Caphtor ( Hebrew : כַּפְתּוֹר Kaftōr ) is a locality mentioned in the Bible , in which its people are called Caphtorites or Caphtorim and are named as a division of the ancient Egyptians. Caphtor is also mentioned in ancient inscriptions from Egypt , Mari , and Ugarit .
142-817: According to the Bible, Caphtor is the original homeland of the Philistines. They are reported to have eradicated the Avvim prior to settling in Gaza. Genealogically, the Philistines are categorized as descendants of the Caphtorites within the table of nations. The Book of Jeremiah suggests that Caphtor is an island ("the isle of Caphtor"), but the term might alternatively refer to a seashore. Traditionally, Caphtor has been linked to Crete and associated with Egyptian Keftiu or Akkadian Kaptara . Jewish sources placed Caphtor in
284-411: A European Union study has been devised to promote a modern highway to connect the northern and southern parts of the island via a tunnel . The study proposal includes a 15.7 km (9.8 mi) section of road between the villages of Agia Varvara and Agia Deka in central Crete. The new road section forms part of the route between Messara in the south and Crete's largest city Heraklion , which houses
426-658: A Greek polis founded by Alexander, became the capital city and a major center of Greek culture, learning, and trade for the next several centuries. Following the Syrian Wars with the Seleucid Empire , a rival Hellenistic state, the Ptolemaic Kingdom expanded its territory to include eastern Libya , the Sinai , and northern Nubia . To legitimize their rule and gain recognition from native Egyptians,
568-408: A Ptolemaic queen deified Arsinoe II as Hera. Coins from this period also show Arsinoe II with a diadem that is solely worn by goddesses and deified royal women. The Statuette of Arsinoe II was created c. 150–100 BC, well after her death, as a part of her own specific posthumous cult which was started by her husband Ptolemy II. The figure also exemplifies the fusing of Greek and Egyptian art. Although
710-761: A Roman woman). Their union produced three children; the twins Cleopatra Selene and Alexander Helios , and another son, Ptolemy Philadelphos . Mark Antony's alliance with Cleopatra angered Rome even more. Branded a power-hungry enchantress by the Romans, she was accused of seducing Antony to further her conquest of Rome. Further outrage followed at the donations of Alexandria ceremony in autumn of 34 BC in which Tarsus , Cyrene , Crete , Cyprus , and Judaea were all to be given as client monarchies to Antony's children by Cleopatra. In his will Antony expressed his desire to be buried in Alexandria, rather than taken to Rome in
852-570: A coastline of 1,046 km (650 mi). It bounds the southern border of the Aegean Sea , with the Sea of Crete (or North Cretan Sea) to the north and the Libyan Sea (or South Cretan Sea) to the south. Crete covers 260 km from west to east but is narrow from north to south, spanning three longitudes but only half a latitude. Crete and a number of islands and islets that surround it constitute
994-832: A coastline of 1,046 km (650 mi); to the north, it broaches the Sea of Crete (Greek: Κρητικό Πέλαγος ); to the south, the Libyan Sea (Greek: Λιβυκό Πέλαγος ); in the west, the Myrtoan Sea , and toward the east the Carpathian Sea. It lies approximately 160 km (99 mi) south of the Greek mainland. There are a number of peninsulas and gulfs on the north side of Crete, from west to east these include: Gramvousa peninsula, gulf of Kissamos, Rodopos peninsula, gulf of Chania , Akrotiri peninsula, Souda Bay , Apokoronas cape, gulf of Almiros , gulf of Heraklion , Aforesmenos cape, gulf of Mirabello , gulf of Sitia and
1136-480: A continuation of developments based on Egyptian art tradition from the Thirtieth Dynasty . Such behavior expanded the rulers' social and political capital and demonstrated their loyalty toward Egyptian deities, to the satisfaction of the local people. Temples remained very New Kingdom and Late Period Egyptian in style though resources were oftentimes provided by foreign powers. Temples were models of
1278-671: A long but minor presence in Egypt long before Alexander the Great founded the city of Alexandria. It began when Greek colonists, encouraged by many Pharaohs, set up the trading post of Naucratis . As Egypt came under foreign domination and decline, the Pharaohs depended on the Greeks as mercenaries and even advisors. When the Persians took over Egypt, Naucratis remained an important Greek port and
1420-409: A man from Caphtor ( a-na Kap-ta-ra-i-im ) who received tin from Mari . Another Mari text from the same period mentions a Caphtorite weapon ( kakku Kap-ta-ru-ú ). Another records a Caphtorite object ( ka-ta-pu-um Kap-ta-ru-ú ) which had been sent by king Zimrilim of the same period, to king Shariya of Razama . A text in connection with Hammurabi mentions Caphtorite ( k[a-a]p-ta-ri-tum ) fabric that
1562-614: A new airport at Kasteli , where there is presently an air force base, and the new Kasteli Airport is due to open by 2027. The island is well served by ferries, mostly from Piraeus , by ferry companies such as Minoan Lines and ANEK Lines with links to the Cyclades and Dodecanese islands. Seajets also operates routes to Cyclades . The main ports from west to east are at Kissamos (ferry link to Peloponnese), Souda (Chania), Rethymno , Heraklion (links to Cyclades), Agios Nikolaos and Sitia (link to Dodecanese). Most of Crete
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#17327731650771704-451: A palace built by Caesar in their honor. In 44 BC, Caesar was murdered in Rome by several Senators . With his death, Rome split between supporters of Mark Antony and Octavian . When Mark Antony seemed to prevail, Cleopatra supported him and, shortly after, they too became lovers and eventually married in Egypt (though their marriage was never recognized by Roman law, as Antony was married to
1846-679: A practice that, while pleasing to the Egyptian population, had serious consequences in later reigns. The material and literary splendour of the Alexandrian court was at its height under Ptolemy II. Callimachus , keeper of the Library of Alexandria , Theocritus , and a host of other poets, glorified the Ptolemaic family. Ptolemy himself was eager to increase the library and to patronise scientific research. He spent lavishly on making Alexandria
1988-403: A puppet king. Philometor's younger brother (later Ptolemy VIII Physcon ) was installed as king by the Ptolemaic court in Alexandria. When Antiochus withdrew, the brothers agreed to reign jointly with their sister Cleopatra II . They soon fell out, however, and quarrels between the two brothers allowed Rome to interfere and to steadily increase its influence in Egypt. Philometor eventually regained
2130-536: A range from idealistic to realistic. An example of realistic portrayal is the Berlin Green Head, which shows the non-idealistic facial features with vertical lines above the bridge of the nose, lines at the corners of the eyes and between the nose and the mouth. The influence of Greek art was shown in an emphasis on the face that was not previously present in Egyptian art and incorporation of Greek elements into an Egyptian setting: individualistic hairstyles,
2272-482: A research centre located in the royal sector of the city. Its scholars were housed in the same sector and funded by Ptolemaic rulers. The chief librarian served also as the crown prince's tutor. For the first hundred and fifty years of its existence, the library drew the top Greek scholars from all over the Hellenistic world. It was a key academic, literary and scientific centre in antiquity. Greek culture had
2414-461: A series of civil wars and feuds between the members of the Ptolemaic dynasty started and lasted for over a century. Philometor was succeeded by yet another infant, his son Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator . But Physcon soon returned, killed his young nephew, seized the throne and as Ptolemy VIII soon proved himself a cruel tyrant. On his death in 116 BC he left the kingdom to his wife Cleopatra III and her son Ptolemy IX Philometor Soter II . The young king
2556-472: A statue during the reign of Amenhotep III includes the name kftı͗w in a list of Mediterranean ship stops prior to several Cretan cities such as Kydonia , Phaistos , and Amnisos , showing that the term clearly refers to the Aegean. Crete Crete ( / k r iː t / KREET ; Greek : Κρήτη , Modern : Kríti [ˈkriti] , Ancient : Krḗtē [krɛ̌ːtεː] )
2698-479: A typical Egyptian Pharaoh and actively supported the Egyptian priestly elite through donations and temple construction. Ptolemy III had introduced an important innovation in 238 BC by holding a synod of all the priests of Egypt at Canopus . Ptolemy IV continued this tradition by holding his own synod at Memphis in 217 BC, after the victory celebrations of the Fourth Syrian War. The result of this synod
2840-624: Is also located in Heraklion. The earliest references to the island of Crete come from texts from the Syrian city of Mari dating from the 18th century BC, where the island is referred to as Kaptara . This is repeated later in Neo-Assyrian records and the Bible ( Caphtor ). It was known in ancient Egyptian as Keftiu or kftı͗w , strongly suggesting a similar Minoan name for
2982-573: Is fairly mild. Snowfall is common on the mountains between November and May, but rare in the low-lying areas. The south coast, including the Mesara Plain and Asterousia Mountains , falls in the North African climatic zone, enjoying significantly more sunny days and high temperatures throughout the year. There, date palms bear fruit, and swallows remain year-round rather than migrate to Africa . The fertile region around Ierapetra , on
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#17327731650773124-515: Is made of Cleopatra and Antony's sons in the known historical texts of that time, but their daughter Cleopatra Selene was eventually married through arrangement by Octavian into the Mauretanian royal line, one of Rome's many client monarchies. Through Cleopatra Selene's offspring the Ptolemaic line intermarried back into the Roman nobility for centuries. With the deaths of Cleopatra and Caesarion,
3266-493: Is not widely accepted, as his evidence shows at most a cultural exchange between Keftiu and Anatolia without pinpointing its location on the Mediterranean coast. In 1980 J. Strange drew together a comprehensive collection of documents that mentioned Caphtor or Keftiu . He writes that crucial texts dissociate Keftiu from "the islands in the middle of the sea", by which Egyptian scribes denoted Crete. The stone base of
3408-425: Is one of the few Greek islands that can support itself without a tourism industry. The economy began to change visibly during the 1970s as tourism gained in importance. Although an emphasis remains on agriculture and stock breeding, because of the climate and terrain of the island, there has been a drop in manufacturing, and an observable expansion in its service industries (mainly tourism-related). All three sectors of
3550-431: Is regarded as a reference to Caphtor. The reference to k-p-t-ȝ-r should not be confused with other inscriptions at the temple and from earlier sites mentioning a locality called Keftiu listed amongst lands to the northeast of Egypt and having different spelling and pronunciation, although it has been conjectured by some scholars that this is also a reference to Caphtor. Attempts to identify Caphtor with Keftiu go back to
3692-484: Is separated from other scenes by two vertical columns of texts. The figures in the scenes are smooth, rounded, and high relief, a style continued throughout the 30th Dynasty. The relief represents the interaction between the Ptolemaic kings and the Egyptian deities, which legitimized their rule in Egypt . In Ptolemaic art, the idealism seen in the art of previous dynasties continues, with some alterations. Women are portrayed as more youthful, and men begin to be portrayed in
3834-452: Is served by the road network. A modern highway is currently being upgraded along the north coast connecting the four major cities ( A90 motorway ), the sections bypassing the main cities (Heraklion to Malia, Rethymno, Chania to Kolymvari) are at motorway standard, while the sections in between, and west to Kissamos and east to Sitia, should be completed by 2028. A link will also connect to the new Kasteli international airport . In addition,
3976-647: Is the Linear B archive from Knossos, dated approximately to 1425–1375 BC. After the Bronze Age collapse , Crete was settled by new waves of Greeks from the mainland. A number of city states developed in the Archaic period . There was limited contact with mainland Greece, and Greek historiography shows little interest in Crete, as a result, there are few literary sources. During the 6th to 4th centuries BC, Crete
4118-585: Is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands , the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea , after Sicily , Sardinia , Cyprus , and Corsica . Crete is located about 100 km (62 mi) south of the Peloponnese , and about 300 km (190 mi) southwest of Anatolia . Crete has an area of 8,450 km (3,260 sq mi) and
4260-551: Is the true Egyptian form. Sayce had however already argued in the 19th century that the names in the text in which k-p-t-ȝ-r occurs were not transliterations of the Semitic forms. Other scholars have disagreed over whether this can be said for the occurrence of k-p-t-ȝ-r . The equation of Keftiu with Caphtor commonly features in interpretations that equate Caphtor with Crete, Cyprus, or a locality in Anatolia. Jean Vercoutter in
4402-767: Is to expropriate 850 ha (2,100 acres) of land. The port would handle two million containers per year, but the project has not been universally welcomed because of its environmental, economic and cultural impact. As of January 2013, the project has still not been confirmed, although there is mounting pressure to approve it, arising from Greece's difficult economic situation. There are plans for underwater cables going from mainland Greece to Israel and Egypt passing by Crete and Cyprus: EuroAfrica Interconnector and EuroAsia Interconnector . They would connect Crete electrically with mainland Greece, ending energy isolation of Crete. At present Greece covers electricity cost differences for Crete of around €300 million per year. In
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4544-461: Is unknown. One proposal derives it from a hypothetical Luwian word * kursatta (compare kursawar 'island', kursattar 'cutting, sliver'). Another proposal suggests that it derives from the ancient Greek word "κραταιή" (krataie̅) , meaning strong or powerful, the reasoning being that Crete was the strongest thalassocracy during ancient times. In Latin , the name of the island became Creta . The original Arabic name of Crete
4686-576: The Akkadian cuneiform signs KUR.DUGUD.RI . KUR is a determinative indicating a country, while one possible reading of the sign DUGUD is kabtu , whence the name of the place would be Kabturi , which resembles Caphtor. Within Ugaritic inscriptions from the Amarna period, k-p-t-r is mentioned and understood to be Caphtor: A poem uses k-p-t-r as a parallel for Egypt ( H-k-p-t ) naming it as
4828-632: The Crete Region ( Greek : Περιφέρεια Κρήτης , Periféria Krítis , [periˈferia ˈkritis] ), one of the 13 regions of Greece which were established in the 1987 administrative reform. Under the 2010 Kallikratis plan , the powers and authority of the regions were redefined and extended. The region is based at Heraklion and is divided into four regional units (pre-Kallikratis prefectures ). From west to east these are: Chania , Rethymno , Heraklion , and Lasithi . These are further subdivided into 24 municipalities . Since 1 January 2011,
4970-582: The Mediterranean , and Minoan cultural influence extended to Cyprus , Canaan , and Egypt . Some scholars have speculated that legends such as that of the minotaur have a historical basis in Minoan times. In 1420 BC, the Minoan civilization was subsumed by the Mycenaean civilization from mainland Greece. The oldest samples of writing in the Greek language, as identified by Michael Ventris ,
5112-601: The Musaeum was supplemented by a second library built in the Serapeum . He was said to have had every book unloaded in the Alexandria docks seized and copied, returning the copies to their owners and keeping the originals for the Library. It is said that he borrowed the official manuscripts of Aeschylus , Sophocles , and Euripides from Athens and forfeited the considerable deposit he paid for them in order to keep them for
5254-642: The Ottoman Empire . In 1898 Crete, whose people had for some time wanted to join the Greek state, achieved independence from the Ottomans, formally becoming the Cretan State . Crete became part of Greece in December 1913. The island is mostly mountainous, and its character is defined by a high mountain range crossing from west to east. It includes Crete's highest point, Mount Ida , and the range of
5396-673: The Rhodians opposed the rise of Macedon and the Romans started to interfere in Cretan affairs. History of Ptolemaic Egypt The Ptolemaic Kingdom ( / ˌ t ɒ l ɪ ˈ m eɪ . ɪ k / ; Koinē Greek : Πτολεμαϊκὴ βασιλεία , romanized: Ptolemaïkḕ basileía ) or Ptolemaic Empire was an Ancient Greek polity based in Egypt during the Hellenistic period . It
5538-470: The Roman Senate . The main Roman interest in Egypt was always the reliable delivery of grain to the city of Rome. To this end the Roman administration made no change to the Ptolemaic system of government, although Romans replaced Greeks in the highest offices. But Greeks continued to staff most of the administrative offices and Greek remained the language of government except at the highest levels. Unlike
5680-460: The Seleucid Empire when his sister, Queen Berenice , and her son were murdered in a dynastic dispute. Ptolemy marched into the heart of the Seleucid realm, as far as Babylonia , while his fleets in the Aegean Sea made fresh conquests as far north as Thrace . This victory marked the zenith of the Ptolemaic power. Seleucus II Callinicus kept his throne, but Egyptian fleets controlled most of
5822-515: The Sideros peninsula. On the south side of Crete is the gulf of Messaras and Cape Lithinon . Crete is mountainous, and its character is defined by a high mountain range crossing from west to east, formed by six different groups of mountains: These mountains lavish Crete with valleys, such as Amari valley , fertile plateaus, such as Lasithi plateau , Omalos and Nidha ; caves, such as Gourgouthakas , Diktaion , and Idaion (the birthplace of
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5964-657: The White Mountains (Lefka Ori) with 30 summits above 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) in altitude and the Samaria Gorge , a World Biosphere Reserve . Crete forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece, while retaining its own local cultural traits (such as its own poetry and music ). The Nikos Kazantzakis airport at Heraklion and the Daskalogiannis airport at Chania serve international travelers. The Minoan palace at Knossos
6106-442: The battle of Panium in 200 BC transferred Coele-Syria from Ptolemaic to Seleucid control. After this defeat Egypt formed an alliance with the rising power in the Mediterranean, Rome . Once he reached adulthood Epiphanes became a tyrant, before his early death in 180 BC. He was succeeded by his infant son Ptolemy VI Philometor . In 170 BC, Antiochus IV Epiphanes invaded Egypt and captured Philometor, installing him at Memphis as
6248-419: The south and east have a hot semi-arid climate ( Köppen climate classification : BSh ). The higher elevations fall into the warm-summer Mediterranean climate category ( Csb ) while the mountain peaks (>2,000 meters) might feature a cold-summer Mediterranean climate ( Csc ) or a continental climate ( Dfb or Dfc ). The atmosphere can be quite humid, depending on the proximity to the sea, while winter
6390-459: The 1950s had argued, based on an inscription of the tomb of Rekhmire that Keftiu could not be set apart from the "islands of the sea" which he identified as a reference to the Aegean Sea . However in 2003, Claude Vandersleyen pointed out that the term wedj wer (literally "great green") which Vercoutter had translated "the sea" actually refers to the vegetation growing on the banks of the Nile and in
6532-400: The 19th century and argue that r changed to y in the Egyptian language. However the name k-p-t-ȝ-r more closely resembling "Caphtor" is from the (late) Ptolemaic era and still has the "r" and references to "Keftiu" occur separately at the same site. Those arguing for the identification suggest that k-p-t-ȝ-r is an Egyptian transliteration of the Semitic form of the name and that "Keftiu"
6674-460: The Cretan economy (agriculture/farming, processing-packaging, services), are directly connected and interdependent. The island has a per capita income much higher than the Greek average, whereas unemployment is at approximately 4%, one-sixth of that of the country overall. As in many regions of Greece, viticulture and olive groves are significant; oranges , citrons and avocadoes are also cultivated. Until recently there were restrictions on
6816-422: The Egyptian custom of marrying their sisters, with many of their line ruling jointly with their spouses, who were also of the royal house. This custom made Ptolemaic politics confusingly incestuous, and the later Ptolemies were increasingly feeble. The only basilissa - regnant or female Pharaohs to officially rule on their own were Cleopatra II , Berenice III and Berenice IV . Cleopatra V did co-rule, but it
6958-626: The Egyptian or the Hellenistic style, but over time, these characteristics began to combine. The continuation of the Egyptian art style evidences the Ptolemies' commitment to maintaining Egyptian customs. This strategy not only helped to legitimize their rule, but also placated the general population. Greek-style art was also created during this time and existed in parallel to the more traditional Egyptian art, which could not be altered significantly without changing its intrinsic, primarily-religious function. Art found outside of Egypt itself, though within
7100-432: The Egyptian people and recognized the importance of their religion and traditions. During the reign of Ptolemies II and III, thousands of Macedonian veterans were rewarded with grants of farm lands, and Macedonians were planted in colonies and garrisons or settled themselves in villages throughout the country. Upper Egypt , farthest from the centre of government, was less immediately affected, even though Ptolemy I established
7242-607: The Egyptian peoples whose cities were destroyed during the Ethiopic War . Tradition regarding the location of Caphtor was preserved in the Aramaic Targums and in the commentary of Maimonides which place it at Caphutkia in the vicinity of Damietta (at the eastern edge of the Nile delta near classical Pelusium ). This view is supported by the tenth century biblical exegete Saadia Gaon , and by Benjamin of Tudela ,
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#17327731650777384-553: The Egyptians by the respect he showed for their religion , but he appointed Macedonians to virtually all the senior posts in the country, and founded a new Greek city, Alexandria , to be the new capital. The wealth of Egypt could now be harnessed for Alexander's conquest of the rest of the Achaemenid Empire. Early in 331 BC he was ready to depart, and led his forces away to Phoenicia . He left Cleomenes of Naucratis as
7526-586: The Great conquered Persian-controlled Egypt in 332 BC during his campaigns against the Achaemenid Empire . His death in 323 BC was followed by rapid unraveling of the Macedonian Empire amid competing claims by the diadochi , his closest friends and companions. Ptolemy, a Macedonian who was one of Alexander's most trusted generals and confidants, won control of Egypt from his rivals and declared himself its ruler. Alexandria ,
7668-507: The Greek colony of Ptolemais Hermiou to be its capital. But within a century, Greek influence had spread through the country and intermarriage had produced a large Greco-Egyptian educated class. Nevertheless, the Greeks always remained a privileged minority in Ptolemaic Egypt. They lived under Greek law, received a Greek education, were tried in Greek courts, and were citizens of Greek cities. The first part of Ptolemy I 's reign
7810-475: The Greeks, the Romans did not settle in Egypt in large numbers. Culture, education and civic life largely remained Greek throughout the Roman period. The Romans, like the Ptolemies, respected and protected Egyptian religion and customs, although the cult of the Roman state and of the Emperor was gradually introduced. Ptolemy I, perhaps with advice from Demetrius of Phalerum , founded the Library of Alexandria ,
7952-525: The Hellenistic Greek ideology of the victorious king and his ruler cult. Misrule by the Pharaoh in Alexandria led to a nearly successful revolt, led by a priest named Hugronaphor . He proclaimed himself Pharaoh in 205 BC, and ruled upper Egypt until his death in 199 BC. He was succeeded by his son Ankhmakis , whose forces nearly drove the Ptolemies out of the country. The revolutionary dynasty
8094-551: The Jews i.vi.2, which placed them explicitly in Egypt and the Sefer haYashar 10 which describes them living by the Nile. A migration of the Philistines from Caphtor is mentioned in the Book of Amos ( Amos 9:7 ). Josephus, ( Jewish Antiquities I, vi) using extra-Biblical accounts, provides context for the migration from Caphtor to Philistia. He records that the Caphtorites were one of
8236-426: The Library rather than returning them. The most distinguished scholar at Ptolemy III's court was the polymath and geographer Eratosthenes , most noted for his remarkably accurate calculation of the circumference of the world . Other prominent scholars include the mathematicians Conon of Samos and Apollonius of Perge . Ptolemy III financed construction projects at temples across Egypt. The most significant of these
8378-588: The Nile Delta, and that the text places Keftiu in the Nile Delta. This issue is not settled though. In Caphtor / Keftiu: a New Investigation, John Strange argues that the late geographical lists referenced in the preceding paragraph cannot be taken at face value, as they appear to be "random" collections of antique place names, and contain other corruptions and duplicates. The Targums translate Caphtor into Aramaic as Kaputkai , Kapudka or similar i.e. Caphutkia explained by Maimonides as being Damietta on
8520-444: The Nile while attempting to flee with his remaining army. In the summer of 47 BC, having married her younger brother Ptolemy XIV , Cleopatra embarked with Caesar for a two-month trip along the Nile. Together, they visited Dendara , where Cleopatra was being worshiped as pharaoh, an honor beyond Caesar's reach. They became lovers and had a son, Caesarion . In 45 BC, Cleopatra and Caesarion left Alexandria for Rome, where they stayed in
8662-509: The Ptolemaic Kingdom, sometimes used Egyptian iconography as it had been used previously, and sometimes adapted it. For example, the faience sistrum inscribed with the name of Ptolemy has some deceptively Greek characteristics, such as the scrolls at the top. However, there are many examples of nearly identical sistrums and columns dating all the way to Dynasty 18 in the New Kingdom. It is, therefore, purely Egyptian in style. Aside from
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#17327731650778804-404: The Ptolemaic claim to rule the whole of Nubia. The aforementioned inscription regarding the priests of Mandulis shows that some Nubian leaders at least were paying tribute to the Ptolemaic treasury in this period. In order to secure the region, the strategos of Upper Egypt, Boethus , founded two new cities, named Philometris and Cleopatra in honour of the royal couple. After Ptolemy VI's death
8946-465: The Ptolemaic empire. During the reign of Ptolemy II, Arsinoe II was deified either as stand-alone goddesses or as a personification of another divine figure and given their own sanctuaries and festivals in association to both Egyptian and Hellenistic gods (such as Isis of Egypt and Hera of Greece). For example, Head Attributed to Arsinoe II deified her as an Egyptian goddess. However, the Marble head of
9088-649: The Ptolemies adopted the local title of pharaoh , alongside the Greek title of basileus , and had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress; however, the monarchy otherwise rigorously maintained its Hellenistic character and traditions. The kingdom had a complex government bureaucracy that exploited the country's vast economic resources to the benefit of a Greek ruling class, which dominated military, political, and economic affairs, and which rarely integrated into Egyptian society and culture. Native Egyptians maintained power over local and religious institutions, and only gradually accrued power in
9230-457: The Region of Crete (Greek: Περιφέρεια Κρήτης ), which is the southernmost of the 13 top-level administrative units of Greece , and the fifth most populous of Greece's regions. Its capital and largest city is Heraklion , on the north shore of the island. As of 2021 , the region had a population of 624,408. The Dodecanese are located to the northeast of Crete, while the Cyclades are situated to
9372-479: The Romans in order to regain and secure his throne following the rebellion and brief coup led by his older daughters, Tryphaena and Berenice IV . Both daughters were killed in Auletes' reclaiming of his throne; Tryphaena by assassination and Berenice by execution, leaving Cleopatra VII as the oldest surviving child of Ptolemy Auletes. Traditionally, Ptolemaic royal siblings were married to one another on ascension to
9514-412: The ancient Greek god Zeus ); and a number of gorges. The mountains have been seen as a key feature of the island's distinctiveness, especially since the time of Romantic travellers' writing. Contemporary Cretans distinguish between highlanders and lowlanders; the former often claim to reside in places affording a higher/better climatic and moral environment. In keeping with the legacy of Romantic authors,
9656-423: The astronomer Aristarchus . Ptolemy is thought to have commissioned Manetho to compose his Aegyptiaca , an account of Egyptian history, perhaps intended to make Egyptian culture intelligible to its new rulers. Ptolemy's first wife, Arsinoe I , daughter of Lysimachus , was the mother of his legitimate children. After her repudiation he followed Egyptian custom and married his sister , Arsinoe II , beginning
9798-467: The attacks of Antiochus III the Great on Coele-Syria, and the great Egyptian victory of Raphia in 217 BC secured the kingdom. A sign of the domestic weakness of his reign was the rebellions by native Egyptians that took away over half the country for over 20 years. Philopator was devoted to orgiastic religions and to literature. He married his sister Arsinoë , but was ruled by his mistress Agathoclea. Like his predecessors, Ptolemy IV presented himself as
9940-400: The backpillar and the goddess's striding pose is distinctively Egyptian, the cornucopia she holds and her hairstyle are both Greek in style. The rounded eyes, prominent lips, and overall youthful features show Greek influence as well. Despite the unification of Greek and Egyptian elements in the intermediate Ptolemaic period, the Ptolemaic Kingdom also featured prominent temple construction as
10082-519: The bureaucracy, provided they Hellenized . Beginning with Ptolemy I's son and successor, Ptolemy II Philadelphus , the Ptolemies began to adopt Egyptian customs, such as marrying their siblings per the Osiris myth and participating in Egyptian religious life . New temples were built, older ones restored, and royal patronage lavished on the priesthood. From the mid third century BC, Ptolemaic Egypt
10224-562: The city. Facing certain death at the hands of Octavian , Antony attempted suicide by falling on his own sword, but survived briefly. He was taken by his remaining soldiers to Cleopatra, who had barricaded herself in her mausoleum, where he died soon after. Knowing that she would be taken to Rome to be paraded in Octavian's triumph (and likely executed thereafter), Cleopatra and her handmaidens committed suicide on 12 August 30 BC. Legend and numerous ancient sources claim that she died by way of
10366-423: The coalition against him. In 312 BC, allied with Seleucus , the ruler of Babylonia , he defeated Demetrius , the son of Antigonus, in the battle of Gaza . In 311 BC, a peace was concluded between the combatants, but in 309 BC war broke out again, and Ptolemy occupied Corinth and other parts of Greece, although he lost Cyprus after a naval battle in 306 BC. Antigonus then tried to invade Egypt but Ptolemy held
10508-638: The coast, at Aghios Nikolaos, was formerly a freshwater lake but is now connected to the sea, in Lasithi . Three artificial lakes created by dams also exist in Crete: the lake of Aposelemis Dam , the lake of Potamos Dam, and the lake of Mpramiana Dam. Download coordinates as: Download coordinates as: A large number of islands, islets , and rocks hug the coast of Crete. Many are visited by tourists, some are only visited by archaeologists and biologists . Some are environmentally protected . A small sample of
10650-565: The coastland of Egypt. Referencing Katpatuka, the Septuagint translated the name as "Kappadokias" and the Vulgate similarly renders it as "Cappadocia". The seventeenth-century scholar Samuel Bochart understood this as a reference to Cappadocia in Anatolia but John Gill writes that these translations relate to Caphutkia. From the 18th century onwards commentators attempted several identifications of Caphtor which increasingly disregarded
10792-510: The coasts of Anatolia and Greece. After this triumph Ptolemy no longer engaged actively in war, although he supported the enemies of Macedon in Greek politics. His domestic policy differed from his father's in that he patronised the native Egyptian religion more liberally: he left larger traces among the Egyptian monuments. In this his reign marks the gradual Egyptianisation of the Ptolemies. Ptolemy III continued his predecessor's sponsorship of scholarship and literature. The Great Library in
10934-581: The colonist population were used as mercenaries by both the rebel Egyptian princes and the Persian kings, who later gave them land grants, spreading Greek culture into the valley of the Nile. When Alexander the Great arrived, he established Alexandria on the site of the Persian fort of Rhakortis. Following Alexander's death, control passed into the hands of the Lagid (Ptolemaic) Dynasty; they built Greek cities across their empire and gave land grants across Egypt to
11076-547: The cosmic world with basic plans retaining the pylon, open court, hypostyle halls , and dark and centrally located sanctuary. However, ways of presenting text on columns and reliefs became formal and rigid during the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Scenes were often framed with textual inscriptions, with a higher text to image ratio than seen previously during the New Kingdom . For example, a relief in the temple of Kom Ombo
11218-447: The country became a de facto protectorate of Rome, which had by now absorbed most of the Greek world. Ptolemy XI was succeeded by a son of Ptolemy IX, Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos , nicknamed Auletes, the flute-player. By now Rome was the arbiter of Egyptian affairs, and annexed both Libya and Cyprus . In 58 BC Auletes was driven out by the Alexandrian mob, but the Romans restored him to power three years later. He died in 51 BC, leaving
11360-476: The death of their father, Cleopatra VII and her younger brother Ptolemy XIII inherited the throne and were married. Their marriage was only nominal, however, and their relationship soon degenerated. Cleopatra was stripped of authority and title by Ptolemy XIII's advisors, who held considerable influence over the young king. Fleeing into exile, Cleopatra attempted to raise an army to reclaim the throne. Julius Caesar left Rome for Alexandria in 48 BC in order to quell
11502-541: The discovery of a wealth of papyri and ostraca written in Koine Greek and Egyptian . In 332 BC, Alexander the Great , King of Macedon , conquered Egypt, which at the time was a satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire later called Egypt's Thirty-first Dynasty . He visited Memphis , and travelled to the oracle of Amun at the Siwa Oasis . The oracle declared him to be the son of Amun. Alexander conciliated
11644-622: The dynasty of Ptolemies and the entirety of pharaonic Egypt came to an end. Alexandria remained the capital of the country, but Egypt itself became a Roman province. Octavian became the sole ruler of Rome and began converting it into a monarchy, the Roman Empire . Under Roman rule, Egypt was governed by a prefect selected by the emperor from the Equestrian class and not a governor from the Senatorial order, to prevent interference by
11786-534: The economic, artistic and intellectual capital of the Hellenistic world. The academies and libraries of Alexandria proved vital in preserving much Greek literary heritage. Ptolemy III Euergetes ("the Benefactor") succeeded his father in 246 BC. He abandoned his predecessors' policy of keeping out of the wars of the other Macedonian successor kingdoms, and began the Third Syrian War (246–241 BC) with
11928-652: The end of his reign as a result of the Second Syrian War . In the 270s BC, Ptolemy II defeated the Kingdom of Kush in war, gaining the Ptolemies free access to Kushite territory and control of important gold deposits south of Egypt known as Dodekasoinos. As a result, the Ptolemies established hunting stations and ports as far south as Port Sudan , from where raiding parties containing hundreds of men searched for war elephants. Hellenistic culture would acquire an important influence on Kush at this time. Ptolemy II
12070-489: The event of his death, which Octavian used against Antony, sowing further dissent in the Roman populace. Octavian was quick to declare war on Antony and Cleopatra while public opinion of Antony was low. Their naval forces met at Actium , where the forces of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa defeated the navy of Cleopatra and Antony. Octavian waited for a year before he claimed Egypt as a Roman province. He arrived in Alexandria and easily defeated Mark Antony's remaining forces outside
12212-487: The forces of disorder led by the god Set . In return, the priests undertook to erect a statue group in each of their temples, depicting the god of the temple presenting a sword of victory to Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe III. A five-day festival was inaugurated in honour of the Theoi Philopatores and their victory. The decree thus seems to represent a successful marriage of Egyptian Pharaonic ideology and religion with
12354-473: The frontier against him. When the coalition was renewed against Antigonus in 302 BC, Ptolemy joined it, but neither he nor his army were present when Antigonus was defeated and killed at Ipsus . He had instead taken the opportunity to secure Coele-Syria and Palestine, in breach of the agreement assigning it to Seleucus, thereby setting the scene for the future Syrian Wars . Thereafter Ptolemy tried to stay out of land wars, but he retook Cyprus in 295 BC. Feeling
12496-547: The growing dominance of the Roman Republic . With one empire after another falling to Macedon and the Seleucid empire, the Ptolemies had had little choice but to ally with the Romans, a pact that lasted over 150 years. By Ptolemy XII's time, Rome had achieved a massive amount of influence over Egyptian politics and finances to the point that he declared the Roman senate the guardian of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. He had paid vast sums of Egyptian wealth and resources in tribute to
12638-632: The home of the god Kothar-wa-Khasis the Ugaritic equivalent of the Egyptian god Ptah . Prior to the discovery of the reference to H-k-p-t scholars had already considered the possibility of iy Caphtor found in Jeremiah being the Semitic cognate of "Egypt". The name k-p-t-ȝ-r is found written in hieroglyphics in a list of locations in the Ptolemaic temple of Kom Ombo in Upper Egypt and
12780-494: The import of bananas to Greece, therefore bananas were grown on the island, predominantly in greenhouses. Dairy products are important to the local economy and there are a number of specialty cheeses such as mizithra , anthotyros , and kefalotyri . 20% of Greek wine is produced in Crete, mostly in the region of Peza. The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was €9.4 billion in 2018, accounting for 5.1% of Greek economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power
12922-400: The island's biggest airport and ferry links with mainland Greece . Also, during the 1930s there was a narrow-gauge industrial railway in Heraklion, from Giofyros in the west side of the city to the port. There are now no railway lines on Crete. The government is planning the construction of a line from Chania to Heraklion via Rethymno. The construction sector in Crete responded well during
13064-645: The island. The current name Crete is first attested in the 15th century BC in Mycenaean Greek texts, written in Linear B , through the words ke-re-te 𐀐𐀩𐀳 , * Krētes ; later Greek: Κρῆτες [krɛː.tes] , plural of Κρής [krɛːs] ) and ke-re-si-jo 𐀐𐀩𐀯𐀍 , * Krēsijos ; later Greek: Κρήσιος [krέːsios] , 'Cretian'). In Ancient Greek , the name Crete ( Κρήτη ) first appears in Homer 's Odyssey . Its etymology
13206-407: The islands includes: Off the south coast, the island of Gavdos is located 26 nautical miles (48 km) south of Hora Sfakion and is the southernmost point of Europe . Crete straddles two climatic zones, the Mediterranean and the semi-arid climate , mainly falling within the former. As such, the climate in Crete is primarily a hot-summer Mediterranean ( Csa ) climate while some areas in
13348-433: The kingdom to his ten-year-old son and seventeen-year-old daughter, Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator and Cleopatra VII , who reigned jointly as husband and wife. Cleopatra VII ascended the Egyptian throne on 22 March 51 BC upon the death of her father, Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos. She reigned as queen "philopator" and pharaoh with various male co-regents from 51 to 30 BC. The demise of the Ptolemies' power coincided with
13490-464: The kingdom was now secure, Ptolemy shared rule with his son Ptolemy II by Queen Berenice in 285 BC. He then may have devoted his retirement to writing a history of the campaigns of Alexander—which unfortunately was lost but was a principal source for the later work of Arrian . Ptolemy I died in 283 BC at the age of 84. He left a stable and well-governed kingdom to his son. Ptolemy II Philadelphus , who succeeded his father as pharaoh of Egypt in 283 BC,
13632-479: The last independent Hellenistic state . Roman Egypt became one of Rome's richest provinces and a center of Greek culture. Greek remained the language of government and trade until the Muslim conquest in 641 AD. Alexandria remained one of the leading cities of the Mediterranean well into the late Middle Ages . The Ptolemaic reign in Egypt is one of the best-documented time periods of the Hellenistic era , due to
13774-696: The later Neolithic and Bronze Age periods, under the Minoans, Crete had a highly developed, literate civilization. It has been ruled by various ancient Greek entities, the Roman Empire , the Byzantine Empire , the Emirate of Crete , the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire . After a brief period of independence (1897–1913) under a provisional Cretan government, it joined the Kingdom of Greece. It
13916-399: The looming civil war, as war in Egypt, which was one of Rome's greatest suppliers of grain and other expensive goods, would have had a detrimental effect on trade with Rome, especially on Rome's working-class citizens. During his stay in the Alexandrian palace, he received 22-year-old Cleopatra, allegedly carried to him in secret wrapped in a carpet. Caesar agreed to support Cleopatra's claim to
14058-449: The mountains are seen as having determined their residents' 'resistance' to past invaders which relates to the oft-encountered idea that highlanders are 'purer' in terms of less intermarriages with occupiers. For residents of mountainous areas, such as Sfakia in western Crete, the aridness and rockiness of the mountains is emphasised as an element of pride and is often compared to the alleged soft-soiled mountains of others parts of Greece or
14200-407: The name of the king, there are other features that specifically date this to the Ptolemaic period. Most distinctively is the color of the faience. Apple green, deep blue, and lavender-blue are the three colors most frequently used during this period, a shift from the characteristic blue of the earlier kingdoms. This sistrum appears to be an intermediate hue, which fits with its date at the beginning of
14342-530: The north, separated by the Sea of Crete . The Peloponnese is to the region's northwest. Crete was the center of Europe 's first advanced civilization, the Minoans , from 2700 to 1420 BC. The Minoan civilization was overrun by the Mycenaean civilization from mainland Greece. Crete was later ruled by Rome, then successively by the Byzantine Empire , Andalusian Arabs, the Venetian Republic , and
14484-658: The northeasternmost corner of the Mediterranean, in the text of the "Keftiuan spell" śntkppwymntrkkr , of ca 1200 BCE, in which the Cilician and Syrian deities Tarku (the Hittite sun god), Sandan (the Cilician and Lydian equivalent of Tarku), and Kubaba were claimed, in personal names associated in texts with Keftiu and in Tutmose's "silver shawabty vessel of the work of Keftiu" and vessels of iron, which were received as gifts from Tinay in northern Syria. Wainwright's theory
14626-433: The oval face, "round [and] deeply set" eyes, and the small, tucked mouth closer to the nose. Early portraits of the Ptolemies featured large and radiant eyes in association to the rulers' divinity as well as general notions of abundance. When Ptolemy I Soter made himself king of Egypt, he created a new god, Serapis , to garner support from both Greeks and Egyptians. Serapis was the patron god of Ptolemaic Egypt, combining
14768-420: The pandemic and has come out strong in the post-recession recovery period. Total construction spending recovered and is expected to peak a record high (approximately 8% higher than 2019 average levels) signalling consistent expansion in construction projects and real estate investments in Crete. The evolution of the private sector in Crete is tightly linked with the demand for tourism-related investments. Moreover,
14910-536: The primacy of ancient Knossos. While the cities continued to prey upon one another, they invited into their feuds mainland powers like Macedon and its rivals Rhodes and Ptolemaic Egypt . In 220 BC the island was tormented by a war between two opposing coalitions of cities . As a result, the Macedonian king Philip V gained hegemony over Crete which lasted to the end of the Cretan War (205–200 BC) , when
15052-808: The record for the highest temperatures ever recorded in Europe during October, November, January and February from World Meteorological Organization stations. According to the Hellenic National Meteorological Service , South Crete receives the most sunshine in Greece with more than 3,257 hours of sunshine per year. Crete is the most populous island in Greece with a population of more than 600,000 people. Approximately 42% live in Crete's main cities and towns whilst 45% live in rural areas. Crete with its nearby islands form
15194-456: The recovery of the tourism sector is expected to lead to further growth in housing prices and rental demand. Newspapers have reported that the Ministry of Mercantile Marine is ready to support the agreement between Greece, South Korea , Dubai Ports World and China for the construction of a large international container port and free trade zone in southern Crete near Tympaki ; the plan
15336-533: The region of Pelusium . Contemporary research has challenged the link with Crete, proposing alternative locations such as Cyprus or Cilicia . The Caphtorites are mentioned in the Table of Nations , Book of Genesis ( Genesis 10:13–14 ) as one of several divisions of Mizraim (Egypt). This is reiterated in the Books of Chronicles ( 1 Chronicles 1:11–12 ) as well as later histories such as Josephus ' Antiquities of
15478-446: The region's population has increased by 1,343 people between 2011 and 2021, experiencing a rise of 0.22%. The island is home to 308,608 men and 315,800 women, accounting for 49.4% and 50.6% of the population respectively. The island is divided into four regional units, Heraklion, Rethymno, Chania, and Lasithi. The economy of Crete is predominantly based on services and tourism. However, agriculture also plays an important role and Crete
15620-579: The regional governor is Stavros Arnaoutakis of the Panhellenic Socialist Movement . First elected in 2010 , he was re-elected in 2014 , 2019 and 2023 . Heraklion is the largest city and capital of Crete, holding more than a fourth of the island's population. Chania was the capital until 1971. The principal cities are: According to official census data by the Hellenic Statistical Authority ,
15762-455: The reliefs on the great pylon were finished in the reign of Ptolemy XII . In 221 BC, Ptolemy III died and was succeeded by his son Ptolemy IV Philopator , a weak king whose rule precipitated the decline of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. His reign was inaugurated by the murder of his mother, and he was always under the influence of royal favourites , who controlled the government. Nevertheless, his ministers were able to make serious preparations to meet
15904-496: The ruling nomarch to control Egypt in his absence. Alexander would never return to Egypt. Following Alexander's death in Babylon in 323 BC, a succession crisis erupted among his generals. Initially, Perdiccas ruled the empire as regent for Alexander's half-brother Arrhidaeus, who became Philip III of Macedon , and then as regent for both Philip III and Alexander's infant son Alexander IV of Macedon , who had not been born at
16046-579: The southeastern corner of the island, has year-round agricultural production, with summer vegetables and fruit produced in greenhouses throughout the winter. Western Crete (Chania province) receives more rain and the soils there suffer more erosion compared to the Eastern part of Crete. Average annual temperatures reach up to 21.6°C in Psari Forada which is located in South Crete. Crete holds
16188-533: The surrounding areas during the Wars of the Diadochi (322–301 BC). In 305 BC, Ptolemy took the title of basileus and pharaoh . As Ptolemy I Soter ("Saviour"), he founded the Ptolemaic dynasty that was to rule Egypt for nearly 300 years. All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name Ptolemy, while princesses and female rulers preferred the names Cleopatra , Arsinoë and Berenice. The Ptolemies also adopted
16330-577: The throne. In 145 BC, he was killed in the Battle of Antioch . Throughout the 160s and 150s BC, Ptolemy VI has also reasserted Ptolemaic control over the northern part of Nubia . This achievement is heavily advertised at the Temple of Isis at Philae , which was granted the tax revenues of the Dodecaschoenus region in 157 BC. Decorations on the first pylon of the Temple of Isis at Philae emphasise
16472-485: The throne. Ptolemy XIII and his advisors fled the palace, turning the Egyptian forces loyal to the throne against Caesar and Cleopatra, who barricaded themselves in the palace complex until Roman reinforcements could arrive to combat the rebellion, known afterward as the Siege of Alexandria . Ptolemy XIII's forces were ultimately defeated at the Battle of the Nile and the king was killed in the conflict, reportedly drowning in
16614-399: The throne. These marriages sometimes produced children, and other times were only a ceremonial union to consolidate political power. Ptolemy Auletes expressed his wish for Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIII to marry and rule jointly in his will, in which the Roman senate was named as executor, giving Rome further control over the Ptolemies and, thereby, the fate of Egypt as a nation. After
16756-468: The time of his father's death. Perdiccas appointed Ptolemy , one of Alexander's closest companions, to be satrap of Egypt. Ptolemy ruled Egypt from 323 BC, nominally in the name of the joint kings Philip III and Alexander IV. However, as Alexander the Great's empire disintegrated, Ptolemy soon established himself as ruler in his own right. Ptolemy successfully defended Egypt against an invasion by Perdiccas in 321 BC, and consolidated his position in Egypt and
16898-486: The tradition that it was a coastland ( iy rendered island in some Bible translations) and more precisely Caphutkia; and this contradiction is noted in Osborne. It is now known that the name Coptus is derived from Egyptian Gebtu which is possibly not associated with the name Caphtor. Egyptian kftı͗w (conventionally vocalized as Keftiu ) is attested in numerous inscriptions. The 19th-century belief that Keftiu/Caphtor
17040-551: The traditional identification as an Egyptian coastal locality in the vicinity of Pelusium. These included identification with Coptus , Colchis , Cyprus , Cappadocia in Asia Minor, Cilicia , and Crete . The identification with Coptus is recorded in Osborne's A Universal History From The Earliest Account of Time , where it is remarked that many suppose the name to have originated from Caphtor. While this interpretation agrees with tradition placing Caphtor in Egypt it disregards
17182-467: The twelfth-century Jewish traveller from Navarre, who both wrote that Damietta was Caphtor. The Midrash Rabbah on Genesis 37:5 (page 298 in the 1961 edition of Maurice Simon's translation) says that the "Caphtorim were dwarfs". A location called Kaptar is mentioned in several texts of the Mari Tablets and is understood to be reference to Caphtor. An inscription dating to c. 1780-1760 BCE mentions
17324-437: The venomous bite of an asp , though others state that she used poison, or that Octavian ordered her death himself. Caesarion, her son by Julius Caesar, nominally succeeded Cleopatra until his capture and supposed execution in the weeks after his mother's death. Cleopatra's children by Antony were spared by Octavian and given to his sister (and Antony's Roman wife) Octavia Minor , to be raised in her household. No further mention
17466-598: The veterans of their many military conflicts. Hellenistic civilization continued to thrive even after Rome annexed Egypt after the battle of Actium and did not decline until the Islamic conquests . Ptolemaic art was produced during the reign of the Ptolemaic Rulers (304–30 BC), and was concentrated primarily within the bounds of the Ptolemaic Empire. At first, artworks existed separately in either
17608-1249: The world. The island has a number of gorges, such as the Samariá Gorge , Imbros Gorge , Kourtaliotiko Gorge , Ha Gorge , Platania Gorge , the Gorge of the Dead (at Kato Zakros , Sitia ) and Richtis Gorge and (Richtis) waterfall at Exo Mouliana in Sitia . The rivers of Crete include the Geropotamos River , the Koiliaris, the Anapodiaris, the Almiros, the Giofyros, the Keritis, and Megas Potamos. There are only two freshwater lakes in Crete: Lake Kournas and Lake Agia , which are both in Chania regional unit . Lake Voulismeni at
17750-568: Was Iqrīṭiš ( Arabic : اقريطش < (τῆς) Κρήτης) , but after the Emirate of Crete 's establishment of its new capital at ربض الخندق Rabḍ al-Ḫandaq (modern Heraklion ; Greek : Ηράκλειο , Irákleio ), both the city and the island became known as Χάνδαξ ( Chandax ) or Χάνδακας ( Chandakas ), which gave Latin, Italian, and Venetian Candia , from which were derived French Candie and English Candy or Candia . Under Ottoman rule , in Ottoman Turkish , Crete
17892-617: Was a peaceful and cultured pharaoh, though unlike his father was no great warrior. Fortunately, Ptolemy I had left Egypt strong and prosperous; three years of campaigning in the First Syrian War made the Ptolemies masters of the eastern Mediterranean, controlling the Aegean islands (the Nesiotic League ) and the coastal districts of Cilicia , Pamphylia , Lycia and Caria . However, some of these territories were lost near
18034-422: Was an eager patron of scholarship, funding the expansion of the Library of Alexandria and patronising scientific research. Poets like Callimachus , Theocritus , Apollonius of Rhodes , Posidippus were provided with stipends and produced masterpieces of Hellenistic poetry, including panegyrics in honour of the Ptolemaic family. Other scholars operating under Ptolemy's aegis included the mathematician Euclid and
18176-645: Was called Girit ( كريد ). In the Hebrew Bible, Crete is referred to as ( כְּרֵתִים ) "kretim". Crete is the largest island in Greece and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea . It is located in the southern part of the Aegean Sea separating the Aegean from the Libyan Sea . The island has an elongated shape: it spans 260 km (160 mi) from east to west, is 60 km (37 mi) at its widest point, and narrows to as little as 12 km (7.5 mi) (close to Ierapetra ). Crete covers an area of 8,336 km (3,219 sq mi), with
18318-460: Was comparatively free from warfare. The Gortyn code (5th century BC) is evidence for how codified civil law established a balance between aristocratic power and civil rights. In the late 4th century BC, the aristocratic order began to collapse due to endemic infighting among the elite, and Crete's economy was weakened by prolonged wars between city states. During the 3rd century BC, Gortyn , Kydonia ( Chania ), Lyttos and Polyrrhenia challenged
18460-401: Was dominated by the Wars of the Diadochi between the various successor states to the empire of Alexander. His first objective was to hold his position in Egypt securely, and secondly to increase his domain. Within a few years he had gained control of Libya , Coele-Syria (including Judea ), and Cyprus . When Antigonus , ruler of Syria , tried to reunite Alexander's empire, Ptolemy joined
18602-444: Was driven out by his mother in 107 BC, who reigned jointly with Euergetes's youngest son Ptolemy X Alexander I . In 88 BC Ptolemy IX again returned to the throne, and retained it until his death in 80 BC. He was succeeded by Ptolemy XI Alexander II , the son of Ptolemy X. He was lynched by the Alexandrian mob after murdering his stepmother, who was also his cousin, aunt and wife. These sordid dynastic quarrels left Egypt so weakened that
18744-512: Was finally defeated in 186, and a stele celebrating this event was historically significant as the famous Rosetta Stone . Ptolemy V Epiphanes , son of Philopator and Arsinoë, was a child when he came to the throne, and a series of regents ran the kingdom. Antiochus III the Great of The Seleucid Empire and Philip V of Macedon made a compact to seize the Ptolemaic possessions. Philip seized several islands and places in Caria and Thrace , while
18886-476: Was founded in 305 BC by the Macedonian general Ptolemy I Soter , a companion of Alexander the Great , and ruled by the Ptolemaic dynasty until the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC. Reigning for nearly three centuries, the Ptolemies were the longest and final dynasty of ancient Egypt , heralding a distinctly new era for religious and cultural syncretism between Greek and Egyptian culture. Alexander
19028-576: Was occupied by Nazi Germany during the Second World War . Stone tools suggest that archaic humans may have visited Crete as early as 130,000 years ago, but there is no evidence of permanent settlement of the island until the Neolithic , around 7,000 BCE. Settlements dating to the aceramic Neolithic in the 7th millennium BC, used cattle , sheep , goats , pigs and dogs as well as domesticated cereals and legumes ; ancient Knossos
19170-400: Was sent to Mesopotamia via Mari. An inventory thought to be from the same era as the previous texts mentions a Caphtorite vessel ( GAL kap-ta-ri-tum ) (probably a large jug or jar). An Akkadian text from the archives of Ugarit (modern Ras Shamra, Syria) contains a possible reference to Caphtor: it mentions a ship that is exempt from duty when arriving from a place whose name is written with
19312-481: Was the Raphia Decree , issued on 15 November 217 BC and preserved in three copies. Like other Ptolemaic decrees , the decree was inscribed in hieroglyphs , Demotic , and Koine Greek . The decree records the military success of Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe III and their benefactions to the Egyptian priestly elite. Throughout, Ptolemy IV is presented as taking on the role of Horus who avenges his father by defeating
19454-484: Was the Temple of Horus at Edfu , one of the masterpieces of ancient Egyptian temple architecture and now the best-preserved of all Egyptian temples. Ptolemy III initiated construction on it on 23 August 237 BC. Work continued for most of the Ptolemaic dynasty; the main temple was finished in the reign of his son, Ptolemy IV, in 212 BC, and the full complex was only completed in 142 BC, during the reign of Ptolemy VIII , while
19596-481: Was the site of one of these major Neolithic (then later Minoan) sites. Other neolithic settlements include those at Kephala , Magasa , and Trapeza . During the Bronze Age , Crete was the centre of the Minoan civilization , notable for its art , its writing systems such as Linear A , and for its massive building complexes including the palace at Knossos . Its economy benefited from a network of trade around much of
19738-445: Was the wealthiest and most powerful of Alexander's successor states , and the leading example of Greek civilization. Beginning in the mid second century BC, dynastic strife and a series of foreign wars weakened the kingdom, and it became increasingly reliant on the Roman Republic . Under Cleopatra VII , who sought to restore Ptolemaic power, Egypt became entangled in a Roman civil war , which ultimately led to its conquest by Rome as
19880-530: Was to be identified with Cyprus or Syria shifted to an association with Crete under the influence of Sir Arthur Evans . It was criticized in 1931 by G. A. Wainwright , who located Keftiu in Cilicia , on the Mediterranean shore of Asia Minor , and he drew together evidence from a wide variety of sources: in geographical lists and the inscription of Tutmose III 's "Hymn of Victory", where the place of Keftiu in lists appeared to exist among recognizable regions in
20022-489: Was with another female, Berenice IV. Cleopatra VII officially co-ruled with Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator , Ptolemy XIV , and Ptolemy XV , but effectively, she ruled Egypt alone. The early Ptolemies did not disturb the religion or the customs of the Egyptians . They built magnificent new temples for the Egyptian gods and soon adopted the outward display of the pharaohs of old. Rulers such as Ptolemy I Soter respected
20164-578: Was €17,800 or 59% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 68% of the EU average. Crete is the region in Greece with the fifth highest GDP per capita. The island has three significant airports, Nikos Kazantzakis at Heraklion, the Daskalogiannis airport at Chania and the smaller Sitia airport. The first two serve international routes, acting as the main gateways to the island for travellers. Work has begun plan to replace Heraklion airport with
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