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83-660: In 1653, a timber fort was constructed by the Swedish Africa Company . It originally was a centre for timber and gold trade, and then was later used in the Atlantic slave trade . Other Ghanaian slave castles include Elmina Castle and Fort Christiansborg . They were used to harbour enslaved Africans before they were loaded onto ships and sold in the Americas, especially the Caribbean. This "gate of no return"

166-627: A French conquest of the Spanish Netherlands . In May, the French invaded, starting the War of Devolution . Charles hoped, by means of stalling the talks at Breda, to gain enough time to ready his fleet to obtain concessions from the Dutch, using the French advance as leverage. De Witt was aware of Charles's general intentions – though not of the secret treaty. He decided to attempt to end

249-552: A climate similar to that of Europe where Europeans could settle in comfort. The peace was generally seen as a personal triumph for Johan de Witt and an embarrassment to the Orangists, who seemed reluctant to support the war and eager to accept a disadvantageous early peace. The Republic was jubilant about the Dutch victory. De Witt used the occasion to induce four provinces to adopt the Perpetual Edict of 1667 abolishing

332-665: A drinking cup. George Maclean was President of the Committee of Merchants at Cape Coast Castle from 1830 until 1844, a period when a President rather than a Governor ruled the British in the Gold Coast. In October 1836 he met the poet Letitia Landon at a dinner party while on a visit to the UK. They married and traveled back to Cape Coast Castle where, within two months, Landon died of heart failure. Both Maclean and Landon are buried in

415-467: A fort at Cabo Corso (meaning "short cape" in Portuguese, later corrupted to English Cape Coast ). The first timber lodge was erected at the site in 1653 and named Carolusborg after King Charles X of Sweden . Caerloff returned to Europe in 1655, leaving Johann Philipp von Krusenstjerna in charge of Carolusborg. Louis de Geer had, however, died in the meantime, and Caerloff got himself involved in

498-632: A major psychological impact throughout England, with London feeling especially vulnerable just a year after the Great Fire of London . However, for a second time, the Dutch had been unable to land substantial land forces in Britain, or even do substantial damage to the Chatham dockyard. The raid did, together with the English financial crisis, speed up negotiations. All this, together with the cost of

581-481: A new English squadron of nine warships and two fireships under the command of Rear-Admiral Sir John Harman sailed for the West Indies, reaching them in early June. Harman encountered the French with seven larger and 14 smaller warships and three fireships under la Barre anchored under the batteries of Fort St Pierre , Martinique. He attacked on 6 July and sunk, burnt or captured all but two the French ships. With

664-457: A panorama tour of Cape Coast Castle are available on www.zamaniproject.org . An animation of the 3D model is available here . Swedish Africa Company The Swedish Africa Company ( Swedish : Svenska Afrikanska Kompaniet ) was a Swedish trading company, founded in 1649 on the initiative of the Walloon - Dutch merchant Louis De Geer and his son Laurens, for whom Sweden had become

747-511: A prisoner. Caerloff had left Samuel Smit, also a former employee of the Dutch West India Company, in charge of Carolusborg. The Dutch were able to convince Smit in 1659 of the rumor that Denmark had been conquered by Sweden, upon which Smit rejoined the Dutch West India Company, handing over all Danish possessions to the Dutch. The King of Fetu was displeased with this, however, and prevented the Dutch from taking possession of

830-545: A public treaty was concluded between England and France that stipulated the return to England of the former English part of St Christopher and the islands of Antigua and Montserrat , all of which the French had occupied in the war, and that England should surrender its claim to Acadia to France, although the extent of Acadia was not defined. This public treaty had been preceded by a secret treaty signed on 17 April in which, in addition to these exchanges of territory, Louis and Charles agreed not to enter into alliances opposed to

913-611: A return to the status quo ante bellum , or a quick end to hostilities under a uti possidetis clause. On 16 January 1666, Louis declared war on England. In return for a large French subsidy, Denmark-Norway did the same in February, effectively closing the Baltic trade to English ships, and with it access to vital naval supplies. The payments promised to von Galen by Charles largely failed to materialise, and when Brandenburg-Prussia threatened to attack Münster, he made peace with

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996-492: A safe passage into the Thames as navigational buoys had been removed and a strong English squadron was ready to dispute their passage. But now there was no English fleet able to contest a similar attack. De Witt conceived the plan for a landing of marines, to be overseen by his brother Cornelius, at Chatham where the fleet lay effectively defenceless, to destroy it. In June, De Ruyter, with Cornelis de Witt supervising, launched

1079-557: A second home. The primary interest of the company was the trade on the Swedish Gold Coast , notably the trade of human beings to be sold into slavery in the Americas. In 1648 De Geer's charter on exporting Swedish copper ended. Along with his son Laurens, and with a royal charter of Christina I of Sweden he founded the Swedish Africa Company, but moved its base from Gothenburg to Stade . The company

1162-650: A serious dispute with his heirs. In Amsterdam, he convinced merchants to give a financial injection to the Danish West India Company , for which he set sail to the Gold Coast in 1657, with the goal in mind to capture for Denmark the Swedish lodges and forts he had established himself. With the help of the Dutch, Caerloff succeeded in driving the Swedes out, leaving the Gold Coast on the captured ship Stockholms Slott , and with Von Krusenstjerna on board as

1245-549: A signalling system allowing commanders to control their fleets, something the Dutch then lacked. Over the course of the war, the formation was employed by both, although it better suited the heavier ships used by the Royal Navy, and its emphasis on gunnery to sink opponents. The Dutch preferred the use of boarding , with individual ships fighting one another. Difficulties in communicating orders meant during combat many captains focused on avoiding collisions rather than engaging

1328-531: A significant numerical advantage. However, most of the French ships were based in the Mediterranean Sea , and despite leaving Toulon in April, delays meant they failed to arrive in time. One contemporary diplomat suggested the relatively new and inexperienced French navy did so deliberately, being "dismayed by the difficulties of the enterprise" Nevertheless, the threat of French intervention forced

1411-553: Is on display in the Rijksmuseum . Fortunately for the English, the Dutch marines spared the Chatham Dockyard , at the time England's largest industrial complex; a land attack on the docks themselves would have set back English naval power for a generation. A Dutch attack on the English anchorage at Harwich had to be abandoned however after the battle of Landguard Fort ended in Dutch failure. The Dutch success made

1494-534: The Deputy Governor of Jamaica , assisted by his nephew Thomas Morgan, quickly captured the Dutch islands of Sint Eustatius and Saba . After his uncle's death in December 1665, Thomas Morgan was appointed as governor of these two islands. Also in late 1665, an English force from Jamaica and Barbados captured the Dutch possession of Tobago . The French declaration of war on the side of the Dutch altered

1577-462: The Dutch Republic and Commonwealth of England led to the 1652 to 1654 First Anglo-Dutch War . The treaty that ended the war failed to address these issues, which included Dutch opposition to the 1651 Navigation Acts , and English objections to Dutch trading monopolies. This meant tensions continued, and even when the two countries were theoretically at peace, competition for markets in

1660-593: The Dutch Republic , its causes were a combination of political differences and commercial disputes. Despite several major battles, neither the English Royal Navy nor the Dutch States Navy was able to score a decisive victory, and by the end of 1666 the war had reached a stalemate. Although peace talks began, neither side was willing to make significant concessions until the Dutch Raid on

1743-528: The East Indies and elsewhere often resulted in conflict outside Europe . For various reasons, factions in both countries hampered efforts to reach resolution through diplomatic means. From 1650 to 1672, Dutch politics was dominated by the States Party and their leader, Grand pensionary Johan de Witt . Despite suspicions about Charles II 's links to their Orangist opponents, de Witt viewed

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1826-508: The Fire of London destroyed much of the city, causing huge economic damage, and public opinion now turned against the war. Charles could no longer rely on London merchants to supply the loans needed to fund it, and the Navy Board was forced to discharge many sailors unpaid. Parliament was recalled for the first time in a year, and approved new taxes of £1.8 million. However, their payment

1909-745: The Royal African Company , or RAC, whose purpose was to challenge Dutch dominance of the Atlantic slave trade . Investors included senior politicians such as George Carteret , Shaftesbury and Arlington , creating a strong link between the RAC and government policy. The Atlantic trade was a three way process, whereby slaves from West Africa were transported to Sugar plantations in the Caribbean , which in turn were supplied by colonies in North America . These links meant conflict in one region often led to fighting in all three. In August 1664,

1992-542: The Second Anglo-Dutch War , prevented the Danes from challenging them; the English had reinforced the fort, which they named Cape Coast Castle, to such an extent that even Dutch Admiral Michiel de Ruyter deemed it impossible to conquer. As the Dutch had captured the former English headquarters at Kormantsin and had rebuilt it as Fort Amsterdam , Cape Coast became the new capital of the English possessions on

2075-566: The "most advanced, complex, expensive and manpower-intensive weapons systems of their day". With the fleets involved increasing to over 100 ships per side, maximising firepower required greater levels of organisation, discipline and co-ordination. One solution to these problems was the Line of battle formation. In 1664, the Royal Navy issued new "Fighting Instructions", formalising the "line of battle" as standard practice. They also established

2158-489: The 1660 Stuart Restoration as an opportunity to rebuild relationships. He hoped to negotiate overlapping defensive agreements with England and France to ensure peace, and continued Dutch economic dominance. However, the English saw little benefit in preserving this system, and wanted concessions the Dutch were not prepared to grant. When merchants in the City of London demanded increased Protectionism , Charles II renewed

2241-580: The Ashanti (Treaty of 1831), instituted a judicial system still in use in many African democracies, and encouraged successful and fair trading. From 1846–1850, Governor William Winniett was also active in ending the slave trade. He died in the fortress. The castle, or castle and dungeon, to give it its official name, was first restored in the 1920s by the British Public Works Department. In 1957, when Ghana became independent,

2324-631: The Caribbean only to find the French fleet destroyed and the English back in possession of Suriname. On 31 July 1667, what is generally known as the Treaty of Breda concluded peace between England and the Netherlands. The treaty allowed the English to keep possession of New Netherland , while the Dutch kept control over Pulau Run, Fort Cormantin and the valuable sugar plantations of Suriname , while also regaining Tobago, St Eustatius, and its West African trading posts. This uti possidetis solution

2407-534: The Castle. The contrast in living conditions between the Europeans living above and the enslaved people living below are highlighted in the individual stories of two half-sisters, Effia and Esi, during their time at the castle. While Effia, the wife of an English slaver, lives in luxury, Esi suffers in the squalid living conditions in the dungeons below unbeknownst to her half-sister. The 1993 film Sankofa also uses

2490-555: The Dutch raid on the Medway at the mouth of the River Thames . After capturing the fort at Sheerness , the Dutch fleet went on to break through the massive chain protecting the entrance to the Medway and, on the 13th, attacked the laid up English fleet. The daring raid remains one of the largest disasters in the history of the Royal Navy and its predecessors. Fifteen of the Royal Navy's remaining ships were destroyed, either by

2573-638: The Dutch into declaring war would give Louis XIV the chance to remain neutral. Following English attacks on convoys off Cadiz and in the English Channel , the Dutch declared war on 4 March 1665. Some historians argue that just as the tactics used by 17th century armies were transformed by the Military Revolution , the Anglo-Dutch Wars marked a similar change in naval practice. The ships on either side have been described as

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2656-473: The Dutch or by being scuttled by the English to block the river. Three of the eight remaining "big ships" were burnt: Royal Oak , the new Loyal London and Royal James . The largest English flagship, HMS  Royal Charles , was abandoned by its skeleton crew, captured without a shot being fired, and towed back to the United Provinces as a trophy. Its counter decoration depicting the royal arms

2739-455: The Dutch saw it as a clear threat to their trade monopoly and began plotting a way to drive the Swedes away, a siege was organized in 1652, but it ended in failure as the Swedes refused to surrender. In 1824, British Governor Sir Charles MacCarthy , was defeated by the Ashanti army , committed suicide, and his skull was taken back to the Ashanti capital Kumasi where it was reportedly used as

2822-639: The Dutch to complete these plus another twenty during the war, compared to only a dozen built by England. Although the Royal Navy was superior in ships and leadership at the beginning of the war, these advantages were gradually eroded by Parliament's reluctance to fund it. Downing, and other observers who argued the Dutch could not afford a war, overlooked recent reforms that improved their credit, and made it relatively easy to raise money. In contrast, English expectations that profits from Dutch ships captured by privateers would cover costs proved unfounded. In December 1664, Parliament approved £2.5 million in taxes for

2905-440: The Dutch undertook not to interfere with French actions in the Spanish Netherlands , but by 1664, many were concerned by the prospect of having an expansionist France as a neighbour, rather than a weakened Spain . Although it provided another reason to agree terms with England, negotiations made little progress. This was partially due to the complexity of the Dutch political system, which made it difficult to reach consensus between

2988-541: The Dutch wanted to minimise any potential economic damage. De Witt ordered his naval commander Jacob van Wassenaer to bring the English fleet to battle, although his ships were inferior in organisation, training, discipline and firepower. At the Battle of Lowestoft on 13 June 1665, the Dutch navy suffered the worst defeat in its history, losing some sixteen ships. Most of the fleet escaped, but over 30% of its personnel were killed or captured, with van Wassenaer himself among

3071-514: The English could scarcely afford to pay their sailors or purchase supplies. A more significant economic loss occurred on 19 August, when up to 150 Dutch merchantmen sheltering in the Vlie estuary were destroyed in an action known as Holmes's Bonfire . Over a period of eighteen months from 1665 to 1666, the Great Plague of London killed more than a quarter of its population. In September 1666,

3154-525: The English first occupied New Netherland , renamed New York City , then took WIC slaving posts in modern Guinea . When these were recaptured by a Dutch fleet under Michiel de Ruyter in early 1665, the RAC was forced into bankruptcy , and its influential investors saw war as the best way to recoup their losses. In taking these actions, the Dutch were reassured by their 1662 defensive treaty with France, under which Louis XIV agreed to provide military support if they were attacked by England. In return,

3237-507: The English to send a detachment to block the Strait of Dover , leaving 60 ships facing a Dutch fleet of around 84. In the initial stages of the Four Days' Battle , fought from 11 to 15 June, the Dutch inflicted heavy damage on their opponents, before the return of the detached squadron forced them to withdraw. The English lost ten ships compared to only four Dutch, but any hope the Royal Navy

3320-626: The First Anglo-Dutch War, post-1653 the Dutch navy was re-organised around sixty-four newly built and larger Ships of the line , each with between 40 and 60 guns. However, they remained inferior to English vessels such as HMS Sovereign of the Seas , which carried over 100 guns. In 1664, it was decided to create a new core of even heavier ships, which were mostly still under construction when fighting began in 1665. Stronger finances allowed

3403-420: The French after expelling the English garrison, where he rebuilt the fort and left a small garrison. Although Crijnssen was instructed not to delay, it was not until early May that he and de La Barre combined forces, agreeing to a Franco-Dutch invasion of Nevis , which sailed on 17 May 1667. However, their attack was repelled in the Battle of Nevis on 17 May by a smaller English force. This confused naval action

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3486-626: The French fleet neutralised, Harman then attacked the French at Cayenne on 15 September forcing its garrison to surrender. The English fleet then went on to recapture Fort Zeelandia in Suriname in October. News of these English victories only reached England in September, after the Treaty of Breda had been signed, and possessions captured after 31 July had to be returned. Crijnssen sailed back to

3569-499: The French king had also concluded the Dutch would never voluntarily make the concessions he required in the Spanish Netherlands, and began planning the 1667 War of Devolution . On the other hand, Dutch morale rose with the completion of thirty new warships, most carrying up to 72 guns, heavier than any available in early 1665. They were supposed to link up with a French naval force in the English Channel , giving them

3652-615: The French to occupy the English half of St Kitts and Montserrat , leaving only Nevis of the Leeward Islands in English hands, together with Jamaica and Barbados to the west. A Dutch force under Admiral Abraham Crijnssen , organised by the province of Zeeland, not the States General, arrived at Cayenne in February 1667 and captured Suriname from the English in the same month. Crijnssen delayed in Suriname until April, then sailed to Tobago, which had been vacated by

3735-694: The Gold Coast on 22 April 1650. Carloff signed a contract for the purchase of land with the chief of Efutu . There was a conflict with the Company of Merchants Trading to Guinea negotiating with Henniqua, a cousin of King of the Fetu about an English trading post. On 28 May 1650 both Sweden and the English signed a treaty with the chief. The English obtained the right to trade for only half a year. Carloff occupied Butre in 1650, Annemabo in 1651 and Orsou in 1652. On his return in September 1652 Carloff and his ship Christina were seized and taken to Plymouth . His ship

3818-514: The Gold Coast. In 1689, the pirate Duncan Mackintosh was hanged at the Castle with a few of his crew, though he would not be the last pirate hanged at the fort. In 1722, the fort was the site where 54 men of the crew of the pirate Bartholomew Roberts were condemned to death, of whom 52 were hanged and two reprieved. In 1757, during the Seven Years' War , a French naval squadron badly damaged and nearly captured Cape Coast Castle. This event

3901-572: The Medway in June 1667 forced Charles II to make terms. The treaty eliminated a number of long-standing issues, and in the long-term made it possible for the two countries to unite against the expansionist policies pursued by Louis XIV of France . In the short-term however, Charles' desire to avenge this setback led to the Third Anglo-Dutch War in 1672. Despite similar ideologies, commercial disputes and political differences between

3984-872: The Navigation Acts in August 1660, then strengthened them further in 1663. Parliament claimed they were simply responding to measures taken by the Dutch East India Company , or VOC, to enforce its monopolies in Asia, and by the West-Indische Compagnie , or WIC, in West Africa . For Charles, expanding the economy was another way to reduce his financial dependence on Parliament, preferably using royal monopolies or charters to do so. In 1660, he and his brother James founded

4067-506: The Republic at Cleves in April. Anglo-Dutch negotiations had progressed far enough that de Witt invited Charles II to start formal negotiations. Talks made little progress, as both sides felt they were negotiating from a position of strength. Despite the French declaration of war, Charles knew Louis wanted to avoid being dragged into the conflict, and through informal correspondence was aware he considered Dutch demands excessive. By now,

4150-484: The administrative quarters above, whose occupants lived relatively luxuriously. The basement of this imposing fortress was often the last experience enslaved people had of their homeland before being shipped off across the Atlantic, as this signified the beginning of their journey. The first fort established on the present site of Cape Coast Castle was built by Hendrik Caerloff for the Swedish Africa Company . Caerloff

4233-456: The area in order to get a foothold in the slave trade. The business was very competitive, which led to conflict and for this reason, the forts changed hands many times during the course of its commercial history. In Cape Coast Castle, the underground dungeon was a space of terror, death, and darkness. This stood as a direct juxtaposition to the European living quarters and commanding heights of

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4316-511: The balance of power in the Caribbean and facilitated a Dutch counterattack. The first successes of the new allies were the French recapture of Tobago in August 1666, a joint Franco-Dutch recapture of Sint Eustatius in November 1666 and a French capture of the English island of Antigua in the same month. The arrival of a French squadron under Joseph-Antoine de La Barre in January 1667 allowed

4399-594: The castle as a critical location in the plot, referring to its past connections to the Atlantic slave trade. In 2015, the Zamani Project documented Cape Coast Castle with terrestrial 3D laser scanning . The non-profit research group specialises in 3D digital documentation of tangible cultural heritage . The data generated by the Zamani Project creates a permanent record that can be used for research, education, restoration, and conservation. A 3D model and

4482-760: The castle came under the care of the Ghana Museums and Monuments Board (GMMB). In the early 1990s the building was restored by the Ghanaian Government, with funds from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United States Agency for International Development (USAID), with technical assistance from the Smithsonian Institution and other non-governmental organizations. The 2016 novel Homegoing by Yaa Gyasi makes frequent references to

4565-431: The castle courtyard. Maclean was charged with putting an end to slave trading and did so along 300 km (200 mi) of the West African coast. However, his reputation was muddied by his willingness to support the ownership of enslaved people within the vicinity of Cape Coast Castle. As such he was demoted to Judicial Assessor and maintained for his extensive local knowledge and commitment to trade. He also made peace with

4648-436: The castle, was replaced by two new bastions, with a sea gate in the middle. To the south, two new bastions, named Grassle's Bastions, replaced an old round tower as the main defensive work. The tower, which now had no military use, was extended in the 1790s with two stories, now becoming the governors' apartments. The space below Grassle's Bastions was used as the new slave dungeons. After the construction of Carolusborg in 1652,

4731-432: The company's mismanagement to make a private profit. The Swedish Africa Company was formally abolished in 1663, after the West India Company paid compensatory damages to the Swedes. Second Anglo-Dutch War The Second Anglo-Dutch War , or Second Dutch War , began on 4 March 1665, and concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Breda on 31 July 1667. One in a series of naval conflicts between England and

4814-498: The concessions demanded, or initiate peace talks with the Dutch, which began in March at Breda . As England was by now also at war with France, Charles sent envoys to Paris for unofficial preliminary talks. The deterioration of Franco-Dutch relations meant these talks produced a third option not considered by Clarendon: a secret alliance with France. In April, Charles concluded his first secret treaty with Louis, stipulating that England would not enter into alliances that might oppose

4897-414: The dead. Defeat led to an extensive overhaul of Dutch tactics and command structures, with several captains either executed for alleged cowardice, or dismissed. In July, Michiel de Ruyter became the new commander in chief, and followed the English in formalising the line battle formation. Dutch finances also received a boost when the VOC Spice Fleet returned home safely after the battle of Vågen . This

4980-462: The different provinces and powerful trade groups like the VOC. It also reflected de Witt's belief Parliament would not approve funds for an expensive naval war, a view shared by many English politicians, including Charles' chief minister Lord Clarendon . For his part, Louis XIV feared an Anglo-Dutch conflict might draw in Spain or the Holy Roman Empire , and impede his efforts to acquire the Spanish Netherlands. He therefore tried to mediate between

5063-399: The enemy, making battles chaotic and often indecisive. In addition, both navies consisted of significant numbers of purpose-built warships, bulked out by private merchantmen. Although many of the latter were well-armed, they were often less capable of standing up to sustained fire. Dutch merchant ships were particularly vulnerable to the larger English warships. Based on lessons learned from

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5146-407: The fort. A year later, the King decided to sell it to the Swedes. After the King died in 1663, the Dutch were finally able to occupy the fort. The Danes had in the meantime established another fort, Fort Frederiksborg (1661), just a few hundred meters east from Carolusborg. Although situated perfectly to launch an attack on Carolusborg, the English capture of Carolusborg (1664) during the prelude to

5229-401: The garrison entered into trouble. The establishment of both the Swedish and Danish Africa Company should be seen in the light of the mismanagement of the Dutch West India Company . This company went bankrupt in both 1636 and 1647, and was eventually dissolved in 1674. Both the Swedish and the Danish company were founded by Dutchmen who tried to evade the West India Company's monopoly and used

5312-470: The interests of the other, by which Louis secured the neutrality of England in the war he planned against Spain. The order of priorities whereby the Dutch preferred to give up what would become a major part of the United States, and instead retain a tropical colony, would seem strange by present-day standards. However, in the 17th century tropical colonies producing agricultural products which could not be grown in Europe were deemed more valuable than ones with

5395-401: The navy, but much of this was spent on essential repairs, or allegedly stolen by officials. To fund operations, Charles had to rely on short-term loans from the City of London, at ever increasing interest rates. By the end of 1666, lack of money led him to discharge most of the fleet, with disastrous results. Both sides planned a short war, since the English could not afford a long one, while

5478-440: The stadtholderate forever. He used the weak position of Charles II to force him into the Triple Alliance of 1668 which again forced Louis to temporarily abandon his plans for the conquest of the southern Netherlands. But de Witt's success would eventually produce his downfall and nearly that of the Republic with it. Both humiliated monarchs intensified their secret cooperation through the Secret Treaty of Dover and would, joined by

5561-418: The two, or at least limit conflict to Africa and the Americas , which would not require France to become involved. Aware of his reluctance, Charles II saw no reason to make concessions, while Sir George Downing , his Ambassador in The Hague , claimed recent financial losses meant the Dutch could not afford a war. Other advisors argued the Franco-Dutch treaty only applied to defensive actions, so provoking

5644-428: The war with a single stroke. Ever since its actions in Denmark in 1659, involving many landings to liberate the Danish Isles, the Dutch navy had made a special study of amphibious operations; the Dutch Marine Corps was established in 1665. After the Four Days' Battle , a Dutch marine contingent had been ready to land in Kent or Essex following a possible Dutch victory at sea. The Dutch fleet was, however, unable to force

5727-409: The war, of the Great Plague and the extravagant spending of Charles's court, produced a rebellious atmosphere in London. Clarendon ordered the English envoys at Breda to sign a peace quickly, as Charles feared an open revolt. In early 1665 Michiel de Ruyter raided the Caribbean. In late 1665 an English force, mainly consisting of buccaneers under the command of Lieutenant-colonel Edward Morgan ,

5810-419: The war. In December 1665, Louis withdrew his ambassadors from London, signalling his intention to declare war. Downing now contacted the Orangist party in Overijssel, which had suffered severely from von Galen's invasion, asking that they demand the States General make peace with England. De Witt's position was too strong for this to succeed, and on 11 December he declared the only acceptable peace terms were

5893-403: Was a former employee of the Dutch West India Company who had risen to the rank of fiscal before employing himself with the latter company established by Louis de Geer . As a former high-ranking officer of the Dutch, Caerloff had the friendly relations with the local chiefs necessary to establish a trading post. In 1650, Caerloff succeeded in getting the permission of the king of Fetu to establish

5976-476: Was a market where this barter trade took place. At the time, enslaved Africans were a valuable commodity in the Americas and elsewhere, and enslaved people were the main trade in Cape Coast. Due to this, many changes were made to the fort. One of the alterations was the addition of large, underground dungeons that could hold as many as a thousand enslaved people awaiting export. Many European nations flocked to

6059-529: Was founded after Hendrik Carloff , a former high-ranking administrator of the Dutch West India Company , had offered his help, promoting his good relation with a local chief. Caerloff was hired for three years as commander and director at a salary of one hundred guilders and an ounce of gold per month to cover the charges. He was embarking on the Elbe and thence sailed to Africa. He arrived at

6142-407: Was later confirmed in the Treaty of Westminster . The Act of Navigation was modified in favour of the Dutch by England agreeing to treat Germany as part of the Netherlands' commercial hinterland, so that Dutch ships would now be allowed to carry German goods to English ports. The English were also forced to accept the Dutch 'Free Ship, Free Goods' principle. On the same date and also at Breda,

6225-406: Was likely one of the most important reasons to entirely reconstruct the Castle, which was quite notorious for its collapsing walls and leaking roofs. In 1762, an extensive spur ending in a tower was built on the western side and in 1773, a high building along the north curtain was erected, during which the last remnants of the 17th-century fort were demolished. Greenhill Point, a bastion to the east of

6308-405: Was negotiating an alliance with Spain meant he also stepped up attempts to mediate a settlement, but the English in general remained deeply suspicious of French intentions. Although the Dutch offered to renounce their territorial claims in North America , and cede three West African posts, success at Lowestoft prompted Charles to demand further concessions and a Dutch agreement to bear the costs of

6391-399: Was offset when the eastern province of Overijssel was over-run by troops from Münster under Bernhard von Galen , who was backed by English subsidies. Münster's invasion threatened to involve Germany in the fighting, and thus provide an excuse for Emperor Leopold to intervene. Concerned by this, Louis sent French soldiers to prevent supplies reaching von Galen's troops. Reports Charles

6474-538: Was recaptured by the Dutch. In 1656 Carloff was accused of private trade. Johann Philipp von Krusenstjerna (1626–1659) took over the post of governor. Annoyed, Carloff left the colony and deserted to Denmark on 27 March 1657. He then founded the Danish Africa Company and recaptured Carolusburg from the Swedes. Because of the Dano-Swedish War he ordered to sell Carolusborg to the Dutch if

6557-470: Was subject to various conditions, and disputes over these meant delays in its collection. Lack of money made it almost impossible to plan naval operations for 1667. By early 1667, lack of funds meant much of the Royal Navy was taken out of service and anchored at the naval base of Chatham . This left only a small Flying Fleet operational, leaving English merchant shipping vulnerable to Dutch attack. Clarendon informed Charles he could either grant Parliament

6640-771: Was the last stop before crossing the Atlantic Ocean. Cape Coast Castle, along with other forts and castles in Ghana, are included on the UNESCO World Heritage List because of their testimony to the Atlantic gold and slave trades. The large quantity of gold dust found in Ghana was what primarily attracted Europe, and many natives of Cape Coast used this to their advantage. In exchange for gold, mahogany, other locally produced goods and enslaved captives, local Africans received clothing, blankets, spices, sugar, silk and many other items. The castle at Cape Coast

6723-529: Was the only one in this war where all three navies fought: it failed largely through de la Barre's incompetence. After this failed attack, Crijnssen left in disgust and sailed to the north to attack the Virginia colony, while the French, under de la Barre, moved to Martinique. The Battle of Nevis restored English naval control in the Caribbean and allowed the early recapture of Antigua and Montserrat and an unsuccessful attack on St Kitts soon after. In April,

6806-464: Was too damaged to renew hostilities soon proved incorrect. After extensive repairs, the English fleet put to sea again and confronted the Dutch in the St. James's Day Battle of 4 and 5 August. Generally considered an English victory, it ultimately had little strategic value. Although the Dutch suffered heavy casualties and many ships were badly damaged, their fleet remained intact, while lack of money meant

6889-474: Was transporting about twenty bags of gold and 6,500 elephant teeth . The gold rings, necklaces and bracelets were taken to the Tower of London . Meanwhile, his men started building Fort Carolusborg and conquered Tacorary in 1653. In Sweden Carloff was promoted to general and knighted on 3 May 1654 under the name Carloffer. It seems he occupied Jumore ( Fort Apollonia ) and Cabo in 1655. In 1656 Fort Batenstein

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