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79-458: A caudillo ( / k ɔː ˈ d iː ( l ) j oʊ , k aʊ ˈ -/ kaw- DEE(L) -yoh, kow- , Spanish: [kawˈðiʎo] ; Old Spanish : cabdillo , from Latin capitellum , diminutive of caput "head") is a type of personalist leader wielding military and political power . There is no precise English translation for the term, though it is often used interchangeably with " military dictator ," " warlord " and " strongman ". The term

158-486: A Lazaro , ca fue tu voluntad, Alos judios te dexeste prender, do dizen monte caluarie Pusieron te en cruz , por nombre en golgota , Dos ladrones contigo, estos de sennas partes, El vno es en parayso , ca el otro non entro ala, Estando en la cruz vertud fezist muy grant, Longinos era çiego, que nuquas vio alguandre, Diot con la lança enel costado, dont yxio la sangre, Corrio la sangre por el astil ayuso, las manos se ouo de vntar, Alçolas arriba, legolas

237-407: A president-for-life and the power to name his successor. In 1828 his supporters called on him to assume dictatorial powers and "save the republic". However, the political turmoil continued and Bolívar stepped down in 1830, going into self-imposed exile and dying shortly thereafter. "He is revered as the one person who made the greatest contribution to Spanish American independence" and admired by both

316-514: A Lázaro, porque fue tu voluntad, Por los judíos te dejaste prender, en donde llaman Monte Calvario Te pusieron en la cruz, en un lugar llamado Golgotá, Dos ladrones contigo, estos de sendas partes, Uno está en el paraíso, porque el otro no entró allá, Estando en la cruz hiciste una virtud muy grande, Longinos era ciego que jamás se vio, Te dio con la lanza en el costado, de donde salió la sangre, Corrió la sangre por el astil abajo, las manos se tuvo que untar, Las alzó arriba, se las llevó

395-466: A adorar, Melchor, Gaspar y Baltasar; oro, incienso y mirra Te ofrecieron, como fue tu voluntad. Salvaste a Jonás cuando cayó en el mar, Salvaste a Daniel con los leones en la mala cárcel, Salvaste dentro de Roma al señor San Sebastián, Salvaste a Santa Susana del falso criminal, Por tierra anduviste treinta y dos años, Señor espiritual, Mostrando los milagros, por ende tenemos qué hablar, Del agua hiciste vino y de la piedra pan, Resucitaste

474-587: A century; and Porfirio Díaz of Mexico. Rosas and Díaz were military men, who continued to rely on armed forces to maintain themselves in power. This region was vulnerable to stronger powers, particularly the United States and the United Kingdom. Cuba remained in the hands of the Spanish crown until 1898. The United States seized a huge part of Mexico. Britain attempted to set up a protectorate on

553-600: A constitution, as "constitutional dictators". There were a number of strongmen who went beyond raw struggles for power and its spoils and established "integrative dictatorships". These regimes attempted to curtail centrifugal forces, often termed "federalism", where regions or states of a nation-state had more autonomy and instead established the hegemony of the central government. According to political scientist Peter H. Smith , these include Juan Manuel de Rosas in Argentina; Diego Portales of Chile, whose system lasted nearly

632-643: A coup under the Plan of Tuxtepec and became president of Mexico 1876–1880, succeeded by his military and political compadre Manuel González (1880–1884) and returned to the presidency until he was overthrown in 1911 in the Mexican Revolution. During the decade-long civil war, a number of regional caudillos arose. Pascual Orozco helped oust Díaz at the early stage of the Revolution, but then turned against Francisco I. Madero , who had been elected to

711-496: A growing consumer market in the United States. In Guatemala Justo Rufino Barrios ruled as a Liberal autocrat and expanded coffee cultivation. Fictional Hispanic American caudillos , sometimes based on real historical figures, are important in literature. Colombian Nobel Prize winner Gabriel García Márquez published two works with strongmen as main characters: The Autumn of the Patriarch and The General in his Labyrinth ,

790-621: A la cara, Abrió sus ojos, miró a todas partes, En ti creyó entonces, por ende se salvó del mal. En el monumento resucitaste y fuiste a los infiernos, Como fue tu voluntad, Quebrantaste las puertas y sacaste a los padres santos. Tú eres Rey de los reyes y de todo el mundo padre, A ti te adoro y en ti creo de toda voluntad, Y ruego a San Pedro que me ayude a rogar Por mi Cid el Campeador, que Dios le cuide del mal, Cuando hoy partamos, en vida haznos juntar. O glorious Lord, Father who art in Heaven, Thou madest Heaven and Earth, and on

869-801: A la faz, Abrio sos oios, cato atodas partes, En ti crouo al ora, por end es saluo de mal. Enel monumento Resuçitest e fust alos ynfiernos , Commo fue tu voluntad, Quebranteste las puertas e saqueste los padres sanctos. Tueres Rey delos Reyes e de todel mundo padre, Ati adoro e creo de toda voluntad, E Ruego a san peydro que me aiude a Rogar Por mio çid el campeador , que dios le curie de mal, Quando oy nos partimos, en vida nos faz iuntar. Oh Señor glorioso, Padre que en el cielo estás, Hiciste el cielo y la tierra, al tercer día el mar, Hiciste las estrellas y la luna, y el sol para calentar, Te encarnaste en Santa María madre, En Belén apareciste, como fue tu voluntad, Pastores te glorificaron, te tuvieron que loar, Tres reyes de Arabia te vinieron

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948-522: A laudare, Tres Reyes de arabia te vinieron adorar, Melchior e gaspar e baltasar , oro e tus e mirra Te offreçieron, commo fue tu veluntad. Saluest a jonas quando cayo en la mar, Saluest a daniel con los leones en la mala carçel, Saluest dentro en Roma al sennor san sabastián , Saluest a sancta susanna del falso criminal, Por tierra andidiste xxxii annos, sennor spirital, Mostrando los miraculos , por en auemos que fablar, Del agua fezist vino e dela piedra pan, Resuçitest

1027-898: A military hero of the French intervention, who challenged Juárez and Lerdo by attempting rebellions, the second of which, the Plan of Tuxtepec , was successful in 1876. Juárez and Lerdo removed some caudillos from office, but this prompted them to rebel. These included Trinidad García de la Cadena in Zacatecas , Luis Mier y Terán in Veracruz , Juan Haro in Tampico , Juan N. Méndez in Puebla, Vicente Jiménez in Guerrero, and Juan Cortina in Matamoros . "That they slowly gathered around Porfirio Díaz

1106-651: A number of examples of continuismo in Hispanic America whereby presidents continue in office beyond the legal term limits, with constitutional revision, plebiscites, and the creation of family dynasties, such as the Somoza family in Nicaragua. A major example of a modernizing caudillo of the late nineteenth century is Díaz (r. 1876–1911), whose period of control is known as the Porfiriato . His slogan

1185-467: A powerful critic of such strongmen. An outlier in terms of subject matter is Rómulo Gallegos 's Doña Bárbara , depicting a woman caudillo . Old Spanish language ( /s/ and /z/ were apico-alveolar .) These were still distinct phonemes in Old Spanish, judging by the consistency with which the graphemes ⟨b⟩ and ⟨v⟩ were distinguished. Nevertheless,

1264-497: A royalist general-turned-insurgent Agustín de Iturbide . In Spanish America, new sovereign states grappled with the question of balancing a central authority, usually in the hands of the traditional elites, with some kind of representation of the new "citizenry" of the republics. Constitutions were written laying out the division of powers, but the rule of personalist strongmen, caudillos, dominated. Dictatorial powers were granted to some caudillos , nominally ruling as presidents under

1343-643: A strong central state and defense of traditional institutional structures, particularly the Mexican Army and the Roman Catholic Church. Many regional strongmen were in the Federalist-Liberal camp, which supported local control and the continuation of their power. The quintessential Mexican caudillo , who gained national power for decades, was Santa Anna, who was initially a Liberal but became a Conservative and sought strengthening of

1422-433: A verb in simple sentences combined into one word. In a compound sentence , the pronoun was found in the beginning of the clause : la manol va besar = la mano le va a besar . The future subjunctive was in common use ( fuere in the second example above) but it is generally now found only in legal or solemn discourse and in the spoken language in some dialects, particularly in areas of Venezuela , to replace

1501-628: A war-torn Paraguay." In the late nineteenth century, regimes in Spanish America were more stable and often less dominated by military men. Foreign investors, particularly the British, began building infrastructure in countries of greatest interest to the UK's economic needs. Such projects included railways, telegraph lines, and port facilities, which cut transportation time and costs and sped up communications. Stable political regimes that could ensure

1580-516: Is historically associated with Spain and Hispanic America , after virtually all of the regions in the latter won independence in the early nineteenth century. The roots of caudillismo may be tied to the framework of rule in medieval and early modern Spain during the Reconquista from the Moors . Spanish conquistadors such as Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro exhibit characteristics of

1659-519: Is the original Old Spanish text in the first column, along with the same text in Modern Spanish in the second column and an English translation in the third column. Ya sennor glorioso , padre que en çielo estas, Fezist çielo e tierra, el terçero el mar, Fezist estrelas e luna, e el sol pora escalentar, Prisist en carnaçion en sancta maria madre , En belleem apareçist, commo fue tu veluntad, Pastores te glorificaron, ovieron de

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1738-470: Is the story of the rise of Porfirian Mexico." Simón Bolívar , the foremost leader of independence in Spanish America, attempted to recreate the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the nation of Gran Colombia . As with other areas of Spanish America, centrifugal forces caused the country to fragment into separate nation-states. Bolivar saw the need for political stability, which could be put into effect with

1817-607: The jefe máximo ( maximum chief ), the power behind the presidency in a period known as the Maximato (1928–1934); PNR's iteration as the Institutional Revolutionary Party dominated Mexican politics until 2000 and functioned as a brake on the personalist power of regional caudillos in Mexico. With the improvement of transportation, tropical products such as coffee and bananas could be transported to

1896-758: The University of Liverpool (1954–61) and, from 1961 taught at the University of London. He was the director for the Institute of Latin American Studies at the University of London from 1974 until his retirement in 1987. The scope of his work expanded over the years: from the River Plate area to Latin America as a whole; and from the 18th to the 19th centuries. He died on 4 April 2018 at

1975-427: The caudillo , being successful military leaders, having mutual reliance on the leader and their supporters, and rewarding them for their loyalty. During the colonial era , the Spanish crown asserted its power and established a plethora of bureaucratic institutions that prevented personalist rule. Historian John Lynch argues that the rise of caudillos in Spanish America is rooted not in the distant Spanish past but in

2054-566: The majority of whom were not self-described caudillos . However, scholars have applied the term to a variety of Hispanic-American leaders. Since Spanish American independence in the early nineteenth century, the region has been noted for its number of caudillos and the duration of their rule. The early nineteenth century is sometimes called "The Age of Caudillos", with Juan Manuel de Rosas , dictator of Argentina, and his contemporary in Mexico, Antonio López de Santa Anna , dominating national politics. Weak nation-states in Spanish America fostered

2133-420: The perfect tenses, the past participle often agreed with the gender and number of the direct object : María ha cantadas dos canciones was used instead of Modern Spanish María ha cantado dos canciones ('María has sung two songs'). However, that was inconsistent even in the earliest texts. The prospective aspect was formed with the verb ir ('(to) go') along with the verb in infinitive, with

2212-620: The Champion, that God nurse from evil, When we part today, that we are joined in this life or the next. John Lynch (historian) John Lynch (11 January 1927 – 4 April 2018) was Professor of Latin American History at the University of London . He spent most of his academic career at University College , and then from 1974 to 1987 as Director of the Institute of Latin American Studies . The main focus of his work

2291-626: The Jews, where they call Mount Calvary, They placed Thee on the Cross, in the place called Golgotha, Two thieves with Thee, these of split paths, One is in Paradise, but the other did not enter there, Being on the Cross Thou didst a very great virtue, Longinus was blind ever he saw Thee, He gave Thee a blow with the lance in the broadside, where he left the blood, Running down

2370-637: The Mexican Constitution of 1917 , leading to the Cristero War , a failed major uprising under the leadership of some regional caudillos, including Saturnino Cedillo of San Luis Potosí . Obregón was elected again in 1928, but was assassinated before he could again resume the presidency. In 1929, Plutarco Elías Calles founded a political party, then known as the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR), and became

2449-538: The Mosquito Coast of Central America. The two strongmen of this early century were Antonio López de Santa Anna in Mexico and Rafael Carrera in Guatemala. Mexico began its revolt against Spain in 1810, gaining independence in 1821. Political divisions in the post-independence period were labeled federalist, seeking a weak central government and often associated with liberalism , and centralist, who sought

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2528-454: The North in 1915 after Villa had broken with Carranza. Obregón and fellow Sonoran generals Plutarco Elías Calles and Adolfo de la Huerta overthrew Carranza in 1920 under the Plan of Agua Prieta , with the presidency in the 1920s going in turn from de la Huerta, to Obregón, to Calles, and back to Obregón. During Calles's presidency (1924–1928), he stringently enforced the anticlerical laws of

2607-463: The Republic". If the constitution put formal limits on presidential power and term limits, caudillos could bend or break the rules to maintain power, a practice dubbed continuismo . Ideologically, caudillos could be either liberal or conservative . Liberalism had an advantage in the post-independence period, drawing on the ideas of the liberators and creating the institutional frameworks of

2686-539: The arm, the hands Thou hadst spread, Raised it up, as it led to Thy face, Opened their eyes, saw all parts, And believed in Thee then, thus saved them from evil. Thou revivedst in the tomb and went to Hell, For it was Thy will, Thou hast broken the doors and brought out the holy fathers. Thou art King of Kings and of all the world Father, I worship Thee and I believe in all Thy will, And I pray to Saint Peter to help with my prayer, For my Cid

2765-556: The authoritarian rule of conservatives, backed by the landowning class. Although he never sought the presidency, cabinet minister Diego Portales (1793–1837) is credited with creating a strong, centralized regime that lasted 30 years. In general, Chile prospered with an export-oriented economy based on agriculture and mining, an exception to most of the Spanish-American regimes. In the former Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata , political instability and violence were more typical of

2844-544: The auxiliary verb ser ('(to) be'), as in Italian and French: Las mugieres son llegadas a Castiella was used instead of Las mujeres han llegado a Castilla ('The women have arrived in Castilla'). Possession was expressed with the verb aver (Modern Spanish haber , '(to) have'), rather than tener : Pedro ha dos fijas was used instead of Pedro tiene dos hijas ('Pedro has two daughters'). In

2923-550: The caudillo was unknown. … The caudillo entered history as a local hero whom larger events promoted to a military chieftain." In a rural area that lacked any institutions of the state, and where the environment was one of violence and anarchy, a caudillo could impose order, often by using violence himself to achieve it. His local control as a strongman needed to be maintained by assuring the loyalty of his followers, so his bestowing of material rewards reinforced his own position. Caudillos could also maintain their position by protecting

3002-718: The central government. Following the Mexican–American War , regional caudillos such as Juan Álvarez of the state of Guerrero and Santiago Vidaurri of Nuevo León - Coahuila ousted Santa Anna in the Revolution of Ayutla , bringing Liberals to power. Álvarez follows the pattern of the "folk caudillo ", whom historian François Chevalier calls a "good cacique , [who] protected the mainly indigenous and mestizo peasants of Guerrero, who in turn gave him their loyalty". Álvarez briefly served as President of Mexico, returning to his home state, leaving ideological liberals to institute

3081-511: The closer power of the United States. Although elections were held in Mexico at regular intervals, they were by nature not democratic. The huge rural, illiterate, and mostly indigenous populations were more to be feared by the government than as a source for regime support. When Díaz failed to find a political solution to his succession, the Mexican Revolution erupted after the fraudulent 1910 general election . Diaz came to power by

3160-676: The continuation of caudillismo from the late nineteenth century into the twentieth century. The formation of Mexico's Institutional Revolutionary Party in 1929 effectively ended caudillismo . Men characterized as caudillos have ruled in Cuba ( Gerardo Machado , Fulgencio Batista , Fidel Castro ), Panama ( Omar Torrijos , Manuel Noriega ), the Dominican Republic ( Desiderio Arias , Cipriano Bencosme), Paraguay ( Alfredo Stroessner ), Argentina ( Juan Perón and other military strongmen), and Chile ( Augusto Pinochet ). Caudillos have been

3239-403: The coup was completed and cemented his position as president by quashing a counter-coup by Velasco. During his presidency, Belzu instituted several reforms to the country's economy in an effort to redistribute wealth more equitably. He rewarded the work of the poor and dispossessed. Like Paraguay ’s Jose Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia , Belzu chose to enact the aforementioned welfare programs because

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3318-417: The difference that Modern Spanish includes the preposition a : Personal pronouns and substantives were placed after the verb in any tense or mood unless a stressed word was before the verb. The future and the conditional tenses were not yet fully grammaticalised as inflections; rather, they were still periphrastic formations of the verb aver in the present or imperfect indicative followed by

3397-665: The era of La Reforma . During the era of the Mexican Reform and the French intervention in Mexico , there were a number of generals who had regional personal followings. Important figures whose local power had consequences nationally included Mariano Escobedo in San Luis Potosí ; Ramón Corona in Jalisco and Durango ; and Porfirio Díaz in parts of Veracruz, Puebla, and Oaxaca. There were other caudillos whose power

3476-675: The era. In Argentina, Juan Manuel de Rosas (r. 1829–1852) dominated the Argentine confederation. He came from a wealthy landowning family, but also acquired large tracts of land in Buenos Aires Province . Rosas despised "the principles of political democracy and liberty [and] provided order in a region that had known near-anarchy since independence". During his two-decade reign, Rosas rose to power and created an empire. He used his military experience to gain support from gauchos and estancias to create an army that would challenge

3555-460: The idea of communalism was more in tune with the traditional values of native populations than the emphasis on private property that other caudillos embraced. Belzu was also known for his nationalization of the country's profitable mining industry – he enacted protectionist policies to reserve Bolivian resources for Bolivian use, provoking the ire of British, Peruvian, and Chilean shipping and mining interests. Many of Belzu's policies won him favor among

3634-501: The immediate context of the Spanish American wars of independence . The wars overthrew colonial rule and left a power vacuum in the early nineteenth century. Caudillos were very influential in the history of Spanish America and left a legacy that has influenced political movements in the modern era. The term is often used pejoratively by critics of a regime. However, Spain's General Francisco Franco (1936–1975) proudly took

3713-409: The imperfect subjunctive. It was used similarly to its Modern Portuguese counterpart, in place of the modern present subjunctive in a subordinate clause after si , cuando etc., when an event in the future is referenced: The following is a sample from Cantar de Mio Cid (lines 330–365), with abbreviations resolved, punctuation (the original has none), and some modernized letters. Below

3792-403: The infinitive of a main verb. Pronouns, therefore, by the general placement rules, could be inserted between the main verb and the auxiliary in these periphrastic tenses, as still occurs with Portuguese ( mesoclisis ): When there was a stressed word before the verb, the pronouns would go before the verb: non gelo empeñar he por lo que fuere guisado . Generally, an unstressed pronoun and

3871-570: The influx of numerous French and Occitan speakers (and their particular pronunciation of Latin) beginning in the twelfth century. Various words with [f] were then borrowed into Spanish, leading to minimal pairs like [ˈfoɾma] “form” (a borrowing) and [ˈhoɾma] “shoemaker's last” (inherited from Latin forma ). The result was a new phoneme /f/ , distinct from /h/ . Possibly realized as [d͡ʒ] after pauses or certain consonants (judging by outcomes in Judeo-Spanish ). Old Spanish

3950-547: The institutions of the colonial era as legacies to be rejected, but the Roman Catholic Church and traditional values remained strong in many regions, supported by elites seeking to maintain their power in the new order. Conservative caudillos , supported by the Church and elites, moved to the creation of strong, central governments. Although there was the hope of some Spanish American leaders of independence that

4029-431: The interests of regional elites. A local strongman who built a regional base could aspire to become a national caudillo , taking control of the state. In this situation, caudillos could bestow patronage on a large retinue of clients, who in turn gave him their loyalty. In general, caudillos ' power benefited elites. But these strongmen were also mediators between elites and the popular classes, recruiting them into

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4108-635: The latter a controversial novel about Simón Bolívar . In 1946, Nobel Prize laureate Miguel Ángel Asturias published El Señor Presidente , based on the life of Manuel Estrada Cabrera (1898–1920), which was translated to English in 1975. In 1974, Augusto Roa Bastos published I, the Supreme based on Francia's life. In Mexico, two fictional caudillos are depicted by Mariano Azuela 's 1916 novel The Underdogs and Carlos Fuentes 's novel The Death of Artemio Cruz . In 1929, Mexican writer Martín Luis Guzmán published his novel La sombra del caudillo ,

4187-448: The leaders of the nation-states they had helped bring into being. In the wake of the violence and political disruption, new nations were faced with widespread property destruction, the disappearance of trade, and states that lacked political authority. The first few decades after independence saw the rise of strongmen with roots in the military. Spanish America had known no other type of regime than monarchy, and Mexico established one under

4266-402: The leadership of Argentina. After his rise to power using the rural workers, he changed his system in favor of using the military. He attempted to impose a ban on imported goods to help and win the support of the artisans in Argentina, but failed. He was forced to lift the ban on certain imports, like textiles, which opened a trade with Great Britain. Through his power over the imports and exports,

4345-438: The long-downtrodden indigenous peoples of Bolivia, but came at the cost of enraging wealthy Creole Bolivians as well as foreign countries like Britain that sought to use resources from Bolivian mines. Belzu took steps to legitimize his leadership, and was at one point democratically elected. Despite his popularity in many sectors, Belzu had many powerful enemies and he survived 40 assassination attempts. His enemies wanted to destroy

4424-482: The lower orders with contempt. He gives examples of Juan Facundo Quiroga , Martín Güemes, and other Argentine caudillos , most importantly Juan Manuel de Rosas, who were popular and populist caudillos . Burns attributes the urban elites' bafflement and their contempt for followers of these folk caudillos for much of the negative role assigned to caudillos . National caudillos often sought to legitimize their rule by holding titles of authority such as "President of

4503-466: The methods of the communal Indian society that existed previously in Paraguay. After independence the state gained control of the land which was once under control of the Church and the Spanish state. Francia created state ranches and rented out land for the use of citizens who were able to pay a fee. Francia's repressive measures included crushing the power of the elite American-born Spaniards and curbing

4582-464: The military, the police, and even the legislative branch of government, Rosas created a monopoly that would ensure his remaining in power for over two decades. By the 1850s, Rosas was under attack by the very people who had helped him gain power. He was driven out of power and eventually ended up in Great Britain, where he died in 1877. Uruguay attained independence from Brazil and Argentina and

4661-426: The new nation-states via written constitutions. Free trade as an economic policy created market-oriented economies. The model that these nation-states often adopted was federalism , keeping power in the component regions. Federalism, however, tended toward centrifugalism and fragmentation and was characterized by weak central governments. Conservative caudillos also emerged around 1830. New nation-states often rejected

4740-406: The political contours of regions would reconstitute the former viceroyalties , but with local autonomy. The Roman Catholic Church as an institution remained strong and the militaries won victories against royalist forces. The state as an institution in most areas was weak. Conflicts over the form the new governments should take were rampant, and veterans of the wars of independence saw themselves as

4819-435: The political left for opposing slavery and distrust of the U.S. and the right, which admires his authoritarianism . Veterans of the wars of independence assumed the leadership of the newly created nation-states, each with a new constitution. Despite constitutions and ideological labels of liberals and conservatives, personalist and opportunistic leaders dominated the early nineteenth century. As with Mexico and Central America,

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4898-529: The political turmoil and penury of the governments of the Bolivarian republics prevented foreign investors from risking their capital there. One caudillo who was progressive for his time was Bolivia ’s Manuel Isidoro Belzu , who served as the fourteenth president from 1848 until 1855. The former president, Jose Miguel de Velasco , executed a coup for the presidency in 1848, promising the position of Minister of War to Belzu. Belzu seized power for himself once

4977-406: The power base, but also restraining them from achieving power themselves. There were a few strongmen who either rose from a humble background to protect the interests of indigenous groups or other rural marginalized groups, or strongly identified with those groups; historian E. Bradford Burns referred to them as "folk caudillos ,". In his analysis, they contrasted with Europeanized elites who viewed

5056-478: The power of the Roman Catholic Church. Francia allowed for religious freedom and abolished the tithe. He actively encouraged miscegenation. He has been a controversial figure in Hispanic American history: many modern historians credit him with bringing stability to Paraguay, preserving independence, and "bequeathing to his successors an egalitarian, homogeneous nation". However, because of his crackdown on

5135-498: The presidency in 1861, but he was gunned down by one of his rivals by the time he tried to run for presidency again. He was unable to leave a legacy and his populist programs died with him. After Bolivia's independence, Bolivia lost half of its territory to neighboring countries including Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Brazil through the war and agreements reached under the threat of invasion. In contrast to most of Spanish America, post-independence Chile experienced political stability under

5214-551: The presidency in 1911. Pancho Villa also helped oust Díaz, supported Madero, and following his murder in 1913, became a general in the Constitutionalist Army commanded by civilian Venustiano Carranza . Emiliano Zapata , peasant leader from the state of Morelos, opposed to Díaz and every subsequent Mexican government until his murder in 1919 by Carranza's agents. Álvaro Obregón emerged as another brilliant general from northern Mexico, defeating Villa's Division of

5293-486: The sea, Thou savedst Daniel from the lions in the terrible jail, Thou savedst Saint Sebastian in Rome, Thou savedst Saint Susan from the false charge, On Earth Thou walkedst thirty-two years, Spiritual Lord, Performing miracles, thus we have of which to speak, Of the water Thou madest wine and of the stone bread, Thou revivedst Lazarus, because it was Thy will, Thou leftest Thyself to be arrested by

5372-550: The security of foreign investments, facilitate extraction of resources, and production of agricultural crops and animals were the necessary structures. Industrialization also took hold in a few countries (Mexico, Argentina, Colombia) to produce consumer goods locally. In general, foreign governments and entrepreneurs had no interest in directly administering countries of Hispanic America in a formal colonial arrangement so long as their interests could be nurtured by modernizing national governments, often seen as neocolonialism . There are

5451-399: The state-run projects that helped nationalist program but likewise improved the public sphere on which the country's poor were reliant. However, the despotism that is so rife among the caudillos also found a home with Belzu – from the early 1850s until his abdication of power in 1855, he is said to have ruled despotically, making himself very wealthy in the process. Belzu considered returning to

5530-505: The subject of literature in Spanish America. Hispanic America is not unique in having strong leaders emerge during times of turmoil. The cause of their emergence in Spanish America is generally seen to be in the destruction of the Spanish colonial state structure after the wars of independence, and in the importance of leaders from the independence struggles for providing government in the post-independence period, when nation-states came into being. Historian John Lynch states that "Before 1810

5609-618: The third day the sea, Thou madest the stars and the Moon, and the Sun for warmth, Thou incarnatedst Thyself of the Blessed Mother Mary, In Bethlehem Thou appearedst, for it was Thy will, Shepherds glorified Thee, they gave Thee praise, Three kings of Arabia came to worship Thee, Melchior, Caspar, and Balthazar; offered Thee Gold, frankincense, and myrrh, for it was Thy will. Thou savedst Jonah when he fell into

5688-543: The title as his own during and after his military overthrow of the Second Spanish Republic in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). Spanish censors during his rule attacked publishers who applied the term to Hispanic American strongmen. Caudillos' exercise of power is a form considered authoritarian . Most societies have had personalist leaders at times, but Hispanic America has had many more,

5767-633: The two could be confused in consonant clusters (as in alba ~ alva “dawn”) or in word-initial position, perhaps after /n/ or a pause. /b/ and /β/ appear to have merged in word-initial position by about 1400 and in all other environments by the mid–late 16th century at the latest. At an archaic stage, the realizations of /h/ (from Latin /f/ ) would have been approximately as follows: By early Old Spanish, [ɸ] had been replaced with [h] before all vowels and possibly before [j] as well. In later Old Spanish, surviving [ɸ] and [ʍ] / [hɸ] were modified to [f] in urban speech, likely due to

5846-438: The wealthy elite and the subsequent weakening of their power, he was accused of anti-clericalism. Nevertheless, Paraguay prospered under Francia in terms of economics and trade through a trade route with Buenos Aires, which was opposed by the wealthy Argentinian elites. "Sometimes counted among the dictators of the era, contemporary history has viewed Francia as an honest, populist leader who promoted sovereign economic prosperity in

5925-527: Was Spanish America in the period 1750–1850. John Lynch was born on 11 January 1927 in Boldon , County Durham , in northern England. He married Wendy Kathleen Norman in 1960, both Catholic. They had 5 children. Lynch studied at the University of Edinburgh (MA, 1952), and at the University of London (Ph.D., 1955). He served in the British Army after World War II from 1945 to 1948. He then taught at

6004-1109: Was generally written in some variation of the Latin script . It was also sometimes written in Arabic script in a practice called Aljamiado . These sounds were spelt ⟨nn⟩ and ⟨ll⟩ respectively. ⟨nn⟩ was often abbreviated to ⟨ñ⟩ , which went on to become the normal spelling of /ɲ/ in Modern Spanish. Old Spanish featured the digraphs ⟨ch⟩ , ⟨ph⟩ , ⟨(r)rh⟩ , and ⟨th⟩ which were simplified to ⟨c⟩ , ⟨f⟩ , ⟨(r)r⟩ , ⟨t⟩ in Modern Spanish. Examples include: ⟨y⟩ often stood for /i/ in word-initial position. In this context it has since been respelt to ⟨i⟩ in Modern Spanish. (The following table does not account for sandhi contexts.) In Old Spanish, perfect constructions of movement verbs, such as ir ('(to) go') and venir ('(to) come'), were formed using

6083-889: Was more local but still important, including Gerónimo Treviño and Francisco Narajo in Nuevo León, Servando Canales and Juan Cortina in Tamaulipas , Florencio Antillón in Guanajuato, Ignacio Pesqueira in Sonora , Luis Terrazas in Chihuahua , and Manuel Lozada in Tepic . Following the defeat of the French in 1867, the government of Benito Juárez and his successor following his death, Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada , faced opponents who objected to their increasingly Centralist administrations. Those opponents gravitated to supporting Díaz,

6162-422: Was ruled by Fructuoso Rivera . In Paraguay, José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia (r. 1814–1840) was Supreme Dictator of the Republic, maintaining the landlocked country's independence from Argentina and other foreign powers. Sealed off from outside trade, Paraguay developed economic self-sufficiency under Francia. He based society on communal properties, rather than centralized authoritarianism, attempting to revert to

6241-680: Was “order and progress”, which was enforced by armed men controlled by the president, the Rurales . Díaz was averse to being dependent on the Mexican army, since as a general and leader of a coup d'état himself, he knew their potential for intervening in national politics. Díaz coopted or crushed regional opposition to his regime, creating a political machine to forward his vision of modern Mexico. Desirous of economic development that necessitated foreign investment, Díaz sought capital and expertise from European powers (Britain, France, and Germany) to offset

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