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126-735: The Comoros , officially the Union of the Comoros , is an archipelagic country made up of three islands in Southeastern Africa , located at the northern end of the Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean . Its capital and largest city is Moroni . The religion of the majority of the population, and the official state religion, is Sunni Islam . Comoros proclaimed its independence from France on 6 July 1975. The Comoros

252-594: A 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.69/10, ranking it 33rd globally out of 172 countries. In December 1952 a specimen of the West Indian Ocean coelacanth fish was re-discovered off the Comoros coast. The 66 million-year-old species was thought to have been long extinct until its first recorded appearance in 1938 off the South African coast. Between 1938 and 1975, 84 specimens were caught and recorded. There are six national parks in

378-777: A French-trained former gendarme elected President of Ndzwani in 2001, refused to step down at the end of his five-year mandate. He staged a vote in June 2007 to confirm his leadership that was rejected as illegal by the Comoros federal government and the African Union. On 25 March 2008 hundreds of soldiers from the African Union and the Comoros seized rebel-held Ndzwani, generally welcomed by the population: there have been reports of hundreds, if not thousands, of people tortured during Bacar's tenure. Some rebels were killed and injured, but there are no official figures. At least 11 civilians were wounded. Some officials were imprisoned. Bacar fled in

504-479: A United Nations Security Council resolution that would have affirmed Comorian sovereignty over the island. Mayotte became an overseas department and a region of France in 2011 following a referendum which was passed overwhelmingly. The Comoros were likely first settled by Austronesian / Malagasy peoples , Bantu speakers from East Africa , and seafaring Arab traders. From 1500 the Sultanate of Anjouan dominated

630-586: A bloodless coup, overthrowing the Interim President Massounde, citing weak leadership in the face of the crisis. This was the Comoros' 18th coup, or attempted coup d'état since independence in 1975. Assoumani failed to consolidate power and reestablish control over the islands, which was the subject of international criticism. The African Union , under the auspices of President Thabo Mbeki of South Africa, imposed sanctions on Ndzwani to help broker negotiations and effect reconciliation. Under

756-569: A combination of fresh and salt water for growth, and act as nurseries for many crabs, small fish, and insects; these fish and insects are the source of food for many of the marine birds that feed on them. Mangroves are a diverse group of shrubs and trees belonging to the genus Avicennia or Rhizophora that flourish in the salt water shallows of the Persian Gulf, and are the most important habitats for small crustaceans that dwell in them. They are as crucial an indicator of biological health on

882-529: A commitment to human rights, and several specific enumerated rights, democracy, "a common destiny" for all Comorians. Each of the islands (according to Title II of the Constitution) has a great amount of autonomy in the Union, including having their own constitutions (or Fundamental Law), president, and Parliament. The presidency and Assembly of the Union are distinct from each of the islands' governments. Up to

1008-642: A few coral reefs . Compared to the Red Sea, the coral reefs in the Persian Gulf are relatively few and far between. This is primarily connected to the influx of major rivers, especially the Shatt al-Arab (Euphrates and Tigris), which carry large amounts of sediment (most reef-building corals require strong light) and causes relatively large variations in temperature and salinity (corals in general are poorly suited to large variations). Nevertheless, coral reefs have been found along sections of coast of all countries in

1134-605: A giant field across the territorial median line (North Field in the Qatari sector; South Pars Field in the Iranian sector). Using this gas, Qatar has built up a substantial liquefied natural gas (LNG) and petrochemical industry. In 2002, the Persian Gulf nations of Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE produced about 25% of the world's oil, held nearly two-thirds of the world's crude oil reserves , and about 35% of

1260-434: A life expectancy similar to that of humans and they can grow up to 3 metres (9.8 feet) in length. These gentle mammals feed on sea grass and are closer relatives of certain land mammals than are dolphins and whales . Their simple grass diet is negatively affected by new developments along the Persian Gulf coastline, particularly the construction of artificial islands by Arab states and pollution from oil spills caused during

1386-404: A matter of consideration when the potential beneficiaries (Bahamas, Fiji, Indonesia, Philippines) gained independence post- World War II . In the absence of international law, the claims of these states to the waters between the islands were based on internal laws (Indonesia) or interpretation of treaties (the 1898 Treaty of Paris for Philippines). At the same time, the economic activity involving

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1512-507: A military dictatorship, and the transfer of power from Azali Assoumani to Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi in May 2006 was a watershed moment as it was the first peaceful transfer in Comorian history. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The preamble of the constitution guarantees an Islamic inspiration in governance,

1638-630: A name mentioned in Bundahishn . The body of water is historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf. Arab governments refer to it as the Arabian Gulf or The Gulf, and other countries and organizations have begun using Arabian Gulf. The name Gulf of Iran (Persian Gulf) is used by the International Hydrographic Organization . The dispute in naming has become especially prevalent since

1764-405: A referendum on 30.7.2018 (62.7% participation, 92.34% for the amendment according to the Comorian government) the presidency of the Union rotated between the islands. The Comorian legal system rests on Islamic law , an inherited French ( Napoleonic Code ) legal code, and customary law (mila na ntsi). Village elders, kadis or civilian courts settle most disputes. The judiciary is independent of

1890-470: A speedboat to Mayotte to seek asylum. Anti-French protests followed in the Comoros (see 2008 invasion of Anjouan ). Bacar was eventually granted asylum in Benin. Since independence from France, the Comoros experienced more than 20 coups or attempted coups. Following elections in late 2010, former Vice-president Ikililou Dhoinine was inaugurated as president on 26 May 2011. Dhoinine is the first President of

2016-629: A way station for English merchants sailing to India and the Far East, as well as American whalers, although the British gradually abandoned it following their possession of Mauritius in 1814, and by the time the Suez Canal opened in 1869 there was no longer any significant supply trade at Ndzwani. Local commodities exported by the Comoros were, in addition to slaves, coconuts, timber, cattle and tortoiseshell. British and American settlers, as well as

2142-406: Is 0 m (0 ft)/year. Data from different 3D computational fluid mechanics models, typically with spatial resolution of 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) and depth each element equal to 1–10 metres (3.3–32.8 ft) are predominantly used in computer models. Before being given its present name, the Persian Gulf was called many different names. The Assyrians called it the "Bitter Sea". In 550 BC,

2268-640: Is about 56 km (35 mi) wide at its narrowest, in the Strait of Hormuz. Overall, the waters are very shallow, with a maximum depth of 90 metres (295 feet) and an average depth of 50 metres (164 feet). Countries with a coastline on the Persian Gulf are (clockwise, from north): Iran; Oman 's Musandam exclave ; the United Arab Emirates ; Saudi Arabia; Qatar , on a peninsula off the Saudi coast; Bahrain , an island nation; Kuwait ; and Iraq in

2394-743: Is also home to many migratory and local birds. There is great variation in color, size, and type of the bird species that call the Persian Gulf home. Concerns regarding the endangerment of the kalbaensis subspecies of the collared kingfishers were raised by conservationists over real estate development by the United Arab Emirates and Oman. Estimates from 2006 showed that only three viable nesting sites were available for this ancient bird, one located 80 miles (129 km) from Dubai, and two smaller sites in Oman. Such real estate expansion could prove devastating to this subspecies. A UN plan to protect

2520-521: Is commemorated as National Persian Gulf day in Iran . With the support of the British fleet, in 1622 'Abbās took the island of Hormuz from the Portuguese; much of the trade was diverted to the town of Bandar 'Abbās , which he had taken from the Portuguese in 1615 and had named after himself. The Persian Gulf was therefore opened to a flourishing commerce with the Portuguese, Dutch, French, Spanish and

2646-639: Is connected to the Gulf of Oman in the east by the Strait of Hormuz ; and its western end is marked by the major river delta of the Shatt al-Arab , which carries the waters of the Euphrates and the Tigris . In Iran , this is called "Arvand Rud" (lit. Swift River ). Its length is 989 kilometres (615 miles), with Iran covering most of the northern coast and Saudi Arabia most of the southern coast. The Persian Gulf

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2772-470: Is destroyed, or occupied by man-made structures. This has had a negative impact on the crustaceans that rely on the mangrove, and in turn on the species that feed on them. The Persian Gulf and its coastal areas are the world's largest single source of petroleum, and related industries dominate the region. Safaniya Oil Field , the world's largest offshore oilfield , is located in the Persian Gulf. Large gas finds have also been made, with Qatar and Iran sharing

2898-621: Is generally tropical and mild, and the two major seasons are distinguishable by their raininess. The temperature reaches an average of 29–30 °C (84–86 °F) in March, the hottest month in the rainy season (called kashkazi/kaskazi [meaning north monsoon], which runs from November to April), and an average low of 19 °C (66 °F) in the cool, dry season (kusi (meaning south monsoon), which proceeds from May to October). The islands are rarely subject to cyclones . The Comoros constitute an ecoregion in their own right, Comoros forests . It had

3024-565: Is located on Ngazidja and the most densely populated city is Anjouan. The archipelago is situated in the Indian Ocean, in the Mozambique Channel , between the African coast (nearest to Mozambique and Tanzania ) and Madagascar , with no land borders. At 1,659 km (641 sq mi), it is one of the smallest countries in the world. The Comoros also has claim to 320 km (120 sq mi) of territorial seas. The interiors of

3150-400: Is specific to archipelagic waters and is similar to the transit passage for the international straits : both ships and aircraft can use the archipelagic waters, the right of passage is non-suspensible, submarines can navigate while submerged, etc. Article 54 in particular explicitly incorporates Articles 39, 30, 42, and 44 (that cover the transit passage) into ASLP. The main difference between

3276-780: Is the Dembeni phase (eighth to tenth centuries), during which there were several small settlements on each island. From the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries, trade with the island of Madagascar and merchants from the Swahili coast and the Middle East flourished, more villages were founded and existing villages grew. Settlers from the Arabian peninsula, particularly Hadhramaut , arrived during this period. According to legend, in 632, upon hearing of Islam , islanders are said to have dispatched an emissary, Mtswa-Mwindza, to Mecca —but by

3402-401: Is the country's highest point, at 2,361 metres (7,746 feet). It contains the Comoros' largest patch of disappearing rainforest. Karthala is currently one of the most active volcanoes in the world, with a minor eruption in May 2006, and prior eruptions as recently as April 2005 and 1991. In the 2005 eruption, which lasted from 17 to 19 April, 40,000 citizens were evacuated, and the crater lake in

3528-462: Is the namesake of the 1991 Gulf War , the largely air- and land-based conflict that followed Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait . The United States' role in the Persian Gulf grew in the second half of the 20th century. On July 3, 1988, Iran Air Flight 655 was shot down by the U.S. military (which had mistaken the Airbus A300 operating the flight for an Iranian F-14 Tomcat ) while it was flying over

3654-785: Is the only country of the Arab League which is entirely in the Southern Hemisphere . It is a member state of the African Union , the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie , the Organisation of Islamic Co-operation , and the Indian Ocean Commission . The country has three official languages: Shikomori , French and Arabic . At 1,659 km (641 sq mi), the Comoros

3780-505: Is the smallest of the four major islands. Ndzwani, whose capital is Mutsamudu , has a distinctive triangular shape caused by three mountain chains – Shisiwani , Nioumakele and Jimilime – emanating from a central peak, Mount Ntingui  [ fr ] (1,575 m or 5,167 ft). The islands of the Comoros Archipelago were formed by volcanic activity. Mount Karthala, an active shield volcano located on Ngazidja,

3906-416: Is the third-smallest African country by area. In 2019, its population was estimated to be 850,886. The sovereign state consists of three major islands and numerous smaller islands, all of the volcanic Comoro Islands with the exception of Mayotte . Mayotte voted against independence from France in a referendum in 1974 , and continues to be administered by France as an overseas department . France has vetoed

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4032-673: The Achaemenid Empire established the first ancient empire in Persis ( Pars , or modern Fars , also known as Persia), in the southwestern region of the Iranian plateau . Consequently, in the Greek sources, the body of water that bordered this province came to be known as the "Persian Gulf". In the book of Nearchus known as Indikê (300 BC), the word "Persikon kolpos" is mentioned for multiple times meaning "Persian gulf". During

4158-888: The African Union , the Arab League , the World Bank , the International Monetary Fund , the Indian Ocean Commission and the African Development Bank . On 10 April 2008, the Comoros became the 179th nation to accept the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The Comoros signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons . Azali Assoumani , President of

4284-612: The British Empire maintained varying degrees of political control over some of the Persian Gulf states, including the United Arab Emirates (originally called the Trucial States ) and at various times Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar through the British Residency of the Persian Gulf . The Persian Gulf was a battlefield of the 1980–1988 Iran–Iraq War , in which each side attacked the other's oil tankers . It

4410-713: The Dilmun civilization. For a long time, the most important settlement on the southern coast of the Persian Gulf was Gerrha . In the second century the Lakhum tribe , who lived in what is now Yemen, migrated north and founded the Lakhmid Kingdom along the southern coast. Occasional ancient battles took place along the Persian Gulf coastlines, between the Sassanid Persian empire and the Lakhmid Kingdom,

4536-605: The Gulf of Aden , and the Gulf of Oman , dolphins and finless porpoises are the most common marine mammals in the waters, while larger whales and orcas are rarer today. Historically, whales had been abundant in the Persian Gulf before commercial hunts wiped them out. Whales were reduced even further by illegal mass hunts by the Soviet Union and Japan in the 1960s and 1970s. Along with Bryde's whales , these once common residents can still can be seen in deeper marginal seas such as Gulf of Aden, Israel coasts, and in

4662-487: The Gulf of Oman and off the coasts in deeper waters, and still migrate into the Red Sea, but mainly in deeper waters of outer seas. In 2017, waters of the Persian Gulf along Abu Dhabi were revealed to hold the world's largest population of Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphins . One of the more unusual marine mammals living in the Persian Gulf is the dugong ( Dugong dugon ). Also called "sea cows", for their grazing habits and mild manner resembling livestock, dugongs have

4788-494: The International Law Commission (ILC) proposing a definition of an archipelago as three or more islands in the mid-ocean separated by no more than 10 miles, with the body of water in between being internal waters . The proposal was objected to by the maritime states . The 1958 UNCLOS I established the rule of straight baselines that settled the issue for the islands of mainland countries, but not for

4914-551: The Last Glacial Maximum ) combined with the shallow depth of the Gulf (on average around 35 metres (115 ft) and at max around 100 metres (330 ft) metres depth) most of the Persian Gulf was exposed as dry land, forming a flat floodplain where a number of rivers converged. This region may have served as an environmental refuge for early humans during periodic hyperarid climate oscillations. The modern marine Gulf

5040-772: The Median , Achaemenid , Seleucid and Parthian empires. Under the leadership of the Achaemenid king Darius the Great (Darius I), Persian ships found their way to the Persian Gulf. Persian naval forces laid the foundation for a strong Persian maritime presence in Persian Gulf, that started with Darius I and existed until the arrival of the British East India Company , and the Royal Navy by mid-19th century AD. Persians were not only stationed on islands of

5166-737: The Nazi invasion . The piracy in the Persian Gulf was prevalent until the 19th century. Many of the most notable historical instances of piracy were perpetrated by the Al Qasimi tribe. This led to the British mounting the Persian Gulf campaign of 1819 . The campaign led to the signing of the General Maritime Treaty of 1820 between the British and the Sheikhs of what was then known as the ' Pirate Coast '. From 1763 until 1971,

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5292-516: The Red Sea . Overall, the wildlife of the Persian Gulf is endangered from both global factors, and regional, local negligence. Most pollution is from ships; land generated pollution counts as the second most common source of pollution. Along the mediterranean regions of the Arabian Sea, including the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea , the Gulf of Kutch , the Gulf of Suez , the Gulf of Aqaba ,

5418-411: The Strait of Hormuz . Other species such as the critically endangered Arabian humpback whale , (also historically common in Gulf of Aden and increasingly sighted in the Red Sea since 2006, including in the Gulf of Aqaba), omura's whale , minke whale , and orca also swim into the Persian Gulf, while many other large species such as blue whale , sei , and sperm whales were once migrants into

5544-603: The Strait of Hormuz . Other significant islands in the Persian Gulf include Greater Tunb , Lesser Tunb and Kish administered by Iran, Bubiyan administered by Kuwait, Tarout administered by Saudi Arabia, and Dalma administered by UAE. In recent years, there has also been the addition of artificial islands for tourist attractions , such as The World Islands in Dubai and The Pearl Island in Doha . Persian Gulf islands are often also historically significant, having been used in

5670-586: The Swahili cultural and economic complex and the islands became a major hub of trade and an important location in a network of trading towns that included Kilwa , in present-day Tanzania, Sofala (an outlet for Zimbabwean gold), in Mozambique , and Mombasa in Kenya . The Portuguese arrived in the Indian Ocean at the end of the 15th century and the first Portuguese visit to the islands seems to have been that of Vasco da Gama 's second fleet in 1503. For much of

5796-601: The United Nations General Assembly , which adopted a series of resolutions under the caption "Question of the Comorian Island of Mayotte", opining that Mayotte belongs to the Comoros under the principle that the territorial integrity of colonial territories should be preserved upon independence. As a practical matter, however, these resolutions have little effect and there is no foreseeable likelihood that Mayotte will become de facto part of

5922-663: The Western Allies used Iran as a conduit to transport military and industrial supply to the USSR, through a pathway known historically as the " Persian Corridor ". Britain utilized the Persian Gulf as the entry point for the supply chain in order to make use of the Trans-Iranian Railway . The Persian Gulf therefore became a critical maritime path through which the Allies transported equipment to Soviet Union against

6048-529: The legislative and the executive. The Supreme Court acts as a Constitutional Council in resolving constitutional questions and supervising presidential elections. As High Court of Justice, the Supreme Court also arbitrates in cases where the government is accused of malpractice. The Supreme Court consists of two members selected by the president, two elected by the Federal Assembly, and one by

6174-431: The medium quartile on the Human Development Index . Between 2009 and 2014, about 19% of the population lived below the international poverty line of US$ 1.90 a day by purchasing power parity . The name "Comoros" derives from the Arabic word قمر qamar (" moon "). According to mythology, a jinni (spirit) dropped a jewel, which formed a great circular inferno. This became the Karthala volcano , which created

6300-405: The second , held in February 1976, confirmed that vote with an overwhelming 99.4%, while the third, in April 1976, confirmed that the people of Mayotte wished to remain a French territory. The three remaining islands, ruled by President Soilihi, instituted a number of socialist and isolationist policies that soon strained relations with France. On 13 May 1978, Bob Denard , once again commissioned by

6426-414: The "Persian Gulf war" and various other natural and artificial causes. Uncontrolled hunting has also had a negative impact on the survival of dugongs. After Australian waters, which are estimated to contain some 80,000 dugong inhabitants, the waters off Qatar, Bahrain, UAE, and Saudi Arabia make the Persian Gulf the second most important habitat for the species, hosting some 7,500 remaining dugongs. However,

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6552-413: The 16th century the islands provided provisions to the Portuguese fort at Mozambique and although there was no formal attempt by the Portuguese crown to take possession, a number of Portuguese traders settled and married local women. By the end of the 16th century local rulers on the African mainland were beginning to push back and, with the support of the Omani Sultan Saif bin Sultan they began to defeat

6678-547: The 1960s. Rivalry between Iran and some Arab states, along with the emergence of pan-Arabism and Arab nationalism , has seen the name "Arabian Gulf" become predominant in most Arab countries. Names beyond these two have also been applied to or proposed for this body of water. The region of the Persian Gulf has been inhabited since the Paleolithic . During most of the Last Glacial Period (115,000–11,700 years Before Present ), due to lowered sea levels (reaching around 125 metres (410 ft) metres below present values during

6804-462: The British merchants, who were granted particular privileges. The Ottoman Empire reasserted itself into Eastern Arabia in 1871. Under military and political pressure from the governor of the Ottoman Vilayet of Baghdad , Midhat Pasha , the ruling Al Thani tribe submitted peacefully to Ottoman rule. The Ottomans were forced to withdraw from the area with the start of World War I and the need for troops in various other frontiers. In World War II ,

6930-436: The Comorian parliament passed a unilateral resolution declaring independence. Ahmed Abdallah proclaimed the independence of the Comorian State ( État comorien ; دولة القمر) and became its first president. France did not recognise the new state until 31 December, and retained control of Mayotte. The next 30 years were a period of political turmoil. On 3 August 1975, less than one month after independence, president Ahmed Abdallah

7056-424: The Comoros ( République Fédérale Islamique des Comores ; جمهورية القمر الإتحادية الإسلامية). Bob Denard served as Abdallah's first advisor; nicknamed the "Viceroy of the Comoros," he was sometimes considered the real strongman of the regime. Very close to South Africa, which financed his "presidential guard," he allowed Paris to circumvent the international embargo on the apartheid regime via Moroni. He also set up from

7182-431: The Comoros and Chair of the African Union , attended the 2023 Russia–Africa Summit in Saint Petersburg. In May 2013 the Union of the Comoros became known for filing a referral to the Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) regarding the events of "the 31 May 2010 Israeli raid on the Humanitarian Aid Flotilla bound for [the] Gaza Strip". In November 2014 the ICC Prosecutor eventually decided that

7308-410: The Comoros by taking possession of Mayotte in 1841 when the Sakalava usurper sultan Andriantsoly  [ fr ] (also known as Tsy Levalo) signed the Treaty of April 1841, which ceded the island to the French authorities. After its annexation, France attempted to convert Mayotte into a sugar plantation colony. Meanwhile, Ndzwani (or Johanna as it was known to the British) continued to serve as

7434-403: The Comoros from the island of Mwali. Following the 2016 elections, Azali Assoumani , from Ngazidja, became president for a third term. In 2018 Assoumani held a referendum on constitutional reform that would permit a president to serve two terms. The amendments passed, although the vote was widely contested and boycotted by the opposition, and in April 2019, and to widespread opposition, Assoumani

7560-411: The Comoros takes place in a framework of a unitary presidential republic , whereby the President of the Comoros is both head of state and head of government , and of a multi-party system . The Constitution of the Union of the Comoros was ratified by referendum on 23 December 2001, and the islands' constitutions and executives were elected in the following months. It had previously been considered

7686-434: The Comoros without its people's consent. More recently, the Assembly has maintained this item on its agenda but deferred it from year to year without taking action. Other bodies, including the Organization of African Unity , the Movement of Non-Aligned Countries and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , have similarly questioned French sovereignty over Mayotte. To close the debate and to avoid being integrated by force in

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7812-472: The Comoros – Karthala , Coelacanth, and Mitsamiouli Ndroudi on Grande Comore, Mount Ntringui and Shisiwani on Anjouan, and Mohéli National Park on Mohéli. Karthala and Mount Ntrigui national parks cover the highest peaks on the respective islands, and Coelacanth, Mitsamiouli Ndroudi, and Shisiwani are marine national parks that protect the island's coastal waters and fringing reefs. Mohéli National Park includes both terrestrial and marine areas. Politics of

7938-449: The Dutch and the Portuguese. One of his successors, Said bin Sultan , increased Omani Arab influence in the region, moving his administration to nearby Zanzibar , which came under Omani rule. Nevertheless, the Comoros remained independent, and although the three smaller islands were usually politically unified , the largest island, Ngazidja, was divided into a number of autonomous kingdoms ( ntsi ). The islands were well placed to meet

8064-423: The French intelligence service ( SDECE ), returned to overthrow President Soilihi and reinstate Abdallah with the support of the French, Rhodesian and South African governments. Ali Soilihi was captured and executed a few weeks later. In contrast to Soilihi, Abdallah's presidency was marked by authoritarian rule and increased adherence to traditional Islam and the country was renamed the Federal Islamic Republic of

8190-439: The Indian Ocean in the early 16th century following Vasco da Gama 's voyages of exploration saw them battle the Ottomans up the coast of the Persian Gulf. In 1521, a Portuguese force led by commander Antonio Correia invaded Bahrain to take control of the wealth created by its pearl industry. On April 29, 1602, Shāh Abbās , the Persian emperor of the Safavid Persian Empire , expelled the Portuguese from Bahrain, and that date

8316-450: The Law of the Sea provisions. Bolded are the five original official archipelagic states. Persian Gulf The Persian Gulf , sometimes called the Arabian Gulf , is a mediterranean sea in West Asia . The body of water is an extension of the Indian Ocean located between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula . It is connected to the Gulf of Oman in the east by the Strait of Hormuz . The Shatt al-Arab river delta forms

8442-604: The Paris-backed Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim became president by election. He led the country from 1996, during a time of labour crises, government suppression, and secessionist conflicts, until his death in November 1998. He was succeeded by Interim President Tadjidine Ben Said Massounde . The islands of Ndzwani and Mwali declared their independence from the Comoros in 1997, in an attempt to restore French rule. But France rejected their request, leading to bloody confrontations between federal troops and rebels. In April 1999, Colonel Azali Assoumani , Army Chief of Staff, seized power in

8568-442: The Persian Gulf by the United Arab Emirates and Oman also raised concerns that habitats of species such as the hawksbill turtle , greater flamingo , and booted warbler may be destroyed. The dolphins that frequent the Persian Gulf in northern waters around Iran are also at risk. Recent statistics and observations show that dolphins are at danger of entrapment in purse seine fishing nets and exposure to chemical pollutants; perhaps

8694-422: The Persian Gulf in recent years. Aside from direct damage to the coral, the construction waste creates "traps" for marine life in which they are trapped and die. The result has been a dwindling population of the coral, and as a result a decrease in number of species that rely on the corals for their survival. A great example of this symbiosis are the mangroves in the Persian Gulf, which require tidal flow and

8820-411: The Persian Gulf, but also had ships often of 100 to 200 capacity patrolling empire's various rivers including Shatt-al-Arab , Tigris , and the Nile in the west, as well as Sind waterway, in India. The Achaemenid high naval command had established major naval bases located along Shatt al-Arab river, Bahrain, Oman, and Yemen. The Persian fleet would soon not only be used for peacekeeping purposes along

8946-408: The Persian Gulf, killing all 290 people on board. The United Kingdom maintains a profile in the region; in 2006 alone, over 1 million British nationals visited Dubai . In 2018, the UK opened a permanent military base, HMS  Jufair , in the Persian Gulf, the first since it withdrew from East of Suez in 1971 and is developing a support facility in Oman. Eight nations have coasts along

9072-448: The Persian Gulf. Corals are vital ecosystems that support multitude of marine species, and whose health directly reflects the health of the Persian Gulf. Recent years have seen a drastic decline in the coral population in the Persian Gulf, partially owing to global warming but mostly to irresponsible dumping by Arab states like the UAE and Bahrain. Construction garbage such as tires, cement, and chemical by products have found their way to

9198-566: The Persian Gulf: Bahrain , Iran , Iraq , Kuwait , Oman , Qatar , Saudi Arabia , and the United Arab Emirates . The Persian gulf's strategic location has made it an ideal place for human development over time. Today, many major cities of the Middle East are located in this region. The wildlife of the Persian Gulf is diverse, and entirely unique because of the Persian Gulf's geographic distribution and its isolation from

9324-454: The Persian empires were located in or around Persian Gulf. Siraf , an ancient Sassanid port that was located on the northern shore of the Persian Gulf, located in what is now the Iranian province of Bushehr , is an example of such commercial port. Siraf, was also significant in that it had a flourishing commercial trade with China by the fourth century, having first established connection with

9450-571: The Pharaohs ) canal from the river that is called Nile ( Pirâva ) and flows in Egypt ( Mudrâyâ ), to the sea that begins in Persia ( Pârsa ). Therefore, when this canal had been dug as I had ordered, ships went from Egypt through this canal to Persia, as I had intended. In Sassanian times, the Persian Gulf was called Pūdīg , which comes from Avestan : Pūitika , lit.   'cleansing',

9576-700: The Shatt al-Arab but would also open the door to trade with India via Persian Gulf. Following the fall of Achaemenid Empire, and after the fall of the Parthian Empire , the Sassanid Empire ruled the northern half and at times the southern half of the Persian Gulf. The Persian Gulf, along with the Silk Road , were important trade routes in the Sassanid Empire. Many of the trading ports of

9702-610: The Union of the Comoros, the population of Mayotte overwhelmingly chose to become an overseas department and a region of France in a 2009 referendum . The new status was effective on 31 March 2011 and Mayotte has been recognised as an outermost region by the European Union on 1 January 2014. This decision legally integrates Mayotte in the French Republic . The Comoros is a member of the United Nations ,

9828-438: The archipelagic state status, including Japan , United Kingdom , New Zealand , Cuba , and Iceland . Archipelagic states are composed of groups of islands that form a state as a single unit, the islands and the waters within the baselines as internal waters ( archipelagic waters ). Under this concept ("archipelagic doctrine"), an archipelago shall be regarded as a single unit, so that the waters around, between, and connecting

9954-594: The archipelago a permanent mercenary corps, called upon to intervene at the request of Paris or Pretoria in conflicts in Africa. Abdallah continued as president until 1989 when, fearing a probable coup, he signed a decree ordering the Presidential Guard, led by Bob Denard, to disarm the armed forces. Shortly after the signing of the decree, Abdallah was allegedly shot dead in his office by a disgruntled military officer, though later sources claim an antitank missile

10080-508: The basin started 15,000 years ago due to rising sea levels of the Holocene glacial retreat . The International Hydrographic Organization defines the Persian Gulf's southern limit as "The Northwestern limit of Gulf of Oman". This limit is defined as "A line joining Ràs Limah (25°57'N) on the coast of Arabia and Ràs al Kuh (25°48'N) on the coast of Iran (Persia)". This inland sea of some 251,000 square kilometres (96,912 sq mi)

10206-470: The bottom of the Strait, while ocean water with less salinity flows in through the top. Another study revealed the following numbers for water exchanges for the Persian Gulf: evaporation = –1.84 m (6.0 ft)/year, precipitation = 0.08 m (0.26 ft)/year, inflow from the Strait = 33.66 m (110.4 ft)/year, outflow from the Strait = -32.11 m (105.3 ft)/year, and the balance

10332-518: The coast and islands were frequently visited by Muslims including Persian and Arab merchants and sailors in search of coral , ambergris , ivory , tortoiseshell , gold and slaves. They also brought Islam to the people of the Zanj including the Comoros. As the importance of the Comoros grew along the East African coast, both small and large mosques were constructed. The Comoros are part of

10458-579: The colonial Comoros before 1975, and are therefore sometimes considered part of the Comoros Archipelago. Banc du Geyser , a former island in the Comoros Archipelago, now submerged, is geographically located in the Îles Éparses , but was annexed by Madagascar in 1976 as an unclaimed territory. The Comoros and France each still view the Banc du Geyser as part of the Glorioso Islands and, thus, part of its particular exclusive economic zone. The climate

10584-494: The council of each island. Around 80 percent of the central government's annual budget is spent on the country's complex administrative system which provides for a semi-autonomous government and president for each of the three islands and a rotating presidency for the overarching Union government. A referendum took place on 16 May 2009 to decide whether to cut down the government's unwieldy political bureaucracy. 52.7% of those eligible voted, and 93.8% of votes were cast in approval of

10710-438: The current number of dugongs is dwindling, and it is not clear how many are currently alive or what their reproductive trend is. Ambitious and uncalculated construction schemes, political unrest, ever-present international conflict, the most lucrative world supply of oil, and the lack of cooperation between Arab states and Iran, have had a negative impact on the survival of many marine species, including dugongs. The Persian Gulf

10836-428: The events did constitute war crimes but did not meet the gravity standards of bringing the case before ICC. Archipelagic country An archipelagic state can designate the waters between the islands as sovereign archipelagic waters . As of 20 June 2015, a total of 22 sovereign states have sought to claim archipelagic status. Few countries comprise an archipelago in a geographical sense, but chose not to claim

10962-646: The far east in 185 AD. Portuguese influence in the Persian Gulf lasted for 250 years; however, since the beginning of the 16th century, Portuguese dominance contended with the local powers and the Ottoman Empire. Following the arrival of the English and the Dutch, the Safavid Empire allied with the newcomers to contest Portuguese dominance of the seas in the 17th century. Portuguese expansion into

11088-543: The first century has been postulated. Subsequent settlers came from the east coast of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and the Persian Gulf , the Malay Archipelago , and Madagascar . Bantu -speaking settlers were present on the islands from the beginnings of settlement , probably brought to the islands as slaves. Development of the Comoros is divided into phases. The earliest reliably recorded phase

11214-499: The immediately adjacent neighboring countries in certain areas falling within archipelagic waters. The terms and conditions for the exercise of such rights and activities, including the nature, the extent and the areas to which they apply, shall, at the request of any of the countries concerned, be regulated by bilateral agreements between them. Such rights shall not be transferred to or shared with third countries or their nationals. The regime of archipelagic sea lanes passage ( ASLP )

11340-400: The international waters only breached by the narrow Strait of Hormuz . The Persian Gulf has hosted some of the most magnificent marine fauna and flora, some of which are near extirpation or at serious environmental risk. From corals, to dugongs , Persian Gulf is a diverse cradle for many species who depend on each other for survival. However, the Persian Gulf is not as biologically diverse as

11466-599: The island of Ngazidja (Grande Comore). King Solomon is also said to have visited the island accompanied by his queen Bilqis . The first attested human inhabitants of the Comoro Islands are now thought to have been Austronesian settlers travelling by boat from islands in Southeast Asia . These people arrived in the area no later than the eighth century AD, the date of the earliest known archaeological site, found on Mayotte , although settlement beginning in

11592-482: The island under French protection in exchange for French support of his claim to the entire island, which he retained until his abdication in 1910. In 1908 the four islands were unified under a single administration ( Colonie de Mayotte et dépendances ) and placed under the authority of the French colonial Governor-General of Madagascar . In 1909, Sultan Said Muhamed of Ndzwani abdicated in favour of French rule and in 1912

11718-427: The island's sultan, established a plantation-based economy that used about one-third of the land for export crops. In addition to sugar on Mayotte, ylang-ylang and other perfume plants, vanilla, cloves, coffee, cocoa beans, and sisal were introduced. In 1886, Mwali was placed under French protection by its Sultan Mardjani Abdou Cheikh. That same year, Sultan Said Ali of Bambao , one of the sultanates on Ngazidja, placed

11844-461: The islands every five years. Assoumani stepped down in 2002 to run in the democratic election of the President of the Comoros, which he won. Under ongoing international pressure, as a military ruler who had originally come to power by force, and was not always democratic while in office, Assoumani led the Comoros through constitutional changes that enabled new elections. A Loi des compétences law

11970-411: The islands of the archipelago, irrespective of their breadth and dimensions, are subject to its exclusive sovereignty (while allowing ships from other countries to exercise the archipelagic sea lanes passage or innocent passage at their choice). The baselines must enclose the main islands of the archipelago and the enclosed water to land ratio must be "between 1:1 and 9:1". The lower end of this ratio

12096-477: The islands vary from steep mountains to low hills. The areas and populations (at the 2017 Census) of the main islands are as follows: Ngazidja is the largest of the Comoros Archipelago, with an area of 1,024 km. It is also the most recent island, and therefore has rocky soil. The island's two volcanoes, Karthala (active) and La Grille (dormant), and the lack of good harbours are distinctive characteristics of its terrain. Mwali, with its capital at Fomboni ,

12222-455: The islands, with Grande Comore split between several sultans . It became part of the French colonial empire during the 19th century, before its independence in 1975. It has experienced more than 20 coups or attempted coups, with various heads of state assassinated. Along with this constant political instability, it has one of the highest levels of income inequality of any nation, and ranks in

12348-461: The mangroves as a biological reserve was ignored by the emirate of Sharjah, which allowed the dredging of a channel that bisects the wetland and construction of an adjacent concrete walkway. Environmental watchdogs in Arabia are few, and those that do advocate the wildlife are often silenced or ignored by developers of real estate many of whom have governmental connections. Real estate development in

12474-567: The mid-ocean archipelagoes. UNCLOS III finally settled the issue prompted by a proposal submitted by Fuji, Indonesia, Mauritius , and the Philippines. The codification comprises nine articles of the Part IV of the UNCLOS. This is a list of the current archipelagic states in the world. These 22 island countries have sought to claim archipelagic status by utilising the 1982 UN Convention on

12600-526: The mid-sixth millennium BC, when the Gulf was part of an extensive trade network that involved the Ubaid settlements in Mesopotamia and communities along the entire Gulf coast. For most of the early history of the settlements in the Persian Gulf, the southern shores were ruled by a series of nomadic tribes. During the end of the fourth millennium BC , the southern part of the Persian Gulf was dominated by

12726-461: The most alarming sign is the "mass suicides" committed by dolphins off Iran's Hormozgan province, which are not well understood, but are suspected to be linked with a deteriorating marine environment from water pollution from oil, sewage, and industrial run offs. The Persian Gulf is home to over 700 species of fish, most of which are native. Of these 700 species, more than 80% are reef associated. These reefs are primarily rocky, but there are also

12852-541: The most prominent of which was the invasion led by Shapur II against the Lakhmids, leading to Lakhmids' defeat, and advancement into Arabia, along the southern shorelines. During the seventh century the Sassanid Persian empire conquered the whole of the Persian Gulf, including southern and northern shores. Between 625 BC and 226 AD, the northern side was dominated by a succession of Persian empires including

12978-518: The needs of Europeans, initially supplying the Portuguese in Mozambique, then ships, particularly the English, on the route to India, and, later, slaves to the plantation islands in the Mascarenes . In the last decade of the 18th century, Malagasy warriors, mostly Betsimisaraka and Sakalava , started raiding the Comoros for slaves and the islands were devastated as crops were destroyed and

13104-616: The northwest shoreline. The Persian Gulf has many fishing grounds, extensive reefs (mostly rocky, but also coral ), and abundant pearl oysters , however its ecology has been damaged by industrialization and oil spills . The Persian Gulf is in the Persian Gulf Basin , which is of Cenozoic origin and related to the subduction of the Arabian Plate under the Zagros Mountains . The current flooding of

13230-508: The northwest. Various small islands also lie within the Persian Gulf, some of which are the subject of territorial disputes between the states in the region. Exclusive economic zones in the Persian Gulf: Countries by coastline length : The Persian Gulf is home to many islands such as Bahrain, an Arab state. Geographically, the biggest island in the Persian Gulf is Qeshm island , belonging to Iran and located in

13356-528: The past by colonial powers such as the Portuguese and the British in their trade or as acquisitions for their empires. The Persian Gulf is connected to the Indian Ocean through the Strait of Hormuz. Writing the water balance budget for the Persian Gulf, the inputs are river discharges from Iran and Iraq (estimated to be 2,000 cubic metres (71,000 cu ft) per second), as well as precipitation over

13482-588: The people were slaughtered, taken into captivity or fled to the African mainland: it is said that by the time the raids finally ended in the second decade of the 19th century only one man remained on Mwali. The islands were repopulated by slaves from the mainland, who were traded to the French in Mayotte and the Mascarenes. On the Comoros, it was estimated in 1865 that as much as 40% of the population consisted of slaves. France first established colonial rule in

13608-511: The protectorates were abolished and the islands administered as a single colony. Two years later the colony was abolished and the islands became a province of the colony of Madagascar . Agreement was reached with France in 1973 for the Comoros to become independent in 1978, despite the deputies of Mayotte voting for increased integration with France. A referendum was held on all four of the islands. Three voted for independence by large margins, while Mayotte voted against. On 6 July 1975, however,

13734-465: The referendum. Following the implementation of the changes, each island's president became a governor and the ministers became councillors. In November 1975, the Comoros became the 143rd member of the United Nations . The new nation was defined as comprising the entire archipelago , although the citizens of Mayotte chose to become French citizens and keep their island as a French territory. The Comoros has repeatedly pressed its claim to Mayotte before

13860-528: The sea resources grew in importance, prompting, for example, the 1945 Truman Proclamation by the United States , 1955 and 1956 notes verbales of the Philippines, and the 1957 Djuanda Declaration by Indonesia. After an early attempt to define archipelagic waters as territorial waters by the League of Nations at the 1930 Hague Conference on Codification failed, the efforts restarted in 1952 with

13986-464: The sea which is around 180 mm (7.1 in)/year in Qeshm Island . The evaporation of the sea is high, so that after considering river discharge and rain contributions, there is still a deficit of 416 cubic kilometres (100 cu mi) per year. This difference is supplied by currents at the Strait of Hormuz . The water from the Persian Gulf has a higher salinity, and therefore exits from

14112-454: The state does not do so, the default sea lanes will correspond to "the routes normally used for international navigation". Ships should not deviate more than 25 miles off the designated lanes. Discussions about the status of waters between the islands of an archipelago date back to 1924, when Alejandro Alvarez proposed grouping the islands together when considering the limits of territorial waters. The concept of an archipelagic state became

14238-437: The surface of the water, as the corals are to biological health of the Persian Gulf in deeper waters. Mangroves' ability to survive the salt water through intricate molecular mechanisms, their unique reproductive cycle, and their ability to grow in the most oxygen-deprived waters have allowed them extensive growth in hostile areas of the Persian Gulf. However, with the advent of artificial island development, most of their habitat

14364-551: The terms of the Fomboni Accords, signed in December 2001 by the leaders of all three islands, the official name of the country was changed to the Union of the Comoros; the new state was to be highly decentralised and the central union government would devolve most powers to the new island governments, each led by a president. The Union president, although elected by national elections, would be chosen in rotation from each of

14490-516: The territorial water of an actual island. The exact status of archipelagic waters is subject to interpretation. For example, both the Philippines and Indonesia consider their archipelagic waters to be more sovereign that the territorial waters and closer to the internal waters . The approval of the United Nations (UN) for the five sovereign states as archipelagic states respects existing agreements with other countries and shall recognize traditional fishing rights and other legitimate activities of

14616-609: The time he arrived there, the Islamic prophet Muhammad had died. Nonetheless, after a stay in Mecca, he returned to Ngazidja, where he built a mosque in his home town of Ntsaweni, and led the gradual conversion of the islanders to Islam. In 933, the Comoros was referred to by Omani sailors as the Perfume Islands. Among the earliest accounts of East Africa, the works of Al-Masudi describe early Islamic trade routes, and how

14742-511: The transit passage and ASLP is that in case of ASLP the ship can opt instead for an innocent passage, while the transit passage provides no such alternative. Both transit passage and ASLP regimes, with the ability to launch and receive aircraft, perform maneuvers and navigate underwater, are primarily designed for warships. An archipelagic state can designate sea lanes and air routes that will be subject of ASLP and "include all normal routes used [...] for international navigation or overflight". If

14868-537: The volcano's three-by-four-kilometre (2-by- 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 -mile) caldera was destroyed. The Comoros also lays claim to the Îles Éparses or Îles éparses de l'océan indien (Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean) – Glorioso Islands , comprising Grande Glorieuse , Île du Lys , Wreck Rock , South Rock , Verte Rocks  [ fr ] (three islets) and three unnamed islets – one of France's overseas districts. The Glorioso Islands were administered by

14994-610: The years 550 to 330 BC, coinciding with the sovereignty of the Achaemenid Persian Empire over the Middle East area, especially the whole part of the Persian Gulf and some parts of the Arabian Peninsula , the name of "Persian ( Pars ) Sea" is widely found in the compiled written texts. At the same period, there is the inscription and engraving of Darius the Great, which belongs to the fifth century BC: King Darius says: I ordered to dig this ( Canal of

15120-612: Was re-elected president to serve the first of potentially two five-year terms. In January 2020, the legislative elections in Comoros were dominated by President Azali Assoumani's party, the Convention for the Renewal of the Comoros , CRC. It took an overwhelming majority in the parliament. In 2021, Comoros signed and ratified the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons , making it a nuclear-weapon-free state. and in 2023, Comoros

15246-471: Was chosen to exclude states with a lot of land, like Japan, while the higher end prevents a group of highly scattered islands from putting claims on a very large body of water. The ratio was proposed during UNCLOS negotiations by the Bahamas in order to include all five original archipelagic states. Low-tide elevations can be used for baselines, provided that they have lighthouses built on them, or lie within

15372-506: Was formed when sea level rose during the early Holocene , from around 12,000 to 6,000 years ago. The flooding of the Gulf may have stimulated the development of Neolithic farming cultures in regions of the Middle East adjacent to the Gulf. The world's oldest known civilization ( Sumer ) developed along the Persian Gulf and southern Mesopotamia . The oldest evidence in the world for seagoing vessels has been found at H3 in Kuwait, dating to

15498-741: Was invited as a non-member guest to the G7 summit in Hiroshima . On 18 February 2023 the Comoros assumed the presidency of the African Union . In January 2024, President Azali Assoumani was re-elected with 63% of the vote in the disputed presidential election . The Comoros is formed by Ngazidja (Grande Comore), Mwali (Mohéli) and Ndzwani (Anjouan), three major islands in the Comoros Archipelago, as well as many minor islets. The islands are officially known by their Comorian language names, though international sources still use their French names (given in parentheses above). The capital and largest city, Moroni ,

15624-518: Was launched into his bedroom and killed him. Although Denard was also injured, it is suspected that Abdallah's killer was a soldier under his command. A few days later, Bob Denard was evacuated to South Africa by French paratroopers. Said Mohamed Djohar , Soilihi's older half-brother, then became president, and served until September 1995, when Bob Denard returned and attempted another coup. This time France intervened with paratroopers and forced Denard to surrender. The French removed Djohar to Reunion, and

15750-490: Was passed in early 2005 that defines the responsibilities of each governmental body, and is in the process of implementation. The elections in 2006 were won by Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi , a Sunni Muslim cleric nicknamed the "Ayatollah" for his time spent studying Islam in Iran. Assoumani honoured the election results, thus allowing the first peaceful and democratic exchange of power for the archipelago. Colonel Mohammed Bacar ,

15876-519: Was removed from office in an armed coup and replaced with United National Front of the Comoros (FNUK) member Said Mohamed Jaffar . Months later, in January 1976, Jaffar was ousted in favour of his Minister of Defence Ali Soilihi . The population of Mayotte voted against independence from France in three referendums during this period. The first , held on all the islands on 22 December 1974, won 63.8% support for maintaining ties with France on Mayotte;

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