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67-739: The region also included a number of smaller states that were never ruled by Spain or Austria: the Prince-Bishopric of Liège , the Imperial Abbey of Stavelot-Malmedy , the County of Bouillon , the County of Horne and the Princely Abbey of Thorn . The Southern Netherlands comprised most of modern-day Belgium and Luxembourg , small parts of the modern Netherlands and Germany (the Upper Guelders region, as well as

134-581: A Hook rebellion in Holland and Flemish revolts . Maximilian prevailed with the support of Duke Albert III of Saxony and his son Philip the Handsome , husband of Joanna of Castile, could assume the rule over the Habsburg Netherlands in 1493. Philip as well as his son and successor Charles V retained the title of a " Duke of Burgundy " referring to their Burgundian inheritance, notably

201-642: A feast established in honour of the Blessed Sacrament . After much hesitation, the bishop approved of her idea but death prevented the institution of the feast. The completion of the work was left to a former prior of the Dominicans in Liège, Hugh of Saint-Cher , who returned to the city as papal legate. In 1252 Hugh made the feast of the Blessed Sacrament an obligation throughout his diocese. John of Troyes, who, after having been archdeacon at Liège,

268-529: A major rebellion in 1789–1790. The Austrian Netherlands were ultimately lost to the French Revolutionary armies , and annexed to France in 1794. Following the war, Austria's loss of the territories was confirmed, and they were joined with the northern Netherlands as a single kingdom under the House of Orange at the 1815 Congress of Vienna . The southeastern third of Luxembourg Province was made into

335-531: The Athens of the North . "Liège for more than a century occupied among the nations a position in regard to science which it has never recovered". Subsequent bishops, Balderic of Looz (1008–1018), Wolbodo (1018–1021), Durandus (1021–1025), Reginard (1025–1038), Nitard (1038–1042), the learned Wazo , and Theoduin (1048–1075), valiantly sustained the heritage of Notger. The schools formed many brilliant scholars, and gave

402-596: The Bitburg area in Germany, then part of Luxembourg), in addition to (until 1678) most of the present Nord-Pas-de-Calais region, and Longwy area in northern France . The (southern) Upper Guelders region consisted of what is now divided between Germany and the modern Dutch Province of Limburg (in 1713 largely ceded to Prussia ). As they were very wealthy, the Netherlands in general were an important territory of

469-453: The Diocese of Liège , which was larger and over which the prince-bishop exercised only the usual responsibilities of a bishop. The bishops of Liège acquired their status as prince-bishops between 980 and 985 when Bishop Notker of Liège , who had been the bishop since 972, received secular control of the County of Huy from Emperor Otto II . From 1500, the prince-bishopric belonged to

536-626: The Eighty Years War prompted Spanish intervention foiling a Dutch invasion in 1595. Most of the bishops in the 17th century were foreigners, many of them holding several bishoprics at once. Their frequent absences gave free scope for those feuds of the Chiroux and the Grignoux to which Maximilian Henry of Bavaria ( archbishop of Cologne , 1650–1688) put a stop by the Edict of 1681. In

603-571: The Habsburg crown which also ruled Spain and Austria among other places. But unlike the other Habsburg dominions, they were led by a merchant class. It was the merchant economy which made them wealthy, and the Habsburg attempts at increasing taxation to finance their wars was a major factor in the Dutch (merchants') efforts to defend their privileges. This, added to resistance to penal laws enforced by

670-782: The Habsburg Netherlands , which passed to the Spanish Habsburgs upon the abdication of Emperor Charles V in 1556. When part of the Netherlands separated to form the autonomous Dutch Republic in 1581, the remainder of the area stayed under Spanish rule until the War of the Spanish Succession . A common administration of the Netherlandish fiefs, centered in the Duchy of Brabant , already existed under

737-574: The Habsburg monarchy that made heresy a capital crime , led to a general rebellion of the Netherlands against Habsburg rule towards 1570 (protests and hostilities started the Dutch Eighty Years' War for independence c.  1566 –1568). Although the northern seven provinces, led by Holland and Zeeland , established their independence as the United Provinces after 1581, the ten southern Netherlands were reconquered by

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804-570: The Habsburgs . In 1559 its 1,636 parishes were grouped into eight archdeaconries , and twenty-eight councils, chrétientés ( deaneries ). The most important cities ( bonnes villes ) of the bishopric were: Liège, Beringen , Bilzen , Borgloon , Bree , Châtelet , Ciney , Couvin , Dinant , Fosses-la-Ville , Hamont , Hasselt , Herk-de-Stad , Huy , Maaseik , Peer , Sint-Truiden , Stokkem , Thuin , Tongeren , Verviers , Visé and Waremme . The city of Maastricht fell under

871-467: The Low Countries . The new bishoprics were created largely at the expense of the diocese of Liège; many of its parishes were given to the dioceses of Roermond , 's-Hertogenbosch , and Namur , or were added to the existing dioceses of Mechelen and Antwerp . The number of deaneries in the diocese of Liège was reduced to 13. Liège formed the last link in the chain of Habsburg allies that made up

938-549: The Lower Rhenish–Westphalian Circle . Its territory included most of the present Belgian provinces of Liège and Limburg , and some exclaves in other parts of Belgium and the Netherlands. It briefly became a republic (the Republic of Liège ) from 1789 to 1791, before reverting to a prince-bishopric in 1791. The role of the bishop as prince permanently ended when the state was annexed by France in 1795. In 1815

1005-585: The Prince-Bishopric of Liège ) was overrun by French armies after they won the Battle of Sprimont in 1794. The territory was then annexed to the Republic (October 1, 1795). Only a minority of the population – mostly the local Jacobins and other members of "Societies of Friends of Liberty and Equality" in urban areas – supported the annexation. The majority were hostile to the French regime, above all because of

1072-590: The United States of Belgium (January 1790). However, waylaying Joseph's intended concessions to the Belgians to restore the height of their autonomy and privileges, Austrian imperial power had been restored by Joseph's brother and successor, Leopold II , by the end of 1790. In the course of the French Revolution , the entire region (including territories that were never under Habsburg rule, like

1139-461: The county of Horne in 1568. Notger, the founder of the principality, also rebuilt the cathedral of St Lambert, as well as the episcopal palace. He was also involved in other building activities in the city, which flourished under his rule (churches of St Paul, St. John the Evangelist, Sainte-Croix and St Denis). This bishop also strengthened the parochial organization of the city. He was one of

1206-582: The joint jurisdiction of the prince-bishop of Liège and the duke of Brabant (later the States-General of the United Provinces ). The second city of the prince-bishopric thus kept its special status throughout the ancien régime . The large diocese of the medieval bishops was, until 1559, much larger than the princedom which was in their possession. However, the princely domain was gradually enlarged by donations and by acquisitions. In

1273-461: The pope , the emperor and St Bernard of Clairvaux visited Liège. The episcopate of Raoul of Zachringen was marked by the preaching of the reformer Lambert le Bègue , who is credited with founding the Béguines . Albert of Louvain was elected Bishop of Liège in 1191, but Emperor Henry VI , on the pretext that the election was doubtful, gave the see to Lothair of Hochstadt. Albero's election

1340-451: The province of Limburg . The autonomy of Luxembourg was recognised in 1839, but an instrument to that effect was not signed until 1867. The King of the Netherlands was Grand Duke of Luxembourg until 1890, when William III was succeeded by his daughter, Wilhelmina of the Netherlands – but Luxembourg still followed the Salic law at the time, which forbade a woman to rule in her own right; so

1407-569: The 10th century, the bishops received secular lordship over the county of Huy , which lay within the diocese . Bishop Notger (972–1008) and his successors are thus referred to as princes within the Holy Roman Empire . This situation continued until the French Revolution , and throughout that period of nearly eight centuries the Prince-Bishopric of Liège succeeded in maintaining a level of autonomy, though it remained under

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1474-843: The Burgundian inheritance in the Low Countries. Charles V was born and raised in the Low Countries and often stayed at the Palace of Coudenberg in Brussels. By the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 , Charles V declared the Seventeen Provinces a united and indivisible Habsburg dominion. Between 1555 and 1556, the House of Habsburg split into an Austro-German and a Spanish branch as a consequence of Charles's abdications:

1541-531: The Catholic Church popes Stephen IX and Nicholas II . The diocese also supplied the University of Paris with a number of important doctors — William of Saint-Thierry , Gerard of Liège and Godfrey of Fontaines . Alger of Liège (1055–1131) was an important intellectual of the period. He was first appointed deacon of church of St Bartholomew and finally retired at the monastery of Cluny . In

1608-686: The French and an increasing portion of the territory came under French control in successive wars. By the Treaty of the Pyrenees of 1659 the French annexed Artois while Dunkirk was ceded to the English. By the Treaties of Aix-la-Chapelle (ending the War of Devolution in 1668) and Nijmegen (ending the Franco-Dutch War in 1678), further territory up to the current Franco-Belgian border

1675-747: The Low Countries and the Free County of Burgundy in the Holy Roman Empire. The Habsburgs often used the term Burgundy to refer to their hereditary lands (e.g. in the name of the Imperial Burgundian Circle established in 1512), actually until 1795, when the Austrian Netherlands were lost to the French Republic . The Governor-general of the Netherlands was responsible for the administration of

1742-525: The Netherlands separated from Spanish rule and became the United Provinces in 1581 the remainder of the area became known as the Spanish Netherlands and remained under Spanish control. This region comprised modern Belgium, Luxembourg as well as part of northern France. The Spanish Netherlands originally consisted of: The capital, Brussels , was in Brabant. In the early 17th century, there

1809-434: The Netherlands under Habsburg rule was repeatedly invaded by the French and an increasing portion of the territory came under French control in successive wars. By the Treaty of the Pyrenees of 1659 the French annexed most of Artois , and Dunkirk was ceded to the English. By the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (ending the War of Devolution in 1668) and Nijmegen (ending the Franco-Dutch War in 1678), further territory up to

1876-576: The Netherlands were left to his son Philip II of Spain , while his brother King Ferdinand I succeeded him as Holy Roman Emperor . The Seventeen Provinces, de jure still fiefs of the Holy Roman Empire, from that time on de facto were ruled by the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs as part of the Burgundian heritage. Philip's stern Counter-Reformation measures sparked the Dutch Revolt in

1943-880: The Spanish Succession , what was left of the Spanish Netherlands was ceded to Austria and thus became known as the Austrian Netherlands or Belgium Austriacum . However, the Austrians themselves generally had little interest in the region (aside from a short-lived attempt by Emperor Charles VI to compete with British and Dutch trade through the Ostend Company ), and the fortresses along the border (the Barrier Fortresses ) were, by treaty, garrisoned with Dutch troops. The area had, in fact, been given to Austria largely at British and Dutch insistence, as these powers feared potential French domination of

2010-522: The Spanish general Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma . Liège, Stavelot-Malmédy and Bouillon maintained their independence. The Habsburg Netherlands passed to the Austrian Habsburgs after the War of the Spanish Succession in 1714. Under Austrian rule, the ten provinces' defence of their privileges proved as troublesome to the reforming Emperor Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor as it had to his ancestor Philip II two centuries earlier, leading to

2077-459: The Spanish sphere of influence, and with Albert's death in 1621 they returned to formal Spanish control, although the childless Isabella remained on as Governor until her death in 1633. The failing wars intended to regain the 'heretical' northern Netherlands meant significant loss of (still mainly Catholic) territories in the north, which was consolidated in 1648 in the Peace of Westphalia , and given

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2144-404: The Spanish sphere of influence. With Albert's death in 1621 they returned to formal Spanish control, although the childless Isabella remained on as governor until her death in 1633. The failing wars intended to regain the 'heretical' northern Netherlands meant significant loss of (still mainly Catholic) territories in the north, which was consolidated in 1648 in the Peace of Westphalia , and given

2211-621: The agreement was unimplemented and revoked by the Third Treaty of Versailles (1785) and Austrian rule continued. In 1784, its ruler, Emperor Joseph II , took up the long-standing grudge of Antwerp , whose once-flourishing trade was destroyed by the permanent closing of the Scheldt , and he demanded for the Dutch Republic to open the river to navigation. However, his stance was far from militant, and he called off hostilities after

2278-402: The authority of the House of Habsburg reconciling previous anti-Spanish sentiments. In the early 17th century, there was a flourishing court at Brussels . Among the artists who emerged from the court of the "Archdukes", as they were known, was Peter Paul Rubens . Under Isabella and Albert, the Spanish Netherlands actually had formal independence from Spain, but always remained unofficially within

2345-470: The autonomous Grand Duchy of Luxembourg , because it was claimed by both the Netherlands and Prussia. In 1830 the predominantly Roman Catholic southern half became independent as the Kingdom of Belgium (the northern half being predominantly Calvinist ). In 1839 the final border between the kingdom of the Netherlands and Belgium was determined and the eastern part of Limburg returned to the Netherlands as

2412-810: The beginning of 1791, the revolution was crushed by troops on the orders of the Holy Roman Empire. The prince-bishopric was dissolved in 1795, when it was annexed by France . Its territory was divided amongst the départements of Meuse-Inférieure , Ourthe , and Sambre-et-Meuse . Circles est. 1500: Bavarian , Swabian , Upper Rhenish , Lower Rhenish–Westphalian , Franconian , (Lower) Saxon 50°40′N 5°30′E  /  50.667°N 5.500°E  / 50.667; 5.500 Spanish Netherlands The Spanish Netherlands ( Spanish : Países Bajos Españoles ; Dutch : Spaanse Nederlanden ; French : Pays-Bas espagnols ; German : Spanische Niederlande ) (historically in Spanish: Flandes ,

2479-608: The current Franco-Belgian border was ceded, including Cambrai , Walloon Flanders , as well as half of the County of Hainaut (including Valenciennes ). Later, in the War of the Reunions and the Nine Years' War , France annexed other parts of the region that were restored to Spain by the Treaty of Rijswijk 1697. During the War of the Spanish Succession , in 1706 the Habsburg Netherlands became an Anglo-Dutch condominium for

2546-499: The emperor. This virtual independence was owed largely to the ability of its bishops, who on several occasions played an important part in international politics, being strategically positioned between France and Germany . Throughout the Middle Ages, the prince-bishopric was further expanded with the lordship of Bouillon in 1096 (ceded to France in 1678), the acquisition of the county of Loon ( French : Looz ) in 1366 and

2613-590: The episcopate of Arnold of Horne (1378–1389) was marked by the triumph of the popular party. In 1366, the county of Loon was annexed to the bishopric. Upon the death of Louis of Male , count of Flanders , in 1384, the Low Countries began their unification within the Burgundian Netherlands . Though the principality was still nominally independent, the Dukes of Burgundy have had an increasing influence on its government. Louis of Bourbon (1456–1482)

2680-732: The experience gained after the War of the Spanish Succession about the difficulty of defending non contiguous possessions, whether she should not instead obtain contiguous territorial compensations in Northern Italy. This latter viewpoint won and the Congress of Vienna allotted the Southern Netherlands to the new United Kingdom of the Netherlands . After the Belgian Revolution of 1830, the region separated to become

2747-409: The first church leaders to spread the observance of All Souls' Day , which he authorized for his diocese. Under Notger's administration, following up on the work of Heraclius, educational institutions in Liège flourished. With these two bishops (and Wazo ) "The schools of Liège were, in fact, at that time one of the brightest literary foci of the period". In the 11th century the city was indeed known as

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2814-629: The hands of France, the Habsburgs remained in control of the title of Duke of Burgundy and the other parts of the Burgundian inheritance, notably the Low Countries and the Free County of Burgundy in the Holy Roman Empire. They often used the term Burgundy to refer to it (e.g. in the name of the Imperial Circle it was grouped into), until 1794, when the Austrian Netherlands were lost to the French Republic. When part of

2881-419: The history of the principality. The struggles between the upper and lower classes, in which the prince-bishops frequently intervened, developed through the 13th and 14th centuries, and culminate in the 15th century in the pillage and destruction of the episcopal city. In the reign of Robert of Thourotte (1240–1246), Saint Juliana — a nun of Cornillon Abbey — was led by certain visions to the project of having

2948-551: The imposition of the assignat , wholesale conscription, and the ferocious antireligious policies of the French revolutionaries. The opposition was first led by the Catholic clergy, which became an irreducible enemy of the French Republic after it dissolved convents and monasteries and confiscated ecclesiastical properties, ordered the separation of Church and State, shut down the University of Louvain and other Catholic educational institutions, regulated church attendance and introduced divorce. In 1797, nearly 8000 priests refused to swear

3015-457: The independent Kingdom of Belgium . Prince-Bishopric of Li%C3%A8ge The Prince-Bishopric of Liège or Principality of Liège was a Roman Catholic ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire that was situated for the most part in present-day Belgium . It was an Imperial Estate , so the bishop of Liège , as its prince, had a seat and a vote in the Imperial Diet . The Prince-Bishopric of Liège should not be confused with

3082-416: The mainly Calvinist Netherlandish provinces, which led to the outbreak of the Eighty Years' War in 1568. In January 1579 the seven northern provinces formed the Protestant Union of Utrecht , which declared independence from the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands by the 1581 Act of Abjuration . The Spanish branch of the Habsburgs could retain the rule only over

3149-410: The middle of the 18th century the ideas of the French encyclopedists began to be received at Liège; Bishop de Velbrück (1772–1784), encouraged their propagation and thus prepared the way for the 1789 Liège Revolution . Partially connected with the French Revolution, a protest against the absolutist rule of prince bishop César-Constantin-François de Hoensbroeck developed into the Liège Revolution. At

3216-400: The name "Flanders" was used as a pars pro toto ) was the Habsburg Netherlands ruled by the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs from 1556 to 1714. They were a collection of States of the Holy Roman Empire in the Low Countries held in personal union by the Spanish Crown . This region comprised most of the modern states of Belgium and Luxembourg , as well as parts of northern France ,

3283-439: The newly introduced Oath of Hatred of Kings ("serment de haine à la royauté"), and went into hiding to escape arrest and deportation. The situation, particularly in the religious field, eased with the rise to power of Bonaparte in 1799, but soon, the intensification of conscription, the police state and the Continental System , which brought ruin to Ostend and Antwerp, reignited opposition to French rule. During that period Belgium

3350-426: The partly Catholic Southern Netherlands , completed after the Fall of Antwerp in 1585. Better times came, when in 1598 the Spanish Netherlands passed to Philip's daughter Isabella Clara Eugenia and her husband Archduke Albert VII of Austria . The couple's rule brought a period of much-needed peace and stability to the economy, which stimulated the growth of a separate South Netherlandish identity and consolidated

3417-412: The peculiar inferior status of Generality Lands (jointly ruled by the United Republic, not admitted as member provinces): Zeelandic Flanders (south of the River Scheldt ), the present Dutch province of North Brabant and Maastricht (in the present-day Dutch province of Limburg ). As the power of the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs waned in the latter decades of the 17th century, the territory of

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3484-422: The peculiar, inferior status of Generality Lands (jointly ruled by the United Republic, not admitted as member provinces): Zeelandic Flanders (south of the river Scheldt ), the present Dutch province of North Brabant and Maastricht (in the present Dutch province of Limburg). As Spanish power waned in the latter decades of the 17th century, the territory of the Spanish Netherlands was repeatedly invaded by

3551-436: The principality. He nominated Érard de La Marck (1505–1538) who brought a period of restoration. Erard was an enlightened protector of the arts. It was he who commenced the struggle against the Protestant reformers , which his successors carried forth, especially Gerard of Groesbeeck (1564–1580). With the object of assisting in this struggle, Paul IV , by Bull ( Super Universi , 12 May 1559), created new bishoprics in

3618-491: The region. Throughout the latter part of the eighteenth century, the principal foreign policy goal of the Habsburg rulers was to exchange the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria , which would round out Habsburg possessions in southern Germany. In the 1757 Treaty of Versailles , Austria agreed to the creation of an independent state in the Southern Netherlands ruled by Philip, Duke of Parma and garrisoned by French troops in exchange for French help in recovering Silesia . However

3685-436: The reign of Henry of Verdun (1075–1091) a tribunal was instituted ( tribunal de la paix ) to prevent war and enforce the Peace of God . Otbert (1091–1119) increased the territory of the principality by purchasing the Lordship of Bouillon . He remained faithful to emperor Henry IV , who died as his guest. Henry of Namur (1119–1121) was venerated as a martyr. During the administration of Alexander of Juliers (1128–1134)

3752-424: The rule of the Burgundian Duke Philip the Good with the implementation of a stadtholder and the first convocation of the States General of the Netherlands in 1464. His granddaughter Mary had confirmed a number of privileges to the States by the Great Privilege signed in 1477. After the government takeover by her husband Archduke Maximilian I of Austria , the States insisted on their privileges, culminating in

3819-452: The so-called Kettle War , so called because its only "casualty" was a kettle. Though Joseph secured in the 1785 Treaty of Fontainebleau that the territory's rulers would be compensated by the Dutch Republic for the continued closing the Scheldt , this failed to gain him much popularity. The people of the Austrian Netherlands rebelled against Austria in 1788 as a result of Joseph II's centralizing policies. The different provinces established

3886-427: The so-called Spanish Road , a military corridor between Spanish-controlled Lombardy and the Spanish Netherlands . Completely encircled by Spanish territory, Liège was protected by treaties of neutrality which permitted the passage of Spanish troops through the prince-bishop's territory provided that they spent no more than two nights in one place. The importance of the prince-bishopric to Habsburg military logistics in

3953-405: The southern Netherlands , and western Germany , with the capital being Brussels . The Army of Flanders was given the task of defending the territory. The Imperial fiefs of the former Burgundian Netherlands had been inherited by the Austrian House of Habsburg from the extinct House of Valois-Burgundy upon the death of Mary of Burgundy in 1482. The Seventeen Provinces formed the core of

4020-428: The territories it had held became part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands , and in 1830 they were within the part of that kingdom which split off to become Belgium . The principality ruled by the bishops of Liège was never part of the Seventeen Provinces or the Spanish and Austrian Southern Netherlands , but from the 16th century onwards its politics were strongly influenced by the dukes of Burgundy and later

4087-426: The union of the Dutch and Luxembourgish crowns then ended. The northwestern two-thirds of the original Luxembourg remains a province of Belgium. The Spanish Netherlands (Dutch: Spaanse Nederlanden , Spanish: Países Bajos españoles ) was a portion of the Low Countries controlled by Spain from 1556 to 1714, inherited from the Dukes of Burgundy . Although the territory of the Duchy of Burgundy itself remained in

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4154-412: Was a flourishing court at Brussels, which was under the government of King Philip III's half-sister Archduchess Isabella and her husband, Archduke Albert of Austria . Among the artists who emerged from the court of the "Archdukes", as they were known, was Peter Paul Rubens . Under the Archdukes, the Spanish Netherlands actually had formal independence from Spain, but always remained unofficially within

4221-401: Was ceded, including Cambrai , Walloon Flanders (the area around Lille , Douai and Orchies ), as well as half of the county of Hainaut (including Valenciennes ). Later, in the War of the Reunions and the Nine Years' War , France temporarily annexed other parts of the region that were returned in the 1697 Peace of Ryswick . Under the Treaty of Rastatt (1714), following the War of

4288-420: Was confirmed by the pope but in 1192, shortly after he took office, he was assassinated by three German knights at Reims . It is probable that the emperor was privy to this murder but Albero was canonized. In 1195, Albert de Cuyck (1195–1200) formally recognized the political franchise of the people of Liège. During the 12th century, the cathedral chapter , along with the bishop, assumed a more important role in

4355-414: Was divided into nine départements : Deux-Nèthes , Dyle , Escaut , Forêts , Jemmape , Lys , Meuse-Inférieure , Ourthe and Sambre-et-Meuse . Austria confirmed the loss of its territories by the Treaty of Campo Formio , in 1797. In anticipation of Napoleon's defeat in 1814, it was hotly debated inside Austrian ruling circles whether Austria should get the Southern Netherlands back or, in view of

4422-443: Was elected pope as Urban IV , encouraged the observance of the feast of Corpus Christi in the whole Church. Another archdeacon of Liège became pope under the name Gregory X and deposed the unworthy Henry of Gueldres (1247–1274). The Peace of Fexhe , signed in 1316 during the reign of Adolph II de la Marck (1313–1344), regulated the relations between the prince-bishop and his subjects. Nevertheless, internal discord continued and

4489-428: Was placed on the throne of Liège by the political machinations of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy . The population resisted Burgundian rule leading to the Liège Wars , the destruction of Dinant in 1466, and of Liège in 1468 by Charles the Bold , marking the ending of democratic ascendancy in the principality. Charles V completed the union of the Seventeen Provinces in the 1540s, and unofficially also controlled

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