of affrication [pᶲʰ, tˢʰ, kˣʰ] . Affricatives may be encountered in initial, intervocalic, and final position. This feature results in Cockney being often mentioned in textbooks about Semitic languages while explaining how to pronounce
8835-857: Is used in words such as bath, path, demand . This originated in London in the 16th–17th centuries and is also part of Received Pronunciation (RP). The accent features T-glottalisation , with use of the glottal stop as an allophone of /t/ in various positions, including after a stressed syllable. Glottal stops also occur, albeit less frequently for /k/ and /p/ , and occasionally for mid-word consonants. For example, Richard Whiteing spelled "Hyde Park" as Hy' Par' . Like and light can be homophones. "Clapham" can be said as Cla'am (i.e., [ˈkl̥æʔm̩] ). /t/ may also be flapped intervocalically, e.g. utter [ˈaɾə] . London /p, t, k/ are often aspirated in intervocalic and final environments, e.g., upper [ˈapʰə] , utter [ˈatʰə] , rocker [ˈɹɔkʰə] , up [ˈaʔpʰ] , out [ˈæːʔtʰ] , rock [ˈɹɔʔkʰ] , where RP
8990-591: Is within the Thames Gateway and designated for further development. Parts of the south-west of the county, such as Buckhurst Hill and Chigwell , are contiguous with Greater London neighbourhoods and therefore form part of the Greater London Urban Area . In rural parts of the county, there are many small towns, villages and hamlets largely built in the traditional materials of timber and brick, with clay tile or thatched roofs. Before
9145-776: The Times Educational Supplement in October 1984. Rosewarne argued that it may eventually replace Received Pronunciation in the south-east. The phonetician John C. Wells collected media references to Estuary English on a website . Writing in April 2013, Wells argued that research by Joanna Przedlacka "demolished the claim that EE was a single entity sweeping the southeast. Rather, we have various sound changes emanating from working-class London speech, each spreading independently". The Pearly Kings and Queens are famous as an East End institution, but that perception
9300-505: The BBC (except in entertainment programs such as The Sooty Show ) was the RP of Standard English, whereas nowadays many different accents, including Cockney or accents heavily influenced by it, can be heard on the BBC. In a survey of 2,000 people conducted by Coolbrands in the autumn of 2008, Cockney was voted equal fourth coolest accent in Britain with 7% of the votes, while The Queen's English
9455-610: The Bastard of Fauconberg . The Essex men joined with their allies in attempting to storm Aldgate and Bishopsgate during an assault known as the Siege of London . The Lancastrians were defeated, and the Essex contingent retreated back over the Lea with heavy losses. In 1588 Tilbury Fort was chosen as the focal point of the English defences against King Philip II's Spanish Armada , and
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#17327654646389610-597: The Boudiccan revolt . The rebels entered the city, and after a Roman last stand at the temple of Claudius, methodically destroyed it, massacring many thousands. A significant Roman force attempting to relieve Colchester was destroyed in pitched battle, known as the Massacre of the Ninth Legion . The rebels then proceeded to sack London and St Albans , with Tacitus estimating that 70–80,000 people were killed in
9765-587: The Centro-Southern and Centro-Northern dialects. Though mostly mutually unintelligible, the exact degree to which all the Italian languages are mutually unintelligible varies, often correlating with geographical distance or geographical barriers between the languages; some regional Italian languages that are closer in geographical proximity to each other or closer to each other on the dialect continuum are more or less mutually intelligible. For instance,
9920-572: The Darijas translated as literally meaning Dialect in Arabic (spoken North African languages) are sometimes considered more different from other Arabic dialects. Officially, North African countries prefer to give preference to the Literary Arabic and conduct much of their political and religious life in it (adherence to Islam ), and refrain from declaring each country's specific variety to be
10075-530: The Forest of Essex was mostly farmland, and that the county as a whole was 20% wooded in 1086. After that point population growth caused the proportion of woodland to fall steadily until the arrival of the Black Death , in 1348, killed between a third and a half of England's population, leading to a long term stabilisation of the extent of woodland. Similarly, various pressures led to areas being removed from
10230-602: The Great Fire of London and rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren . Although the bells were destroyed again in 1941 in the Blitz , they had fallen silent on 13 June 1940 as part of the British anti-invasion preparations of World War II . Before they were replaced in 1961, there was a period when, by the "within earshot" definition, no "Bow Bell" Cockneys could be born. The use of such a literal definition produces other problems since
10385-603: The Hellenic Griko language and Calabrian Greek ; the Serbo-Croatian Slavomolisano dialect ; and the various Slovene languages , including the Gail Valley dialect and Istrian dialect . The language indigenous to Sardinia , while being Romance in nature, is considered to be a specific linguistic family of its own, separate from the other Neo-Latin groups; it is often subdivided into
10540-568: The Hundred based on the peninsula: A consequence of these features is that the broad estuaries defining them have been a factor in preventing any transport infrastructure linking them to neighbouring areas on the other side of the river estuaries, to the north and south. The pattern of settlement in the county is diverse. The areas closest to London are the most densely settled, though the Metropolitan Green Belt has prevented
10695-539: The Isle of Dogs , Hackney , Hoxton , Bow and Mile End . The informal definition of the East End has gradually expanded to include such towns in south-west Essex as Forest Gate , East Ham , Leyton , Plaistow , Stratford , Walthamstow and West Ham , as these have formed part of London's growing conurbation . The church of St Mary-le-Bow is one of the oldest, largest, and historically most important churches in
10850-630: The London County Council , stating that "the Cockney mode of speech, with its unpleasant twang, is a modern corruption without legitimate credentials, and is unworthy of being the speech of any person in the capital city of the Empire ". Others defended the language variety: "The London dialect is really, especially on the South side of the Thames, a perfectly legitimate and responsible child of
11005-609: The Middle Ages . However, all these languages evolved from Vulgar Latin in parallel with Italian, long prior to the popular diffusion of the latter throughout what is now Italy . During the Risorgimento , Italian still existed mainly as a literary language, and only 2.5% of Italy's population could speak Italian. Proponents of Italian nationalism , like the Lombard Alessandro Manzoni , stressed
11160-422: The Philippines , carries a pejorative undertone and underlines the politically and socially subordinated status of a non-national language to the country's single official language. In other words, these "dialects" are not actual dialects in the same sense as in the first usage, as they do not derive from the politically dominant language and are therefore not one of its varieties , but instead they evolved in
11315-478: The River Lea forming its western border. Essex is a low-lying county with a flat coastline. It contains pockets of ancient woodland, including Epping Forest in the south-west, and in the north-east shares Dedham Vale area of outstanding natural beauty with Suffolk. The coast is one of the longest of any English county, at 562 miles (905 km). It is deeply indented by estuaries, the largest being those of
11470-537: The River Stour ; with the North Sea to the east. The highest point of the county of Essex is Chrishall Common near the village of Langley , close to the Hertfordshire border, which reaches 482 feet (147 m). In England, the term county is currently applied to both the ceremonial counties (or lieutenancy areas) and the administrative (or non-metropolitan) counties . It can also be applied to
11625-752: The Stour , which forms the Suffolk border, the Colne , Blackwater , Crouch , and the Thames in the south. Parts of the coast are wetland and salt marsh, including a large expanse at Hamford Water , and it contains several large beaches. What is now Essex was occupied by the Trinovantes tribe during the Iron Age . They established a settlement at Colchester, which is the oldest recorded town in Britain. The town
11780-420: The conscription of Italian men from all throughout Italy during World War I is credited with having facilitated the diffusion of Italian among the less educated conscripted soldiers, as these men, who had been speaking various regional languages up until then, found themselves forced to communicate with each other in a common tongue while serving in the Italian military. With the popular spread of Italian out of
11935-657: The glottal stop . Cockney also demonstrates: The diphthong offsets are only fully close in /ɪj/ and /ʉw/ : [əi̯, əʉ̯] . In all other cases, they are more similar to [ɪ̯, ʊ̯] or [e̯, o̯] . According to Beaken, /æj/ and /ɑj/ typically glide towards [ e ] : [æe̯, ɑe̯] , /oj/ towards [ ɪ ] : [oɪ̯] , /əw/ and the wide allophone of /æː/ towards [ ʊ ] : [ɐʊ̯, æʊ̯] , whereas /ɔw/ and /ɒw/ both towards [ o ] : [ɔo̯, ɒo̯] . According to Mott, [e̯, o̯] do not occur at all as glides: [æɪ̯, ɑɪ̯, oɪ̯, ɐʊ̯, æʊ̯, ɒʊ̯] (he does not show /ɪj, ʉw, ɔw/ on his charts). Furthermore, Wells remarks on
12090-678: The volgare of the literate and upper class in Italy, and it spread throughout the peninsula and Sicily as the lingua franca among the Italian educated class as well as Italian travelling merchants. The economic prowess and cultural and artistic importance of Tuscany in the Late Middle Ages and the Renaissance further encouraged the diffusion of the Florentine-Tuscan Italian throughout Italy and among
12245-598: The 1980s and 1990s, most of the features mentioned above had partly spread into more general south-eastern speech, giving the accent called Estuary English ; an Estuary speaker will use some but not all of the Cockney sounds. The Cockney accent has long been regarded as an indicator of low status. For example, in 1909 the Conference on the Teaching of English in London Elementary Schools issued by
12400-407: The 19th century. As the city grew, the definitions shifted to alternatives based on dialect or more specific areas; the East End and the area within earshot of Bow Bells. The East End of London and the vicinity of Bow bells are often used interchangeably, representing the identity of the East End. The region within the audible range of the bells varies depending on the direction of the wind, but there
12555-481: The Caribbean coast of Costa Rica (Central America) by descendants of Jamaican people. The position that Costa Rican linguists support depends upon which university they represent. Another example is Scanian , which even, for a time, had its own ISO code. An important criterion for categorizing varieties of language is linguistic distance . For a variety to be considered a dialect, the linguistic distance between
12710-572: The City of London. The definition based on being born within earshot of the bells, cast at the Whitechapel Bell Foundry , reflects the early definition of the term as relating to all of London. The audible range of the Bells is dependent on geography and wind conditions. The east is mostly low lying, a factor which combines with the strength and regularity of the prevailing wind, blowing from west-south-west for nearly three-quarters of
12865-451: The Cockney dialect is, to an extent, being replaced by Multicultural London English —a new form of speech with significant Cockney influence. The earliest recorded use of the term is 1362 in passus VI of William Langland 's Piers Plowman , where it is used to mean "a small, misshapen egg ", from Middle English coken + ey ("a cock 's egg"). Concurrently, the mythical land of luxury Cockaigne ( attested from 1305) appeared under
13020-502: The Cockney dialect spread along the main railway routes to towns in the surrounding counties as early as 1923, spreading further after World War II when many refugees left London owing to the bombing, and continuing to speak Cockney in their new homes. A more distant example where the accent stands out is Thetford in Norfolk, which tripled in size from 1957 in a deliberate attempt to attract Londoners by providing social housing funded by
13175-578: The Kings of Essex appear to have had a greater control in the core area, east of the Lea and Stort, that would subsequently become the county of Essex. In the core area they granted charters freely, but further west they did so while also making reference to their Mercian overlords. The early kings were pagan, together with much and perhaps by this time all of the population. Sledd's son Sebert converted to Christianity around 604 and St Paul's Cathedral in London
13330-624: The London County Council. As with many accents of the United Kingdom, Cockney is non-rhotic . A final -er is pronounced [ ə ] or lowered [ ɐ ] in broad Cockney. As with all or nearly all non-rhotic accents, the paired lexical sets COMM A and LETT ER , PALM/BATH and START , THOUGHT and NORTH/FORCE , are merged. Thus, the last syllable of words such as cheetah can be pronounced [ ɐ ] as well in broad Cockney. A broad /ɑː/
13485-452: The Romani "wanga" meaning coal), and cushty (Kushty) (from the Romani kushtipen , meaning good) reflect the influence of those groups on the development of the speech. John Camden Hotten, in his Slang Dictionary of 1859, refers to "their use of a peculiar slang language" when describing the costermongers of London's East End. A dialectological study of Leytonstone in 1964 found that
13640-595: The Second World War, the South Slavic dialect continuum covering the area of today's North Macedonia were referred to as Bulgarian dialects . Sociolinguists agree that the question of whether Macedonian is a dialect of Bulgarian or a language is a political one and cannot be resolved on a purely linguistic basis. In Lebanon , a part of the Christian population considers "Lebanese" to be in some sense
13795-558: The Syrian dialect) are well documented, and widely spoken and studied. Zone III comprises the areas in which Arabic is spoken outside of the continuous Arabic Language area. Spoken dialects of the Arabic language share the same writing system and share Modern Standard Arabic as their common prestige dialect used in writing. When talking about the German language, the term German dialects
13950-704: The West-Germanic language group. Some language siblings are closer to each other in terms of linguistic distance than to other linguistic siblings. French and Spanish, siblings in the Romance Branch of the Indo-European group, are closer to each other than they are to any of the languages of the West-Germanic group. When languages are close in terms of linguistic distance, they resemble one another, hence why dialects are not considered linguistically distant to their parent language. One criterion, which
14105-470: The area around the church is no longer residential, and the noise pollution means few are born within earshot. Regional definitions are sometimes blurred. Ahead of the 2024-25 season, West Ham United released an away shirt which it called the ‘Cockney Kit’. The promotional material celebrated a Cockney identity for East London based on a territory rather than dialect. The kit featured the Bow Bells on
14260-495: The area's dialect was very similar to that recorded in Bethnal Green by Eva Sivertsen , but there were still some features that distinguished Leytonstone speech from Cockney. Linguistic research conducted in the early 2010s suggests that today, some aspects of the Cockney accent are declining in usage within multicultural areas, where some traditional features of Cockney have been displaced by Multicultural London English ,
14415-566: The balance of power in southern England. The small kingdoms of Essex, Sussex and of Kent , previously independent albeit under Mercian overlordship, were subsequently fully absorbed into Wessex. The later Anglo-Saxon period shows three major battles fought with the Norse recorded in Essex; the Battle of Benfleet in 894, the Battle of Maldon in 991 and the Battle of Assandun (probably at either Ashingdon or Ashdon ) in 1016. The county of Essex
14570-486: The borders of my realm; to which rather than any dishonour shall grow by me, I myself will take up arms, I myself will be your general, judge, and rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field. Essex, London and the eastern counties backed Parliament in the English Civil War , but by 1648, this loyalty was stretched. In June 1648 a force of 500 Kentish Royalists landed near the Isle of Dogs , linked up with
14725-533: The capital and executed a number of their enemies, but the revolt began to dissipate after the events at West Smithfield on 15 June, when the Mayor of London, William Walworth , killed the rebel leader Wat Tyler. The rebels prepared to fire arrows at the royal party but the 15 year old King Richard II rode toward the crowd and spoke to them, defusing the situation, in part by making a series of promises he did not subsequently keep. Having bought himself time, Richard
14880-421: The central offglides [ə̯] and [ʉ̯] are transcribed as non-syllabic vowels due to the lack of appropriate glide symbols. Diphthong alterations in Cockney are: Other vowel differences include The dialect uses the vocalisation of dark L , hence [ˈmɪwwɔw] for Millwall . The actual realization of a vocalized /l/ is influenced by surrounding vowels, and it may be realized as [u] , [ʊ] , [o] or [ɤ] . It
15035-724: The complete control of the Catuvellauni, who took Colchester as their own capital. The Roman invasion of AD 43 began with a landing on the south coast, probably in the Richborough area of Kent . After some initial successes against the Britons, they paused to await reinforcements, and the arrival of the Emperor Claudius . The combined army then proceeded to the capital of the Catevellauni-Trinovantes at Colchester , and took it. Claudius held
15190-470: The country's official language(s). Dialects in this sense do not derive from a dominant language, are therefore not one of its varieties , but they evolved in a separate and parallel way. While they may be historically cognate with and share genetic roots in the same subfamily as the dominant national language and may, to a varying degree, share some mutual intelligibility with the latter, "dialects" under this second definition are separate languages from
15345-652: The creation of the county councils, county-level administration was limited in nature; lord-lieutenants replaced the sheriffs from the time of Henry VIII and took a primarily military role, responsible for the militia and the Volunteer Force that replaced it. Most administration was carried out by justices of the peace (JPs) appointed by the Lord-Lieutenant of Essex based upon their reputation. The JPs carried out judicial and administrative duties such as maintenance of roads and bridges, supervision of
15500-765: The current non-metropolitan county and the unitary authorities formerly part of it. Until 1996, the Royal Mail additionally divided Britain into postal counties , used for addresses. Although it adopted many local government boundary changes, the Royal Mail did not adopt the 1965 London boundary reform due to cost. Therefore, parts of post-1965 Greater London continued to have an Essex address. The postal county of Hertfordshire also extended deep into west Essex, with Stansted isolated as an exclave of postal Essex. In 1996, postal counties were discontinued and replaced entirely by postcodes , though customers may still use
15655-454: The default everyday language in virtually every situation, whereas standard German is only spoken in education, partially in media, and with foreigners not possessing knowledge of Swiss German. Most Swiss German speakers perceive standard German to be a foreign language. The Low German and Low Franconian varieties spoken in Germany are often counted among the German dialects. This reflects
15810-537: The destruction of London housing in the Second World War ; they have since been significantly developed and expanded. Epping Forest also prevents the further spread of the Greater London Urban Area . As it is not far from London, with its economic magnetism, many of Essex's settlements, particularly those near or within short driving distance of railway stations, function as dormitory towns or villages where London workers raise their families. In these areas
15965-474: The destruction of the three cities. Boudicca was defeated in battle, somewhere in the west midlands, and the Romans are likely to have ravaged the lands of the rebel tribes, so Essex will have suffered greatly. Despite this, the Trinovantes' identity persisted. Roman provinces were divided into civitas for local government purposes – with a civitas for the Trinovantes strongly implied by Ptolemy . Christianity
16120-721: The development of the Harwich International Port , and petroleum industry. Essex evolved from the Kingdom of the East Saxons , a polity which is likely to have its roots in the territory of the Iron Age Trinovantes tribe. In the Iron Age, Essex and parts of southern Suffolk were controlled by the local Trinovantes tribe. Their production of their own coinage marks them out as one of
16275-542: The dialects are spoken varies according to a number of factors: In Northern Germany, dialects are less common than in the South. In cities, dialects are less common than in the countryside. In a public environment, dialects are less common than in a familiar environment. The situation in Switzerland and Liechtenstein is different from the rest of the German-speaking countries. The Swiss German dialects are
16430-440: The distinction between "language" and "dialect" an issue of political importance. A group speaking a separate "language" may be seen as having a greater claim to being a separate "people", and thus to be more deserving of its own independent state, while a group speaking a "dialect" may be seen as a sub-group, part of a bigger people, which must content itself with regional autonomy. The Yiddish linguist Max Weinreich published
16585-606: The educated and powerful, though local and regional languages remained the main languages of the common people. Aside from the Italo-Dalmatian languages , the second most widespread family in Italy is the Gallo-Italic group , spanning throughout much of Northern Italy 's languages and dialects (such as Piedmontese , Emilian-Romagnol , Ligurian , Lombard , Venetian , Sicily's and Basilicata's Gallo-Italic in southern Italy , etc.). Finally, other languages from
16740-479: The emergence, acquisition, and diffusion of a new variety , predicted that the Cockney accent would disappear from London's streets within 30 years. The study, funded by the Economic and Social Research Council , said that the accent, which has been around for more than 500 years, is being replaced in London by a new hybrid language. "Cockney in the East End is now transforming itself into Multicultural London English,
16895-461: The expression, A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot ( "אַ שפּראַך איז אַ דיאַלעקט מיט אַן אַרמײ און פֿלאָט" : " A language is a dialect with an army and navy ") in YIVO Bleter 25.1, 1945, p. 13. The significance of the political factors in any attempt at answering the question "what is a language?" is great enough to cast doubt on whether any strictly linguistic definition, without
17050-401: The first linguistic definition of the term, as they are in fact derived from Italian, with some degree of influence from the local or regional native languages and accents. The most widely spoken languages of Italy, which are not to be confused with regional Italian, fall within a family of which even Italian is part, the Italo-Dalmatian group . This wide category includes: Modern Italian
17205-475: The following: government recognition or designation; formal presentation in schooling as the "correct" form of a language; informal monitoring of everyday usage ; published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a normative spoken and written form; and an extensive formal literature (be it prose, poetry, non-fiction, etc.) that uses it. An example of a standardized language is the French language which
17360-400: The former historic counties and the former postal counties . Essex therefore, has different boundaries depending on which type of county is being referred to. The largest extent of Essex was the historic (or ancient) county, which included Metropolitan Essex i.e. areas that now lie within the London conurbation such as Romford and West Ham . This boundary of Essex was established in
17515-625: The fronting of the GOAT and GOOSE vowels – have spread across the south-east of England and, to a lesser extent, to other areas of Britain. However, Clive Upton has noted that these features have occurred independently in some other dialects, such as TH-fronting in Yorkshire and L-vocalisation in parts of Scotland. The term Estuary English has been used to describe London pronunciations slightly closer to RP than Cockney. The variety first came to public prominence in an article by David Rosewarne in
17670-405: The further sprawl of London into the county. The Green Belt was initially a narrow band of land, but subsequent expansions meant it was able to limit the further expansion of many of the commuter towns close to the capital. The Green Belt zone close to London includes many prosperous commuter towns, as well as the new towns of Basildon and Harlow , originally developed to resettle Londoners after
17825-413: The importance of establishing a uniform national language in order to better create an Italian national identity . With the unification of Italy in the 1860s, Italian became the official national language of the new Italian state, while the other ones came to be institutionally regarded as "dialects" subordinate to Italian, and negatively associated with a lack of education. In the early 20th century,
17980-619: The influence of Essex dialect on London speech. Writing in 1981, the dialectologist Peter Wright identified the building of the Becontree estate in Dagenham as influential in the spread of the Cockney dialect. This vast estate was built by the Corporation of London to house poor East Enders in a previously rural area of Essex. The residents typically kept their Cockney dialect rather than adopt an Essex dialect. Wright also reports that
18135-544: The intellectual circles, because of the mass-media and the establishment of public education , Italians from all regions were increasingly exposed to Italian. While dialect levelling has increased the number of Italian speakers and decreased the number of speakers of other languages native to Italy, Italians in different regions have developed variations of standard Italian specific to their region. These variations of standard Italian, known as " regional Italian ", would thus more appropriately be called dialects in accordance with
18290-590: The intelligibility criterion to distinguish between languages and dialects, though mutuality may not be as relevant as initially thought. The requirement for mutuality is abandoned by the Language Survey Reference Guide of SIL International , publishers of the Ethnologue and the registration authority for the ISO 639-3 standard for language codes . They define a dialect cluster as
18445-640: The large veteran army he had ordered to invade England. The English believed that the Spanish would land near the Fort, so Queen Elizabeth 's small and relatively poorly trained forces gathered at Tilbury, where the Queen made her famous speech to the troops . I know I have the body of a weak, feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain , or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade
18600-520: The late Anglo-Saxon period, sometime after the larger former Kingdom of the East Saxons had lost its independence. It included the whole ceremonial county, as well as the three north-western parishes transferred to Cambridgeshire in 1889, other smaller areas (such as the Bartlow Hills transferred to neighbours at the same time, and the five London boroughs administered as part of Essex until 1965. The administrative county and County Council
18755-484: The laxness of the unrounded offset of /əw/ , which is a kind of a centralized [ ɤ ] : [ɐɤ̯] . In the rest of the article, this is treated as a simple allophonic rule and only ⟨ j ⟩ and ⟨ w ⟩ are used for the diphthong offsets. In narrow phonetic transcription, their rounded and unrounded counterparts are written with ⟨ ɥ ⟩ and ⟨ ɰ ⟩ (phonetically [ʏ̯ ~ ø̯] and [ɯ̜̽ ~ ɤ̯] in fully narrow transcription). Only
18910-495: The legal Forest of Essex and it ceased to exist as a legal entity after 1327, and after that time Forest Law applied to smaller areas: the forests of Writtle (near Chelmsford ), long lost Kingswood (near Colchester), Hatfield , and Waltham Forest . Waltham Forest had covered parts of the Hundreds of Waltham, Becontree and Ongar . It also included the physical woodland areas subsequently legally afforested (designated as
19065-653: The letter S. The Kingdom of the East Saxons included not just the subsequent county of Essex, but also Middlesex (including the City of London ), much of Hertfordshire and at times also the sub-Kingdom of Surrey . The Middlesex and Hertfordshire parts were known as the Province of the Middle Saxons since at least the early eighth century but it is not known if the province was previously an independent unit that came under East Saxon control. Charter evidence shows that
19220-414: The modern era, noise pollution means that the bells can only be heard as far as Shoreditch . According to legend, Dick Whittington heard the bells 4.5 miles away at Highgate Hill, in what is now north London . The studies mean that it is credible that Whittington might have heard them on one of the infrequent days that the wind blows from the south. The church of St Mary-le-Bow was destroyed in 1666 by
19375-405: The modern situation where they are roofed by standard German. This is different from the situation in the Middle Ages when Low German had strong tendencies towards an ausbau language . The Frisian languages spoken in Germany and the Netherlands are excluded from the German dialects. Italy is an often quoted example of a country where the second definition of the word "dialect" ( dialetto )
19530-536: The more advanced tribes on the island, this advantage (in common with other tribes in the south-east) is probably due to the Belgic element within their elite. Their capital was the oppidum (a type of town) of Colchester, Britain's oldest recorded town, which had its own mint. The tribe were in extended conflict with their western neighbours, the Catuvellauni , and steadily lost ground. By AD 10 they had come under
19685-585: The national language) of limited geographic distribution, languages lacking institutional support, or even those considered to be "unsuitable for writing". Occasionally, in a third usage, dialect refers to the unwritten or non-codified languages of developing countries or isolated areas, where the term " vernacular language " would be preferred by linguists. Features that distinguish dialects from each other can be found in lexicon ( vocabulary ) and grammar ( morphology , syntax ) as well as in pronunciation ( phonology , including prosody ). In instances where
19840-535: The old Kentish tongue [...] the dialect of London North of the Thames has been shown to be one of the many varieties of the Midland or Mercian dialect, flavoured by the East Anglian variety of the same speech". Since then, the Cockney accent has been more accepted as an alternative form of the English language rather than a lesser one, though the low status mark remains. In the 1950s, the only accent to be heard on
19995-459: The others. To describe this situation, the editors of the Handbook of African Languages introduced the term dialect cluster as a classificatory unit at the same level as a language. A similar situation, but with a greater degree of mutual unintelligibility, has been termed a language cluster . In the Language Survey Reference Guide issued by SIL International , who produce Ethnologue ,
20150-526: The populace of the county were heavily involved in the Peasants' Revolt . The subsequent centuries were more settled, and the county's economy became increasingly tied to that of London; in the nineteenth century the railways allowed coastal resorts such as Clacton-on-Sea to develop and the Port of London to shift downriver to Tilbury . Subsequent development has included the new towns of Basildon and Harlow ,
20305-528: The presence of Anglo-Saxon settlers in the early fifth century, however the way in which these settlers became ascendent in the territory of the Trinovantes is not known. Studies suggest a pattern of typically peaceful co-existence, with the structure of the Romano-British landscape being maintained, and with the Saxon settlers believed to have been in the minority. The first known king of the East Saxons
20460-417: The rest heading to London, some directly – via Bow Bridge and others may have gone via Kent. A large force of Kentish rebels under Wat Tyler , who may himself have been from Essex, also advanced on London while revolt also spread to a number of other parts of the country. The rebels gained access to the walled City of London and gained control of the Tower of London . They carried out extensive looting in
20615-466: The reverse as a symbol of the area, and the promotional video included the church of St Mary-le-Bow and parts of East London within earshot of the bells – such as Brick Lane , Upper Clapton and Stratford – as well as a scene in Romford , in suburban East London. Cockney speakers have distinctive accents and dialects and occasionally use rhyming slang . The Survey of English Dialects took
20770-731: The salient distinctions are only or mostly to be observed in pronunciation, the more specific term accent may be used instead of dialect . Differences that are largely concentrated in lexicon may be classified as creoles . When lexical differences are mostly concentrated in the specialized vocabulary of a profession or other organization, they are jargons . Differences in vocabulary that are deliberately cultivated to exclude outsiders or to serve as shibboleths are known as cryptolects or cant, and include slangs and argots . The particular speech patterns used by an individual are referred to as that person's idiolect . Languages are classified as dialects based on linguistic distance . The dialects of
20925-486: The same language if (under at least some circumstances) they would defer to the same authority regarding some questions about their language. For instance, to learn the name of a new invention, or an obscure foreign species of plant, speakers of Westphalian and East Franconian German might each consult a German dictionary or ask a German-speaking expert in the subject. Thus these varieties are said to be dependent on, or heteronomous with respect to, Standard German , which
21080-476: The same language. A number of rough measures exist, sometimes leading to contradictory results. The distinction between dialect and language is therefore subjective and depends upon the user's preferred frame of reference. For example, there has been discussion about whether or not the Limón Creole English should be considered "a kind" of English or a different language. This creole is spoken in
21235-813: The same town or region. The classification of speech varieties as dialects or languages and their relationship to other varieties of speech can be controversial and the verdicts inconsistent. Serbo-Croatian illustrates this point. Serbo-Croatian has two major formal variants ( Serbian and Croatian ). Both are based on the Shtokavian dialect and therefore mutually intelligible with differences found mostly in their respective local vocabularies and minor grammatical differences. Certain dialects of Serbia ( Torlakian ) and Croatia ( Kajkavian and Chakavian ), however, are not mutually intelligible even though they are usually subsumed under Serbo-Croatian. How these dialects should be classified in relation to Shtokavian remains
21390-461: The security of the walls. The Siege of Colchester followed, but ten weeks' starvation and news of Royalist defeats elsewhere led the Royalists to surrender. The ceremonial county of Essex is bounded by Kent , south of the Thames Estuary ; Greater London to the south-west; Hertfordshire , broadly west of the River Lea and the Stort ; Cambridgeshire to the northwest; Suffolk broadly north of
21545-406: The spread of Cockney English since the 1960s. Cockney is more and more influential and some claim that in the future many features of the accent may become standard. Studies have indicated that working-class adolescents in areas such as Glasgow have begun to use certain aspects of Cockney and other Anglicisms in their speech. infiltrating the traditional Glasgow patter . For example, TH -fronting
21700-474: The standard or national language. Under this definition, the standard or national language would not itself be considered a dialect, as it is the dominant language in terms of linguistic prestige , social or political (e.g. official ) status, predominance or prevalence, or all of the above. Dialect used this way implies a political connotation, often being used to refer to non-standardized "low-prestige" languages (regardless of their actual degree of distance from
21855-584: The term "dialect" for forms that they believed (sometimes wrongly) to be purer forms of the older languages, as in how early dialectologists of English did not consider the Brummie of Birmingham or the Scouse of Liverpool to be real dialects, as they had arisen fairly recently in time and partly as a result of influences from Irish migrants. There is no universally accepted criterion for distinguishing two different languages from two dialects (i.e. varieties) of
22010-458: The travel writer Fynes Moryson stated in his Itinerary that "Londoners, and all within the sound of Bow Bells, are in reproach called Cockneys." The same year, John Minsheu included the term in this newly restricted sense in his dictionary Ductor in Linguas . Initially, when London consisted of little more than the walled City , the term applied to all Londoners, and this lingered into
22165-621: The two varieties must be low. Linguistic distance between spoken or written forms of language increases as the differences between the forms are characterized. For example, two languages with completely different syntactical structures would have a high linguistic distance, while a language with very few differences from another may be considered a dialect or a sibling of that language. Linguistic distance may be used to determine language families and language siblings. For example, languages with little linguistic distance, like Dutch and German , are considered siblings. Dutch and German are siblings in
22320-502: The vigorous promotion of Germanic Tyrolean ), but have been officially recognized as minority languages ( minoranze linguistiche storiche ), in light of their distinctive historical development. Yet, most of the regional languages spoken across the peninsula are often colloquially referred to in non-linguistic circles as Italian dialetti , since most of them, including the prestigious Neapolitan , Sicilian and Venetian , have adopted vulgar Tuscan as their reference language since
22475-406: The year, to carry the sound further to the east, and more often. A 2012 study showed that in the 19th century, and under typical conditions, the sound of the bells would carry as far as Clapton , Bow and Stratford in the east but only as far as Southwark to the south and Holborn in the west . An earlier study suggested the sound would have carried even further. The 2012 study showed that in
22630-419: Was Sledd in 587, though there are less reliable sources giving an account of Aescwine (other versions call him Erkenwine) founding the kingdom in 527. The early kings of the East Saxons were pagan and uniquely amongst the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms traced their lineage back to Seaxnēat , god of the Saxons , rather than Woden . The kings of Essex are notable for their S-nomenclature, nearly all of them begin with
22785-601: Was able to receive reinforcements and then crush the rebellion in Essex and elsewhere. His forces defeated rebels in battle at Billericay on 28 June, and there were mass executions including hangings and disembowellings at Chelmsford and Colchester. In 1471, during the Wars of the Roses a force of around 2,000 Essex supporters of the Lancastrian cause crossed Bow Bridge to join with 3,000 Kentish Lancastrian supporters under
22940-717: Was conquered by the Romans but subsequently sacked by the Trinovantes during the Boudican revolt . In the Early Middle Ages the region was invaded by the Saxons , who formed the Kingdom of Essex ; they were followed by the Vikings, who after winning the Battle of Maldon were able to extract the first Danegeld from King Æthelred . After the Norman Conquest much of the county became a royal forest , and in 1381
23095-435: Was considered the coolest, with 20% of the votes. Brummie was voted least popular, receiving just 2%. The Cockney accent often featured in films produced by Ealing Studios and was frequently portrayed as the typical British accent of the lower classes in movies by Walt Disney , though this was only so in London. Studies have indicated that the heavy use of South East England accents on television and radio may have caused
23250-420: Was developed much later, in the thirteenth century. After the arrival of the Normans , the Forest of Essex was established as a royal forest , however, at that time, the term was a legal term. There was a weak correlation between the area covered by the Forest of Essex (the large majority of the county) and the much smaller area covered by woodland. An analysis of Domesday returns for Essex has shown that
23405-448: Was established. On Sebert's death in 616 his sons renounced Christianity and drove out Mellitus , the Bishop of London . The kingdom re-converted after St Cedd , a monk from Lindisfarne and now the patron saint of Essex, converted Sigeberht II the Good around 653. In AD 824, Ecgberht , the King of the Wessex and grandfather of Alfred the Great , defeated the Mercians at the Battle of Ellandun in Wiltshire, fundamentally changing
23560-411: Was formed from the core area, east of the River Lea , of the former Kingdom of the East Saxons in the 9th or 10th centuries and divided into groupings called Hundreds . Before the Norman conquest the East Saxons were subsumed into the Kingdom of England . Having conquered England, William the Conqueror initially based himself at Barking Abbey , an already ancient nunnery, for several months while
23715-463: Was formed in 1889. The county was made a non-metropolitan county (a new type of adminsitrative county) in 1974, meaning the role of the administrative county was redefined, as part of the 1970s local government reorganisation . Its present boundaries were set in 1998 when Thurrock and Southend-on-Sea were separated from the non-metropolitan county to become unitary authorities. In 1997 the Lieutenancies Act defined Essex for ceremonial purposes as
23870-399: Was initially the most important city in Roman Britain and in it they established a temple to the God-Emperor Claudius. This was the largest building of its kind in Roman Britain . The establishment of the Colonia is thought to have involved extensive appropriation of land from local people, this and other grievances led to the Trinovantes joining their northern neighbours, the Iceni , in
24025-562: Was very poor due to the war with France , so a new Poll Tax was levied with commissioners being sent round the country to interrogate local officials in an attempt to ensure tax evasion was reduced and more money extracted. This was hugely unpopular and the Peasants' Revolt broke out in Brentwood on 1 June 1381. The revolt was partly inspired by the egalitarian preaching of the radical Essex priest John Ball . Several thousand Essex rebels gathered at Bocking on 4 June, and then divided. Some heading to Suffolk to raise rebellion there, with
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