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149-764: The military demands of the Reconquista stimulated the formation of the elite light infantry known as the almogavars on the Iberian peninsula during the 13th century. These troops were used quite effectively by the Crown of Aragon for other imperial ventures in the Mediterranean, particularly the War of the Sicilian Vespers . They were typically organized in companies ( societates ) of 20 to 50 men, following

298-609: A titular see of the Roman Catholic Church . The Turkish name Alaşehir, which translates as "multicolored town", is first attested in the memoir of the 13th-century historian Ibn Bibi . The town was founded by King Attalus II Philadelphus ( r.  159–138 BC ) of Pergamon with the Greek name "Philadelphia". According to numismatic evidence, Philadelphia was briefly given the Latin name "Neocaesarea" during

447-402: A Basque uprising (probably resistance). Their son is reported to be Alfonso II , while Alfonso I's daughter Adosinda married Silo, a local chief from the area of Flavionavia, Pravia. Alfonso's military strategy was typical of Iberian warfare at the time. Lacking the means needed for wholesale conquest of large territories, his tactics consisted of raids in the border regions of Vardulia . With

596-618: A Byzantine fortification that had previously fallen to the Turks. The Turks who were there tried to flee as fast as possible, but their rearguard was attacked by the troops of Roger de Flor in what came to be called the Battle of Germe  [ ca ] . After the victory in Germe, the Company resumed its march, passing through Chliara (modern Kırkağaç ) and Thyatira and entered the valley of

745-764: A Hispanic empire like the Visigothic Kingdom (418–720) to reclaim his hegemony over the entire Iberian Peninsula . Within this context, the territory between the Douro and the Tagus was repopulated and a western nucleus was formed in Portugal that wanted independence . This marks the beginning of the Portuguese Repovoação ou Repovoamento occurred during the reigns of the House of Burgundy up to

894-533: A chief of recognized military skill. The signing of the Peace of Caltabellotta in 1302 terminated that struggle in Sicily, leaving the almogavars without immediate employment. James II of Aragon and his brother Frederick III of Sicily saw the threat posed to civil order. While Frederick would have liked to retain some of them for the defense of Sicily, they could not, by custom, be forced to do so. Instead, many of

1043-487: A few places in former Spanish colonies. Pursuant to an Islamophobic worldview, the concept is a symbol of significance for the 21st century European far-right . The term Reconquista , used to describe the struggle between Christians and Muslims in the Iberian peninsula during the Middle Ages , was not used by writers of the period. Since its development as a term in medieval historiography occurred centuries after

1192-533: A highly romanticised account of this battle, would later become one of the most famous chansons de geste of the Middle Ages. Around 788 Abd ar-Rahman I died and was succeeded by Hisham I . In 792 Hisham proclaimed a jihad , advancing in 793 against the Kingdom of Asturias and Carolingian Septimania (Gothia) . They defeated William of Gellone, Count of Toulouse, in battle, but William led an expedition

1341-597: A pilgrimage in 716. In the end, Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa's cousin, Ayyub ibn Habib al-Lakhmi became the wali (governor) of al-Andalus. A serious weakness amongst the Muslim conquerors was the ethnic tension between Berbers and Arabs. The Berbers were indigenous inhabitants of North Africa who had only recently converted to Islam; they provided most of the soldiery of the invading Islamic armies but sensed Arab discrimination against them. This latent internal conflict jeopardised Umayyad unity. The Umayyad forces arrived and crossed

1490-456: A planned march to the besieged town of Philadelphia and spent the winter on Cape Artake, a position that provided good defenses and an easy means of supply. During this period Ferran Eiximenis d'Arenós  [ ca ] temporarily left the company after a disagreement with Roger de Flor, putting himself in the service of the Duke of Athens . Roger de Flor, on the other hand, took advantage of

1639-455: A raid against Constantinople, first taking and looting the island of Propóntide and then departing for Recrea with 5 galleys, leaving in Gallipoli a garrison formed by 206 horsemen and 1,256 infantry, commanded by Ramon Muntaner (as captain of Gallipoli) and Bernat de Rocafort (as Seneschal). On the way back to Gallipoli, d'Entença's fleet ran into a larger fleet of 18 Genoese ships. D'Entança

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1788-684: A rallying call for right and far-right parties in Spain to expel from office incumbent progressive or peripheral nationalist options, as well as their values, in different political contexts as of 2018. The same kind of propaganda was circulated during the Spanish Civil War by the Republicans , who wanted to portray their enemies as foreign invaders, especially given the prominence of the Army of Africa among Franco's troops, an army which

1937-694: A reason to fight against Muslims, although this argument was not extensively used beforehand. In al-Andalus at that time, the Christian states were confronted by the Almoravids , and to an even greater degree, they were confronted by the Almohads , who espoused a similarly staunch Muslim Jihad ideology. In fact, previous documents which date from the 10th and 11th centuries are mute on any idea of "reconquest". Propaganda accounts of Muslim-Christian hostility came into being to support that idea, most notably

2086-460: A rebel Berber and lord of Cerdanya (perhaps all of contemporary Catalonia as well), in an attempt to secure his southern borders to fend off Charles Martel 's attacks on the north. However, a major punitive expedition led by Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi , the latest emir of al-Andalus, defeated and killed Uthman. After expelling the Muslims from Narbonne in 759 and driving their forces back over

2235-408: A rebel Berber and lord of Cerdanya , in an attempt to secure his southern borders in order to fend off Charles Martel 's attacks on the north. However, a major punitive expedition led by Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi , the latest emir of al-Andalus, defeated and killed Uthman, and the Muslim governor mustered an expedition north across the western Pyrenees, looted areas up to Bordeaux, and defeated Odo in

2384-590: A showdown with a tribal group known as the Magasetas, who were based in the vicinity of Mount Haemus and had been involved in the murder of Roger de Flor. They withdrew troops in preparation from the various towns of Thrace such as Pacia, Modico and Rodesto which they had been occupying. Leaving a garrison in Gallipoli to look after the women and their possessions the main bulk of the Catalans set off in search of

2533-515: A status that it still holds. It was granted this honour because the city did not capitulate to the Ottomans. The city was prosperous especially in the 13th and 14th centuries: there was a Genoese trading colony, and the city was an important producer of leather goods and red-dyed silk (whence, perhaps, its Turkish name, which probably means "red city"). By the 14th century, the city was surrounded by Ottoman emirates but maintained nominal allegiance to

2682-761: A treaty in exchange for maintaining autonomy, in Theodemir 's dominion (region of Tudmir), or Pamplona , for example. The invading Islamic armies did not exceed 60,000 men. After the establishment of a local Emirate , Caliph Al-Walid I , ruler of the Umayyad Caliphate , removed many of the successful Muslim commanders. Tariq ibn Ziyad was recalled to Damascus and replaced with Musa ibn-Nusayr, who had been his former superior. Musa's son, Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa, apparently married Egilona , Roderic 's widow, and established his regional government in Seville . He

2831-408: A triumphant entrance into Philadelphia, being received by its magistrates and the bishop Teolepto. Having already accomplished the principal mission entrusted to him by the emperor, Roger de Flor decided to consolidate the defence of Philadelphia by conquering the nearby fortresses which had fallen into the hands of the Turks. Thus, the almogavars marched north towards the fortress of Kula , forcing

2980-414: A valley a large contingent of Turkish troops (20,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry), who were remnants of previous defeats and were regrouped and ready to ambush the company. Once discovered, the Turks descended to the plain and both armies prepared for a great battle, the Battle of Kibistra  [ ca ] , in the open field at Kibistra on August 15, 1304. In spite of the numerical disparity between

3129-568: Is a municipality and district of Manisa Province , Turkey . Its area is 971 km , and its population is 104,717 (2022). It is situated in the valley of the Kuzuçay ( Cogamus in antiquity), at the foot of the Bozdağ Mountain ( Mount Tmolus in antiquity). The town is connected to İzmir by a 105 km (65 mi) railway. Founded in antiquity as Philadelphia ( Greek : Φιλαδέλφεια , i.e., "the city of him who loves his brother"),

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3278-515: Is perhaps best known as the site of one of the seven churches of Asia in the Book of Revelation . Lacking an heir, Attalus III Philometer , the last of the Attalid kings of Pergamum , bequeathed his kingdom, including Philadelphia, to his Roman allies when he died in 133 BC. Rome established the province of Asia in 129 BC by combining Ionia and the former Kingdom of Pergamon . Philadelphia

3427-647: The Chanson de Roland , an 11th-century French chanson de geste that offers a fictionalised retelling of the Battle of Roncevaux Pass dealing with the Iberian Saracens ( Moors ), and centuries later introduced in the French school system with a view to instilling moral and national values in the population following the 1870 defeat of the French in the Franco-Prussian War , regardless of

3576-579: The Banu Qasi and rebelled against Frankish overlordship and overcame a Carolingian expedition in 824 that led to the setup of the Kingdom of Pamplona . Aragon, founded in 809 by Aznar Galíndez , grew around Jaca and the high valleys of the Aragon River , protecting the old Roman road. By the end of the 10th century, Aragon, which then was just a county, was annexed by Navarre. Sobrarbe and Ribagorza were small counties and had little significance to

3725-631: The Battle of the River Garonne in 732. A desperate Odo turned to his archrival Charles Martel for help, who led the Frankish and remaining Aquitanian armies against the Umayyad armies and defeated them at the Battle of Poitiers in 732, killing Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi. While Moorish rule began to recede in what is today France, it would remain in parts of the Iberian peninsula for another 760 years. A drastic increase of taxes on Christians by

3874-473: The Francoist dictatorship . It thus became one of the key tenets of the historiographical discourse of National Catholicism , the mythological and ideological identity of the regime. The discourse was underpinned in its most traditional version by an avowed historical illegitimacy of al-Andalus and the subsequent glorification of the Christian conquest. The idea of a "liberation war" of reconquest against

4023-862: The Hermos River . On their way, they stopped in various places, abusing the Byzantine governors for their lack of courage. Roger de Flor even planned to hang some of them; naming the Bulgarian captain Sausi Crisanislao , who finally obtained a pardon. Upon learning of the imminent arrival of the Great Company, Bey Yakup bin Ali Şir, head of the coalition of the Turkish troops from the emirates of Germiyan-oğhlu and Aydın-oğhlu , decided to lift

4172-465: The Kingdom of León , when Leon became the seat of the royal court (it didn't bear any official name). Alfonso III of Asturias repopulated the strategically important city Leon and established it as his capital. King Alfonso began a series of campaigns to establish control over all the lands north of the Douro river. He reorganised his territories into the major duchies ( Galicia and Portugal) and major counties ( Saldaña and Castile), and fortified

4321-672: The Navarrese Company , commanded by Pedro de San Superano , Juan de Urtubia and the Florentine troops of Nerio I Acciaioli of Corinth. The descendants of the latter then controlled the duchies until 1456, when they were conquered by the Ottoman Empire . By then, the Catalan Company had ceased to exist. Reconquista The Reconquista ( Spanish and Portuguese for ' reconquest ' ) or

4470-526: The Reconquista . Two northern realms, Navarre and Asturias, despite their small size, demonstrated an ability to maintain their independence. Because the Umayyad rulers based in Córdoba were unable to extend their power over the Pyrenees, they decided to consolidate their power within the Iberian peninsula. Arab-Berber forces made periodic incursions deep into Asturias, but this area was a cul-de-sac on

4619-865: The Republic of Genoa : the Eastern Mediterranean and the Byzantine Empire. Armed conflict was not long in breaking out, with 3,000 Genoese killed (including their leader Rosso del Finar) in what was called the Genoese massacre  [ ca ] in September 1303. After those incidents and the recent defeat of the Byzantines in the Battle of Bafeus , the Emperor ordered Roger de Flor to move his almogavars as soon as possible to

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4768-696: The Siege of Córdoba (1236) and the Siege of Seville (1248)—leaving only the Muslim enclave of Granada as a tributary state in the south. After the surrender of Granada in January 1492, the entire Iberian peninsula was controlled by Christian rulers. On 30 July 1492, as a result of the Alhambra Decree , the Jewish communities in Castile and Aragon—some 200,000 people—were forcibly expelled . The conquest

4917-603: The Spanish March , which included part of contemporary Catalonia , in order to keep the Aquitanians in check and to secure the southern border of the Carolingian Empire against Muslim incursions. In 781, his three-year-old son Louis was crowned king of Aquitaine , under the supervision of Charlemagne's trustee William of Gellone, and was nominally in charge of the incipient Spanish March. Meanwhile,

5066-557: The Thrakesion theme. It was the centre of several revolts against ruling Byzantine emperors: in 1182, led by John Komnenos Vatatzes , and 1188–1205 or 1206, led by Theodore Mangaphas , a local Philadelphian, against Isaac II Angelos . At that time, the bishopric of Philadelphia was promoted to metropolis . In the 14th century, Philadelphia was made the metropolis of Lydia by the Greek Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople,

5215-642: The Tsar of Bulgaria Ivan Asen III and Irene Palaiologina . De Flor was named Megas Doux (Great Dux, i.e. Commander of the Imperial forces). The arrival of the new mercenary contingent upset the balance of power that supported the Byzantine Empire . It especially irritated the Genoese, who saw the arrival of the Catalan Company as an intrusion by the House of Barcelona into the area of influence of

5364-543: The Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania . Many of Roderic's troops deserted, leading to his defeat. He drowned while crossing the Guadalquivir River . After Roderic's defeat, the Umayyad governor of Ifrikiya Musa ibn-Nusayr joined Tariq, directing a campaign against different towns and strongholds in Hispania. Some, like Mérida , Cordova , or Zaragoza in 712, probably Toledo , were taken, but many agreed to

5513-580: The almogavar soldiers, worse according to them than was suffered under the Ottoman yoke. Arriving at Magnesia, however, the company was informed of a terrible event. The local population, with its captain, Ataliote, at the head and with the support of the Alans, had beheaded the garrison and stolen its treasure. Informed, Roger de Flor immediately laid siege to the city. However, the siege had to be lifted shortly afterwards by order of Andronikos, who requested

5662-554: The almogavars were recruited into a "company of companies", led by the Italian mercenary Roger de Flor , to be paid in Byzantine service. The organization was referred to by the (hostile) Angevin and papal chancelleries as the [Magna] Societas [exercitus] Catalanorum , the [Great] Catalan [military] Company. The Sicilian chancellery referred to them as Francorum , "Frankish", as Western Europeans were called in Byzantium, However,

5811-582: The almogavars . After his departure, Roger de Flor entrusted the safety of Tire to the Aragonese Diego de Orós with 30 cavalry men and 100 infantrymen. For their part, the surviving troops of the Emirate of Aydin managed to regroup around Ania and frightened its population. In the face of that provocation, the almogavars decided to charge immediately against them in complete disorder and without receiving orders from any of their captains. In spite of

5960-522: The muwallad Banu Qasi of Tudela. Although relatively weak until the early 11th century, Pamplona took a more active role after the accession of Sancho the Great (1004–1035). The kingdom expanded greatly under his reign, as it absorbed Castile, Leon, and what was to be Aragon, in addition to other small counties that would unite and become the Principality of Catalonia . This expansion also led to

6109-452: The reconquest of al-Andalus was a series of military and cultural campaigns that European Christian kingdoms waged against the Muslim kingdoms following the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula by the Umayyad Caliphate , culminating in the reign of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain . The beginning of the Reconquista is traditionally dated to the Battle of Covadonga ( c.  718 or 722), in which an Asturian army achieved

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6258-428: The Byzantine Empire had lost over many centuries, but their captains judged the idea reckless. After the important victory of Kibistra, the Company decided to return to Ania and spend the winter there as the a lack of knowledge of the terrain made an advance very dangerous. During the retreat, crossing country that had been conquered by the Turks, Greek historians report numerous examples of looting, abuses and cruelty by

6407-434: The Byzantine Empire. In 1309, Thibault de Chepoy, the representative of Charles of Valois, ordered the arrest of Bernat de Rocafort and sent him to Naples, where he would starve to death the same year. By 1308, the resources of the Gallipoli peninsula were exhausted and the company headed west towards southern Greece, reestablishing themselves on the peninsula of Kassandra in Chalcidice. From there, they attacked and pillaged

6556-399: The Byzantine emperor. The city remained prosperous through trade and its strategic location. Philadelphia was an independent neutral city under the influence of the Latin Knights of Rhodes , when it was taken in 1390 by Bayezid I . Prior to Bayezid I's conquest, it was the last Byzantine Greek stronghold in Asia Minor. Twelve years later, it was captured by Timur , who built a wall with

6705-438: The Carolingians. The Asturian kingdom became firmly established with the recognition of Alfonso II as king of Asturias by Charlemagne and the Pope. During his reign, the bones of St. James the Great were declared to have been found in Galicia, at Santiago de Compostela . Pilgrims from all over Europe opened a channel of communication between the isolated Asturias and the Carolingian lands and beyond, centuries later. After

6854-413: The Company then resolved to attack the maritime provinces of the Turks. From Philadelphia. the Company retreated through the valley of the river Hermos and entered the prefecture of the city of Magnesia (modern Manisa ), the only territory of Anatolia that remained under the control of the Byzantines. Magnesia had solid walls and was a few miles from the island of Chios , where the Catalan Company fleet

7003-565: The Ebro valley. Regional lords saw the Umayyad emir at the gates and decided to enlist the nearby Christian Franks. According to Ali ibn al-Athir , a Kurdish historian of the 12th century, Charlemagne received the envoys of Sulayman al-Arabi , Husayn, and Abu Taur at the Diet of Paderborn in 777. These rulers of Zaragoza , Girona , Barcelona , and Huesca were enemies of Abd ar-Rahman I, and in return for Frankish military aid against him offered their homage and allegiance. Charlemagne, seeing an opportunity, agreed upon an expedition and crossed

7152-405: The Great, around 1038). Subsequent kings titled themselves kings of Galicia and Leon, instead of merely king of Leon as the two were in a personal union . At the end of the 11th century, King Afonso VI of León reached the Tagus (1085), repeating the same policy of alliances and developing collaboration with Frankish knights. The original repoblación was then complete. His aim was to create

7301-412: The Imperial Army's numerical superiority, the Alans withdrew after the first charge, abd the Turcopoles deserted en bloc to the Catalans. The Catalans inflicted heavy losses, and even Prince Michael was injured and had to leave the field, followed by his army. The Catalans had won the day but slept with weapons in hand in case of a Byzantine counterattack. When 60 Catalan prisoners in Adrianople heard of

7450-494: The Magasetas, only 300 survived. The women and children tried in vain to escape on tired horses. Subsequently, the Catalan Company suffered a period of internal confrontation provoked by the disputes and interests of foreign powers eager to control it. Thus Frederic III of Sicily assigned Crown Prince Ferdinand of Majorca to Gallipoli as captain of the company. The move was contested by Bernat de Rocafort, and others such as Berenguer d'Entença and Ferran Eiximenis d'Arenós accepted

7599-404: The Magasetas. After several days, the Catalans located them and counted 3,000 cavalry and 6,000 infantry plus their baggage train. The battle took place next day on a plain at the foot of the Mount Haemus where the Magasetas made a defensive wall of their wagons. Once again, the superior Catalan cavalry and infantry overwhelmed the enemy, killing their general Gregorio. Of the 9,000 fighting men of

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7748-454: The Muslims, who were viewed as foreigners, suited the anti-Republican rebels during the Spanish Civil War , the rebels agitated for the banner of a Spanish fatherland, a fatherland which, according to them, was being threatened by regional nationalisms and communism . Their rebellious pursuit was thus a crusade for the restoration of the Church's unity, where Franco stood for both Pelagius of Asturias and El Cid . The Reconquista has become

7897-456: The Pyrenees by 719. The last Visigothic king Ardo resisted them in Septimania, where he fended off the Berber-Arab armies until 720. After the Islamic Moorish conquest of most of the Iberian Peninsula in 711–718 and the establishment of the emirate of al-Andalus, an Umayyad expedition suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Toulouse and was halted for a while on its way north. Odo of Aquitaine had married his daughter to Uthman ibn Naissa ,

8046-411: The Pyrenees in 778. Near the city of Zaragoza Charlemagne received the homage of Sulayman al-Arabi . However the city, under the leadership of Husayn , closed its gates and refused to submit. Unable to conquer the city by force, Charlemagne decided to retreat. On the way home the rearguard of the army was ambushed and destroyed by Basque forces at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass . The Song of Roland ,

8195-419: The Pyrenees, the Carolingian king Pepin the Short conquered Aquitaine in a ruthless eight-year war. Charlemagne followed his father by subduing Aquitaine by creating counties, taking the Church as his ally and appointing counts of Frankish or Burgundian stock, like his loyal William of Gellone , making Toulouse his base for expeditions against al-Andalus. Charlemagne decided to organize a regional subkingdom,

8344-402: The Turkish troops, and the battle begun. At first, the Turks asserted their numerical advantage, but even as the battle seemed to be swinging in favor of the Turks, the almogavars charged again and managed to breach and destroy their line. The battle continued until twilight before the remains of the Turkish army fled away, chased by the almogavar cavalry until almost dawn. The almogavars spent

8493-452: The Turks harassed the almogavars by throwing stones and firing arrows, one of which killed Corberán of Alet, striking his head at a moment when his helmet had been removed. The almogavar troops, shocked by the death of the seneschal of the company, interrupted their pursuit and retreated to Tire carrying the corpse of Corberán of Alet, thus allowing the surviving Turks to escape. When the troops returned to Tire and informed Roger de Flor of

8642-538: The Turks who were there to flee. The Greek garrison of Kula received Roger de Flor as a liberator, but he, not appreciating how a seemingly impregnable fortress could be allowed to fall into the hands of the Turks without a battle, beheaded the governor and condemned the commander to the gallows. The same harshness was applied when, days later, the almogavars took the fortification of Furnes, further north. Then, Roger de Flor returned with his troops to Philadelphia to claim payment for his successful campaign. The captains of

8791-408: The Turks, the lack of discipline and the character of a foreign army in the heart of the Empire were seen as a growing danger, and on April 30, 1305, the Emperor's son ( Michael IX Palaiologos ) ordered mercenary Alans to murder Roger de Flor and exterminate the Company in Adrianople while it attended a banquet organised by the Emperor. About 100 cavalry men and 1,000 infantrymen perished. After

8940-496: The Umayyad conquest of the Iberian heartland of the Visigothic kingdom, the Muslims crossed the Pyrenees and gradually took control of Septimania , starting in 719 with the conquest of Narbonne through 725 when Carcassonne and Nîmes were secured. From the stronghold of Narbonne, they tried to conquer Aquitaine but suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Toulouse (721) . Ten years after halting their advance north, Odo of Aquitaine married his daughter to Uthman ibn Naissa ,

9089-425: The Umayyads nor the Asturians had sufficient forces to secure control over these northern territories. Under the reign of Ramiro , famed for the highly legendary Battle of Clavijo , the border began to slowly move southward and Asturian holdings in Castile , Galicia, and Leon were fortified, and an intensive program of re-population of the countryside began in those territories. In 924 the Kingdom of Asturias became

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9238-409: The actual events. The consolidation of the modern idea of a " Reconquista " is inextricably linked to the foundational myths of Spanish nationalism in the 19th century, associated with the development of a Centralist, Castilian, and staunchly Catholic brand of nationalism, evoking nationalistic, romantic and sometimes colonialist themes. The concept gained further track in the 20th century during

9387-410: The amount agreed upon for their services, which unleashed the wrath of the company. The Company decided to declare war on the duke and met him at the Battle of Halmyros on March }15, 1311. The battle itself was a decisive last victory for the Catalans, despite being outnumbered by the Frankish forces of Athens, which included 700 knights. Walter V and most of his knights were killed, which left Athens at

9536-418: The appointment. The fight ended with the departure of Ferran and the Prince and the death of Entença, which left Bernat de Rocafort as head of the Company. The administrator Ramon Muntaner also would leave the Company and later write a chronicle about its history. After this period of internal struggle, Bernat de Rocafort offered the services of the company to Charles of Valois to strengthen his aspirations to

9685-448: The area. Alfonso VI was first and foremost a tactful monarch who chose to understand the kings of taifa and employed unprecedented diplomatic measures to attain political feats before considering the use of force. He adopted the title Imperator totius Hispaniae ("Emperor of all Hispania ", referring to all the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula, and not just the modern country of Spain). Alfonso's more aggressive policy towards

9834-571: The battle front in Anatolia , in modern-day Turkey . Transported there in the fleet commanded by the Catalan Admiral Ferran d'Aunés , Roger de Flor's troops disembarked at Cape Artake , near the ruins of ancient Cyzicus . They soon achieved a great victory against the Karasid Turks in the Battle of the Cyzicus in October 1303. The almogavars made a surprise attack on the Oghuz Turkish camp located at Cape Artake, killing about 3,000 cavalry and 10,000 infantry and capturing many women and children. After this victory, Roger de Flor decided to postpone

9983-402: The battle. After this defeat, Moorish attacks abated until Almanzor began his campaigns. Alfonso V finally regained control over his domains in 1002. Navarre, though attacked by Almanzor, remained intact. The conquest of Leon did not include Galicia which was left to temporary independence after the withdrawal of the Leonese king. Galicia was conquered soon after (by Ferdinand, son of Sancho

10132-430: The borders with many castles. At his death in 910 the shift in regional power was completed as the kingdom became the Kingdom of León . From this power base, his heir Ordoño II was able to organize attacks against Toledo and even Seville . The Caliphate of Córdoba was gaining power, and began to attack Leon. King Ordoño allied with Navarre against Abd-al-Rahman, but they were defeated in Valdejunquera in 920. For

10281-428: The campaign to raise the siege of Philadelphia with 6,000 almogavars and 1,000 Alans. Philadelphia at that time was suffering from a siege by Yakup bin Ali Şir, governor of the Germiyanids from the powerful emirate of Germiyan-oğhlu. After a few days, the almogavars arrived at the Byzantine city of Achyraus and descended by the valley of the River Kaikos until they arrived at the city of Germe (now known as Soma ),

10430-401: The city and attacked the Turks, who in a short time suffered the loss of 700 men on horseback and even more infantrymen. In panic, the rest of the Turkish cavalry fled to the mountains chased by the almogávar cavalry. Corberán of Alet decided to continue the attack on the retreating Turks as they began to climb the mountains, ordering his cavalrymen to dismount and climb after them. In response,

10579-403: The city's name is synonymous with the dried Sultana raisins , although cultivation for the fresh fruit market, less labour-intensive than the dried fruit, has gained prominence in recent decades. As Philadelphia, Alaşehir was a highly important center in the Early Christian and Byzantine periods. It remained a strong center of Orthodox Christianity until the early 20th century, and remains

10728-416: The contemporary Byzantine historian Nicephorus Gregoras gives a total number of only 1,000 men. After a brief stop at Monemvasia , the Company arrived at Constantinople in January 1303, where it was received by the Emperor and housed in the district of Blachernae . Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos arranged the wedding of Roger de Flor to his niece, the 15 year old princess Maria Asanina, daughter of

10877-574: The corpses of his prisoners. Later, it passed into the rule of Junayd until it was ultimately captured by Murad II . From 1867 until 1922, Alaşehir was part of the Aidin Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire . In 1890, its population consisted of 17,000 Muslims and 4,000 Greeks according to Vital Cuinet . Through the end of the Greco-Turkish War , Alaşehir was severely affected by a fire that broke out. Patrick Kinross wrote, "Alaşehir

11026-563: The death of his seneschal, he ordered that Corberán of Alet be buried with all honors in the Church of San George, located two leagues from the city, and that his tomb be beautifully decorated. The Company remained stationed in Tire for eight more days. In the course of the Battle of Tire, Bernat de Rocafort arrived at Constantinople from the Kingdom of Sicily . Bernat had not joined the company

11175-429: The disorder, they were victorious at the Battle of Ania  [ ca ] and killed 1,000 cavalrymen and 2,000 Turkish infantry. After the new victory, the captains decided to return to the eastern provinces and seek a great confrontation with the Turks in the interior of Anatolia since the limited number of soldiers of the Company did not allow a war of occupation. In July 1304, the Company began to march through

11324-555: The distinction of receiving nothing but praise from Christ . That explains why modern Protestant churches sometimes use "Philadelphia" as a component in the local church's name as a way of emphasizing its faithfulness. Philadelphia remained a major Christian center also after the New Testament period. One of Ignatius of Antioch 's epistles in early 2nd century was addressed to the Christians of that city . Philadelphia

11473-511: The early 10th century when the focus of Asturian power moved from the mountains over to Leon, to become the Kingdom of León or Galicia-Leon. Santiago's were among many saint relics proclaimed to have been found across north-western Hispania. Pilgrims started to flow in from other Iberian Christian realms, sowing the seeds of the later Way of Saint James (11–12th century) that sparked the enthusiasm and religious zeal of continental Christian Europe for centuries. Despite numerous battles, neither

11622-405: The early 11th century, a series of petty successor states known as taifas  emerged. The northern kingdoms took advantage of this situation and struck deep into al-Andalus ; they fostered civil war, intimidated the weakened  taifas , and made them pay large tributes ( parias ) for "protection". In the 12th century, the Reconquista was above all a political action to develop

11771-523: The emir Anbasa ibn Suhaym Al-Kalbi provoked several rebellions in al-Andalus, which a series of succeeding weak emirs were unable to suppress. Around 722, a Muslim military expedition was sent into the north in late summer to suppress a rebellion led by Pelagius of Asturias (Pelayo in Spanish, Pelayu in Asturian). Traditional historiography has hailed Pelagius's victory at Covadonga as the beginning of

11920-439: The end of the 9th century. For example, the anonymous Christian chronicle Chronica Prophetica (883–884) claimed a historical connection between the Visigothic Kingdom conquered by the Muslims in 711 and the Kingdom of Asturias in which the document was produced, and stressed a Christian and Muslim cultural and religious divide in Hispania, and a necessity to drive out the Muslims and restore conquered territories. In fact, in

12069-435: The enemy for the loss of only a few men. The Catalan Company then marched to Thrace and left a few families behind in Gallipoli. After three days of marching, they came across, near Apros, the Byzantine army of 6,000 cavalry and even more infantry under the Emperor's son Prince Michael . The Catalan forces lined up in front of the Byzantine army, which included a large contingent of Alans as well as many Turcopoles . Despite

12218-400: The events it references, it has acquired various meanings. Its meaning as an actual reconquest has been subject to the particular concerns or prejudices of scholars, who have sometimes wielded it as a weapon in ideological disputes. A discernible irredentist ideology that would later become part of the concept of "Reconquista", a Christian reconquest of the peninsula, appeared in writings by

12367-407: The exception of Navarre, did not have the capacity for attacking the Muslims in the way that Asturias did, but their mountainous geography rendered them relatively safe from being conquered, and their borders remained stable for two centuries. The northern principalities and kingdoms survived in their mountainous strongholds (see above). However, they started a definite territorial expansion south at

12516-748: The first Christian victory over the forces of the Umayyad Caliphate since the beginning of the military invasion. The Reconquista ended in 1492 with the fall of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada to the Catholic Monarchs. In the late 10th century, the Umayyad ; vizier Almanzor waged a series of military campaigns for 30 years in order to subjugate the northern Christian kingdoms. When the Caliphate of Córdoba disintegrated in

12665-549: The first decades, the Asturian dominion over the different areas of the kingdom was still lax, and for this reason it had to be continually strengthened through matrimonial alliances with other powerful families from the north of the Iberian Peninsula. Thus, Ermesinda, Pelagius's daughter, was married to Alfonso , Dux Peter of Cantabria 's son. Alfonso's son Fruela married Munia, a Basque from Álava , after crushing

12814-415: The following morning, when the Turks assembled on a plain near the city to prepare the assault, expecting to find in Tire only a small garrison of Greek soldiers. Inside Tire, Roger de Flor ordered his seneschal Corberán of Alet  [ ca ] to prepare a detachment of 200 men on horseback and 2,000 almogavars . When the Turks approached the walls, the troops led by Corberán of Alet rushed out of

12963-550: The following year across the eastern Pyrenees. Barcelona , a major city, became a potential target for the Franks in 797, as its governor Zeid rebelled against the Umayyad emir of Córdoba. An army of the emir managed to recapture it in 799, but Louis, at the head of an army, crossed the Pyrenees and besieged the city for seven months until it finally capitulated in 801. The main passes in the Pyrenees were Roncesvalles , Somport and La Jonquera . Charlemagne established across them

13112-410: The forces, Roger de Flor did not avoid the combat but put himself at the head of the cavalry. Bernat de Rocafort and Marulli did the same with the almogavars , who showed great spirit and celebrated the victory before even engaging in combat and uttering their famous war cry " Awake iron, awake! " while they hit the ground with the end of their spears. At last, the troops of the Company rushed to meet

13261-573: The former capital of the Visigoths, was a very important landmark, and the conquest made Alfonso renowned throughout the Christian world . However, this "conquest" was conducted rather gradually, and mostly peacefully, during the course of several decades. However, Toledo was not fully secured and integrated into Alfonso's kingdom until after a period of gradual resettlement and consolidation, during which Christian settlers were encouraged to move into

13410-591: The fringes of the Islamic world fraught with inconveniences during campaigns and of little interest. It comes then as no surprise that, besides focusing on raiding the Arab-Berber strongholds of the Meseta, Alfonso I of Asturias centred on expanding his domains at the expense of the neighbouring Galicians and Basques at either side of his realm just as much. During the first decades, Asturian control over part of

13559-555: The frontiers, were more prevalent over the 781 years of Muslim rule in Iberia than periods of military conflict between the Christian kingdoms and al-Andalus. Additionally, both Christian and Muslim rulers fought other Christians and Muslims , and cooperation and alliances between Muslims and Christians were not uncommon, such as between the Arista dynasty and Banu Qasi as early as the 9th century. Blurring distinctions even further were

13708-473: The head of St George. As a consequence of their taking possession of the duchies in the name of the Crown of Aragon and refusing to return them to their legitimate heirs, the Pope demanded the Company return the territory and excommunicated its members in 1318 after they declined. Both duchies remained in the hands of the Great Company as vassals of the Crown of Aragon until 1388–1390, when they were defeated by

13857-422: The help of the company to defend the prince of Bulgaria (Roger's brother-in-law) from an uprising led by his own uncle. The historian Nicephorus Gregoras , however, claimed that the Emperor's request was a pretext to disguise the impossibility of the Company breaking the resistance of Magnesia. The 500 Alans who still remained on the side of the Company akdi deserted. After two years of victorious campaigns against

14006-621: The independence of Galicia, as well as gaining overlordship over Gascony . In the 12th century, however, the kingdom contracted to its core, and in 1162 King Sancho VI declared himself king of Navarre . Throughout its early history, the Navarrese kingdom engaged in frequent skirmishes with the Carolingian Empire, from which it maintained its independence, a key feature of its history until 1513. Ala%C5%9Fehir Alaşehir ( Turkish pronunciation: [aˈɫaʃehiɾ] )

14155-516: The indigenous leaders, formed a new aristocracy . The population of the mountain region consisted of native Astures, Galicians, Cantabri, Basques and other groups unassimilated into Hispano-Gothic society, laying the foundations for the Kingdom of Asturias and starting the Astur-Leonese dynasty that spanned from 718 to 1037 and led the initial efforts in the Iberian peninsula to take back

14304-766: The island of Chios. Bernat then made for Chios, where he met the fleet captained by Ferran d'Aunés, and together they sailed to Ania (now Kuşadası ). Once in Ania, they were received by Ramon Muntaner, who led Bernat to Ephesus , where he met Roger de Flor, who named Bernat the new seneschal of the company (replacing the late Corberán of Alet) and gave him his daughter (who had been engaged to Corberan) in marriage and provided him with 100 horses and money for his men. Roger de Flor and Bernat de Rocafort then marched to Ania but not without first asking for further war contributions in Ephesus, again accompanied by numerous abuses and looting by

14453-455: The kingdom was weak, and for this reason it had to be continually strengthened through matrimonial alliances and war with other peoples from the north of the Iberian Peninsula. After Pelayo's death in 737, his son Favila of Asturias was elected king. Favila, according to the chronicles, was killed by a bear during a trial of courage. Pelayo's dynasty in Asturias survived and gradually expanded

14602-512: The kingdom's boundaries until all of northwest Hispania was included by roughly 775. However, credit is due to him and to his successors, the Banu Alfons from the Arab chronicles. Further expansion of the northwestern kingdom towards the south occurred during the reign of Alfonso II of Asturias (from 791 to 842). A king's expedition arrived in and pillaged Lisbon in 798, probably concerted with

14751-405: The kingdoms of Portugal , León-Castile and Aragon . The king's action took precedence over that of the local lords, with the help of the military orders and also supported by repopulation . Following a Muslim resurgence under the Almohads in the 12th century, the great Moorish strongholds fell to Christian forces in the 13th century, after the decisive Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212),

14900-610: The kings of Pamplona and the Carolingians , thereby gaining official recognition for his kingdom and his crown from the Pope and Charlemagne . The bones of St. James the Great were proclaimed to have been found in Iria Flavia (present day Padrón ) in 813 or probably two or three decades later. The cult of the saint was transferred later to Compostela (from Latin campus stellae , literally "the star field"), possibly in

15049-552: The late Roman province of Lydia are listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees : Alaşehir began as perhaps one of the first ancient cities with the name Philadelphia. It was established in 189 BC by King Eumenes II of Pergamon (197–160 BC). Eumenes II named the city for the love of his brother, who would be his successor, Attalus II (159–138 BC), whose loyalty earned him the nickname, "Philadelphos", literally meaning "one who loves his brother". The city

15198-450: The local Byzantines. The memory of the devastation would last in the memory of the towns of the area for centuries, just as the monks of Mount Athos would prohibit the entrance of Catalan citizens until 2000. Byzantine troops, made up of Greeks, Alans and Turcopolos, surrounded Gallipoli. Berenguer d'Entença  [ ca ] , the new leader of the Company was besieged and sent ambassadors to Sicily to ask for help. D'Entença planned

15347-477: The locality, including Mount Athos Monastery. Unable to capture Thessalonica , they moved further west and south and by 1309 reached the region of Thessaly , in what is now Central Greece. In 1310, the new leader of the Company Roger Deslaur offered his services to Walter V of Brienne , Duke of Athens, and cleared the duchy of all his enemies in less than a year. The Duke, however, did not pay

15496-418: The lull to travel with his wife to Constantinople with four galleys, claim payment from the Emperor and discuss with him the next campaign. Emperor Andronikos happily paid Roger de Flor and entrusted him with the liberation of Philadelphia. On his return to Cyzicus, Roger de Flor found that his undisciplined troops had already spent twice or triple their pay and had been out plundering. Greek historians say that

15645-534: The mercenaries from both sides who simply fought for whoever paid the most. The period is seen today to have had long episodes of relative religious coexistence and tolerance. The idea of a continuous Reconquista has been challenged by modern scholars. The Crusades , which started late in the 11th century, bred the religious ideology of a Christian reconquest. In the years just before the Council of Clermont took place, Spanish kings used religious differences as

15794-515: The mercy of the Company. In a short space of time, the Company not only asymed the control of the Duchy of Athens but extended its dominions to the city of Thebes and the region of Thessaly , converting the latter into the Duchy of Neopatras , where they established themselves as feudal lords. In 1312, they accepted the overlordship of the Aragonese crown of Sicily and adopted a new seal bearing

15943-557: The middle of the thirteenth century when the Portuguese Reconquista was also brought to an end with the ultimate conquering of Gharb al-Andalus when in March 1249 the city of Faro was conquered by Afonso III of Portugal . Ferdinand I of Leon was the leading king of the mid-11th century. He conquered Coimbra and attacked the taifa kingdoms, often demanding the tributes known as parias . Ferdinand's strategy

16092-580: The modern city. The Byzantine walls that once surrounded the city have all but crumbled away. A few remnants are still visible at the northeast edge of town, near the bus stand. The city was taken by the Seljuk Turks in 1074 and 1093–1094. In 1098, during the First Crusade , it was recovered by Byzantine Emperor Alexios I . In the 11th to the 15th centuries AD, it was the seat of the doux (governor) and stratopedarches (military commander) of

16241-476: The murder of Roger de Flor, the local Byzantine population rose up against the Catalans in Constantinople and killed many of them, including at the main barracks. Prince Michael ensured that as many as possible were killed before news reached the main force in Gallipoli. Some, however, escaped and carried the news of the massacre to Gallipoli after which the Catalans went on a spree of their own, killing all

16390-501: The next 80 years, the Kingdom of León suffered civil wars, Moorish attack, internal intrigues and assassinations, and the partial independence of Galicia and Castile, thus delaying the reconquest and weakening the Christian forces. It was not until the following century that the Christians started to see their conquests as part of a long-term effort to restore the unity of the Visigothic kingdom. The only point during this period when

16539-516: The night with their weapons in hand and waited for a Turkish counterattack, which never occurred. The following morning, Roger de Flor proceeded to survey the battlefield and was surprised by the magnitude of his victory. No fewer than 6,000 cavalry and 12,000 Turkish infantrymen had been killed in the battle. The almogavars then began to shout out their wish to continue the march through the Taurus mountains to Little Armenia and to quickly recover what

16688-824: The north of the Iberian Peninsula. It was the first Christian power to emerge. The kingdom was established by a Visigothic nobleman, named Pelagius ( Pelayo ), who had possibly returned after the Battle of Guadalete in 711 and was elected leader of the Asturians, and the remnants of the gens Gothorum (the Hispano-Gothic aristocracy and the Hispano-Visigothic population who took refuge in the North). Historian Joseph F. O'Callaghan says an unknown number of them fled and took refuge in Asturias or Septimania. In Asturias they supported Pelagius's uprising, and joining with

16837-441: The plunder he gained further military forces could be paid, enabling him to raid the Muslim cities of Lisbon , Zamora , and Coimbra . Alfonso I also expanded his realm westwards conquering Galicia . During the reign of King Alfonso II (791–842), the kingdom was firmly established, and a series of Muslim raids caused the transfer of the Asturian capital to Oviedo . The king is believed to have initiated diplomatic contacts with

16986-508: The prefect Nostongos Ducas and the governor of the city of Magnesia, Demetrios Ataliota. Nostongo Ducas traveled to Constantinople to report the situation to the emperor, thereby causing consternation in the capital. After leaving his spoils and a small garrison of almogavars in Magnesia , the troops of Roger de Flor arrived at the city of Nif ( Nymphaion ), where he received a request for aid from two inhabitants of Tire . It appeared that

17135-454: The previous year after he had refused to accept the terms of the Peace of Caltabellotta , which forced him to return two castles he had conquered in the Kingdom of Naples . Finally, in July 1304, he decided to join the company and weighed anchor for Constantinople with 200 cavalrymen, 1,000 almogavars and two galleys. There, he was received by Andronikos, who informed him that the company was on

17284-541: The progress of the Reconquista . In the late 9th century under Count Wilfred , Barcelona became the de facto capital of the region. It controlled the other counties' policies in a union, which led in 948 to the independence of Barcelona under Count Borrel II , who declared that the new dynasty in France (the Capets ) were not the legitimate rulers of France nor, as a result, of his county. These states were small and, with

17433-423: The region of Cyzicus was devastated by the looting of the almogavars, to the point that the sister of Andronikos had to go to the city to exhort Roger to move his troops immediately to Philadelphia. The 1304 campaign began with a month's delay because of continuous disputes between the almogavars and their Alan allies, which caused 300 deaths in the forces of the latter. Finally, in early May, Roger de Flor began

17582-709: The regions of Caria and Lycaonia and linked up with the road that the Crusaders had followed two centuries earlier on their way to the Holy Land . Finally, the Company reached the Cilician Gates at the foot of the Taurus Mountains , which separated the region of Cilicia from the Christian Kingdom of Little Armenia . As the cavalry advanced to reconnoitre the land, they discovered in

17731-480: The reigns of the Roman emperors Caligula ( r.  37–41 ) and Claudius ( r.  41–54 ). The town reverted to its original name Philadelphia after Claudius, but under Emperor Vespasian ( r.  69–79 ), the town used the Latin appellation Flavia to honor the imperial house (i.e. "Flavia Philadelphia"). The town remained known as Philadelphia until the Ottoman conquest in 1390. Philadelphia

17880-558: The restoration of the Visigothic nation in order to vindicate the expansion to the south. However, such claims have been overall dismissed by modern historiography, emphasizing the distinct, autochthonous nature of the Cantabro-Asturian and Vasconic domains with no continuation to the Gothic Kingdom of Toledo. Pelagius's kingdom initially was little more than a gathering point for the existing guerrilla forces. During

18029-577: The seven. A letter specifically addressed to the Philadelphian church is recorded in Revelation 3:7–13 ( Revelation 3:9 ). The city's history of earthquakes may lie behind the reference to making her church "a pillar in the temple" ( Revelation 3:12 ). Aside from the fact that Smyrna was warned of temptation lasting "ten days", and Philadelphia was promised a total exemption, or preservation, from temptation, Philadelphia shares with Smyrna

18178-535: The siege of Philadelphia and face the Company in a suitable location (Aulax) with his 8,000 cavalry and 12,000 infantry. Roger de Flor took command of the Company cavalry, dividing it into three contingents (Alans, Catalans and Greeks), while Corbarán of Alet did the same with the infantry. The Catalans achieved a great victory over the Turks in what would come to be known as the Battle of Aulax  [ ca ] , with only 500 Turkish infantry and 1,000 cavalrymen managing to escape alive. After this battle de Flor made

18327-547: The situation became hopeful for Leon was the reign of Ramiro II . King Ramiro, in alliance with Fernán González of Castile and his retinue of caballeros villanos , defeated the Caliph in Simancas in 939. After this battle, when the Caliph barely escaped with his guard and the rest of the army was destroyed, King Ramiro obtained 12 years of peace, but he had to give González the independence of Castile as payment for his help in

18476-500: The surviving Turkish troops of the battle of Aulax had united with those of the Emirate of Menteşe-oğhlu and begun a joint attack on Tire. Roger de Flor divided his force into two and ordered one half to return to Magnesia. The remaining troops under de Flor made a forced march to arrive at the walls of Tire in the dead of night, entering the city without being spotted by the besieging Turks. The Battle of Tire  [ ca ] began

18625-642: The taifas worried the rulers of those kingdoms, who called on the African Almoravids for help. The Kingdom of Pamplona primarily extended along either side of the Pyrenees on the Atlantic Ocean. The kingdom was formed when local leader Íñigo Arista led a revolt against the regional Frankish authority and was elected or declared King in Pamplona (traditionally in 824), establishing a kingdom inextricably linked at this stage to their kinsmen,

18774-512: The takeover of the southern fringes of al-Andalus by Abd ar-Rahman I in 756 was opposed by Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman , autonomous governor ( wāli ) or king ( malik ) of al-Andalus. Abd ar-Rahman I expelled Yusuf from Cordova, but it took still decades for him to expand to the north-western Andalusian districts. He was also opposed externally by the Abbasids of Baghdad who failed in their attempts to overthrow him. In 778, Abd al-Rahman closed in on

18923-547: The term Reconquista for what was earlier thought of as a restoration of the Visigothic Kingdom over conquered territories. The concept of Reconquista , consolidated in Spanish historiography in the second half of the 19th century, was associated with the development of a Spanish national identity, emphasizing Spanish nationalist and romantic aspects. It is rememorated in the Moros y Cristianos festival, very popular in parts of Southeastern Spain, and which can also be found in

19072-562: The territories then ruled by the Moors. Although the new dynasty first ruled in the mountains of Asturias, with the capital of the kingdom established initially in Cangas de Onís , and was in its dawn mostly concerned with securing the territory and settling the monarchy, the latest kings (particularly Alfonso III of Asturias ) emphasised the nature of the new kingdom as heir of that in Toledo and

19221-609: The town was known as such until it was conquered by the Ottomans in 1390. Alaşehir stands on elevated ground commanding the extensive and fertile plain of the Gediz River ( Hermus in antiquity), presenting an imposing appearance when seen from a distance. It has about 45 mosques . There are small industries and a fair trade. From one of the mineral springs comes a heavily charged water popular around Turkey. Within Turkey,

19370-543: The turn of the 10th century (Leon, Najera). The fall of the Caliphate of Cordova (1031) heralded a period of military expansion for the northern kingdoms, now divided into several mighty regional powers after the division of the Kingdom of Navarre (1035). Myriad autonomous Christian kingdoms emerged thereafter. The Kingdom of Asturias was located in the Cantabrian Mountains , a wet and mountainous region in

19519-494: The vassal regions of Pamplona , Aragon , and Catalonia respectively. Catalonia was itself formed from a number of small counties , including Pallars , Girona , and Urgell ; it was called the Marca Hispanica by the late 8th century. They protected the eastern Pyrenees passes and shores and were under the direct control of the Frankish kings. Pamplona's first king was Iñigo Arista , who allied with his Muslim kinsmen

19668-430: The victory, they resolved to break out but could only climb on the roof of a tower. The local population were eventually driven to set fire to the tower in which most of the Catalans perished. Those who jumped were set upon by the crowd. The Catalans proceeded to ravage Thrace for two years and were assisted by the return of Ferran Eiximenis d'Arenós with whose help they captured several towns. The Company decided to have

19817-609: The war and the population exchange between Greece and Turkey of 1923. The city was the site of the Alaşehir Congress in 1919. In 1969, a magnitude 6.7 earthquake struck the city and killed 53 people. For survey of remains see Erdoğan (2015). There are 87 neighbourhoods in Alaşehir District: Philadelphia remains the seat of the Metropolis of Philadelphia , which has been a titular see since

19966-522: The whole concept of " Reconquista " as a concept created a posteriori in the service of later political goals. A few historians point out that Spain and Portugal did not previously exist as nations, and therefore the heirs of the Christian Visigothic Kingdom were not technically re conquering them, as the name suggests. One of the first Spanish intellectuals to question the idea of a "reconquest" that lasted for eight centuries

20115-415: The word Neokoron (literally, "temple-sweeper", caretaker of the temple). A small theatre, located at the northern edge of Toptepe Hill, is all that remains of Roman Philadelphia. Although several ancient cities bore the name of Philadelphia, it is generally agreed to be the one listed among the seven churches written to by John in the Book of Revelation . Philadelphia is listed as the sixth church of

20264-507: The writings of both sides, there was a sense of divide based on ethnicity and culture between the inhabitants of the small Christian kingdoms in the north and the dominant elite in the Muslim-ruled south. The linear approach to the origins of a Reconquista taken in early twentieth-century historiography is complicated by a number of issues. For example, periods of peaceful coexistence, or at least of limited and localised skirmishes on

20413-532: The written letters produced by the Company were mainly in Catalan . The Great Catalan Company departed from Messina with 36 ships (including 18 galleys) transporting about 8,000 men (1,500 cavalry, 4,000 almogavar foot soldiers and an indeterminate number of servants and auxiliary personnel). The exact figures are a matter of dispute, for although the numbers provided by Ramon Muntaner are trusted by later historians Francisco de Moncada and George Paquimeres,

20562-456: Was José Ortega y Gasset , writing in the first half of the 20th century. However, the term Reconquista is still widely in use. In 711, North African Berber soldiers with some Arabs commanded by Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar , engaging a Visigothic force led by King Roderic at the Battle of Guadalete (July 19–26) in a moment of severe in-fighting and division across

20711-401: Was a prosperous Byzantine city that was called the "little Athens " in the 6th century AD because of its festivals and temples. Presumably, that indicates that the city was not entirely converted to Christianity . Ammia , the Christian prophetess, was from Philadelphia, however. In about 600, the domed Basilica of St. John was built, remains of which are the main archaeological attraction in

20860-454: Was anchored under the command of Ferran d'Aunés . In those circumstances, Roger de Flor decided to occupy the city and establish his headquarters there, and to transfer there his spoils of war and to garrison it with his troops. From the viewpoint of the Greeks, Roger de Flor began to act not so much as a mercenary or military leader but as the governor of all Anatolia, thus winning the enmity of

21009-468: Was followed by a series of edicts (1499–1526) which forced the conversions of Muslims in Castile, Navarre, and Aragon , who were later expelled from the Iberian realms of the Spanish Crown by a series of decrees starting in 1609. Approximately three million Muslims emigrated or were driven out of Spain between 1492 and 1610. Beginning in the 19th century, traditional historiography has used

21158-566: Was historically located in Lydia near the northeast foot of Mount Tmolus (modern-day Bozdağ) in the rich valley of the Cogamis river, which was a southern tributary of the Hermus River (modern-day Gediz). It was located in southern Catacecaumene , on the road connecting Sardis and Laodicea . Philadelphia was well known for its vulnerability to earthquakes. Ancient episcopal sees of

21307-519: Was in the administrative district of Sardis (Pliny NH 5.111). In AD 17, the city suffered badly in an earthquake , and Roman Emperor Tiberius relieved it of having to pay taxes (Tacitus Annales 2.47, cf. Strabo 12.8.18, 13.4.10, John Lydus de mensibus 4.115). In response, the city granted honors to Tiberius. Evidence from coinage reveals that Caligula helped the city; under Vespasian , Philadelphia received his cognomen, Flavia. Under Caracalla , Philadelphia housed an imperial cult. Its coins bore

21456-506: Was killed in the siege of Zamora by the traitor Bellido Dolfos (also known as Vellido Adolfo) in 1072. His brother Alfonso VI took over Leon, Castile and Galicia. Alfonso VI the Brave gave more power to the fueros and repopulated Segovia , Ávila and Salamanca . Once he had secured the Borders, King Alfonso conquered the powerful Taifa kingdom of Toledo in 1085. Toledo , which was

21605-523: Was made up of native North African soldiers. Some contemporary authors consider the " Reconquista " proof that the process of Christian state-building in Iberia was frequently defined by the reclamation of lands that had been lost to the Moors in generations past. In this way, state-building might be characterised—at least in ideological, if not practical, terms—as a process by which Iberian states were being "rebuilt". In turn, other recent historians dispute

21754-415: Was no more than a dark scorched cavity, defacing the hillside. Village after village had been reduced to an ash-heap." It is estimated that some 3,000 people died, and 4,300 out of 4,500 buildings were destroyed in the burning of Alaşehir. A suburb of Athens , Nea Filadelfia ("New Philadelphia"), is named from the Greek refugees from Alaşehir (in Greek known as "Philadelphia") who settled there following

21903-402: Was suspected of being under the influence of his wife and was accused of wanting to convert to Christianity and of planning a secessionist rebellion. Apparently a concerned Al-Walid I ordered Abd al-Aziz's assassination. Caliph Al-Walid I died in 715 and was succeeded by his brother Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik . Sulayman seems to have punished the surviving Musa ibn-Nusayr, who very soon died during

22052-445: Was to continue to demand parias until the taifa was greatly weakened both militarily and financially. He also repopulated the Borders with numerous fueros . Following the Navarrese tradition, on his death in 1064 he divided his kingdom between his sons. His son Sancho II of Castile wanted to reunite the kingdom of his father and attacked his brothers, with a young noble at his side: Rodrigo Díaz, later known as El Cid Campeador . Sancho

22201-522: Was welcomed aboard but then treacherously captured and taken to a Genoese stronghold in the area. He would later be released. The small force left in Gallipoli nevertheless agreed to defend the site and their honour to the death and bored holes in the remaining ships to ensure there was no escape. On 21 June 1305, they sallied forth to meet the Byzantine Army and fought with such ferocity that they totally overwhelmed them and killed many thousands of

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