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95-481: Castel Tealdo or Thealto was a former medieval castle forming part of the defenses of Ferrara. Few traces of its existence remain. The castle stood along the river, west of the town, as did the Castel Novo , and was built in the 10th century by Tealdo da Canossa, Count of Modena and son of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor . In 1317, the city rebelled against the rule of Robert, King of Naples , and locals overpowered

190-636: A brief civil war among the rebellious duchies, Otto defeated the Magyars at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955, thus ending the Hungarian invasions of Western Europe . The victory against the pagan Magyars earned Otto a reputation as a savior of Christendom and secured his hold over the kingdom. By 961, Otto had conquered the Kingdom of Italy . Following the example of Charlemagne 's coronation as "Emperor of

285-571: A castle owned by Boleslaus' son. Boleslaus decided to sign a peace treaty, promising to resume payment of tribute. Boleslaus became Otto's ally, and his Bohemian force helped the German army against the common Magyar threat at the Lech river in 955. Later he went on to crush an uprising of two Slavic dukes ( Stoigniew and Nako ) in Mecklenburg , probably to ensure the spread of Bohemian estates to

380-628: A direct Holy and Imperial lineage as a source of legitimized power linked from Constantine and Justinian. In this atmosphere the masterpieces that were created fused the traditions which the new art was based on: paintings from Late Antiquity , the Carolingian period, and Byzantium . In this way, the term is used as an analogue to the Carolingian Renaissance which accompanied Charlemagne 's coronation in 800. A small group of Ottonian monasteries received direct sponsorship from

475-571: A distant relative of Liudolf's wife Ida, or he intended to strengthen his position within the royal family. The young heir was also competing with his uncle, Duke Henry I of Bavaria , both in German affairs and Northern Italy. While Liudolf was preparing his expedition, Henry influenced the Italian aristocrats not to join Liudolf's campaign. When Liudolf arrived in Lombardy, he found no support and

570-524: A formal reconciliation between the two. As a part of the deal, Hugh was to perform an act of submission to Louis IV, and in return, Louis IV was to waive any claims to Lorraine. After a short period of peace, the West Frankish kingdom fell into another crisis in 946. Normans captured Louis IV and handed him over to Hugh, who released the King only on condition of the surrender of the fortress of Laon. At

665-429: A grandson of former King Berengar I, led a revolt of Italian nobles against his uncle Hugh. Forewarned by Lothair, Hugh exiled Berengar II from Italy, and the margrave fled to the protection of Otto's court in 941. In 945, Berengar II returned and defeated Hugh with the support of the Italian nobility. Hugh abdicated in favor of his son and retired to Provence ; Berengar II made terms with Lothair and established himself as

760-504: A military commander when the German kingdom fought against Wendish tribes on its eastern border. While campaigning against the Wends/West Slavs in 929, Otto's illegitimate son William , the future Archbishop of Mainz , was born to a captive Wendish noblewoman. With Henry's dominion over the entire kingdom secured by 929, the king probably began to prepare his succession over the kingdom. No written evidence for his arrangements

855-691: A process that goes in parallel with greater recognition of the nature of consensus politics in Medieval Europe (especially Western and Central parts) as well as different roles played by other actors in his time. Historian David Bachrach notes the role of the bureaucracy and administration apparatus which the Ottonians inherited from the Carolingians and ultimately from the Ancient Romans, and which they developed greatly themselves: "It

950-618: A renaissance was first applied to the Ottonian period by the German historian Hans Naumann - more precisely, his work published in 1927 grouped the Carolingian and Ottonian periods together under the title Karolingische und ottonische Renaissance ( The Carolingian and Ottonian Renaissance ). This was only two years after Erna Patzelt's coining of the term 'Carolingian Renaissance' ( Die Karolingische Renaissance: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Kultur des frühen Mittelalters , Vienna, 1924), and

1045-538: A single kingdom and greatly expanded the king's powers at the expense of the aristocracy. Through strategic marriages and personal appointments, Otto installed members of his family in the kingdom's most important duchies. This reduced the various dukes, who had previously been co-equals with the king, to royal subjects under his authority. Otto transformed the church in Germany to strengthen royal authority and subjected its clergy to his personal control. After putting down

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1140-632: A state of concord." It was during this time that Otto first tried to link himself to the Eastern Empire through marriage negotiations. As Otto was finalizing actions to suppress his brother's rebellion in 939, the Slavs on the Elbe River revolted against German rule. Having been subdued by Otto's father in 928, the Slavs saw Henry's rebellion as an opportunity to regain their independence. Otto's lieutenant in east Saxony, Count Gero of Merseburg,

1235-416: A successful ruler. He is also reputed to be a great military commander, especially on the strategic level – this also means that the empire this talent recreated was too vast for contemporary administrative structures and could only be governed as a confederacy. Modern historians, while not denying his strong character and his many fruitful initiatives, explore the emperor's capability as a consensus builder –

1330-469: A vast border region around Merseburg that abutted the Wends on the lower Saale . His decision frustrated Thankmar, Otto's half-brother and Siegfried's cousin, who felt that he held a greater right to the appointment. Arnulf, Duke of Bavaria, died in 937 and was succeeded by his son Eberhard . The new duke quickly came into conflict with Otto, as Eberhard opposed the king's sovereignty over Bavaria under

1425-596: A weak military position with few troops, Otto's regent in Italy attempted a diplomatic solution and opened peace negotiations with Berengar II. Conrad recognized that a military confrontation would impose great costs upon Germany, both in manpower and in treasure. At a time when the kingdom was facing invasions from the north by the Danes and from the east by the Slavs and Hungarians , all available resources were required north of

1520-543: Is extant, but during this time Otto is first called king (Latin: rex ) in a document of the Abbey of Reichenau . While Henry consolidated power within Germany, he also prepared for an alliance with Anglo-Saxon England by finding a bride for Otto. Association with another royal house would give Henry additional legitimacy and strengthen the bonds between the two Saxon kingdoms. To seal the alliance, King Æthelstan of England sent Henry two of his half-sisters, so he could choose

1615-665: The Isagoge of Porphyry, the Categories of Aristotle, the distinction between rhetoric and dialectic of Fulbert himself, the Topica of Cicero, the De Interpretatione of Aristotle, Boethius three comments and de Ratione written by Gerbert in 997. The development of dialectics was furthered by Majolus of Cluny . The growing interest in the disciplines of the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy)

1710-592: The Annales iuvavenses , Arnulf was elected king by the Bavarians in opposition to Henry, but his "reign" was short-lived; Henry defeated him in two campaigns. In 921, Henry besieged Arnulf's residence at Ratisbon ( Regensburg ) and forced him into submission. Arnulf had to accept Henry's sovereignty; Bavaria retained some autonomy and the right to invest bishops in the Bavarian church. Otto first gained experience as

1805-529: The Archdiocese of Reims, Otto called for a synod at Ingelheim on 7 June 948. The assembly was attended by more than 30 bishops, including all the archbishops of Germany – a demonstration of Otto's strong position in East and West Francia alike. The synod confirmed Otto's appointment of Artald as Archbishop of Reims, and Hugh was admonished to respect his king's royal authority. But it was not until 950 that

1900-574: The Kingdom of Italy , with each of the realms being ruled by its own king. Though the pope in Rome continued to invest the kings of Italy as "emperors" to rule Charlemagne's empire, these "Italian emperors" never exercised any authority north of the Alps . When Berengar I of Italy was assassinated in 924, the last nominal heir to Charlemagne was dead and the imperial title was left unclaimed. King Rudolf II of Upper Burgundy and Hugh , Count of Provence ,

1995-640: The Pope at St. Peter's Basilica in Rome . The period is sometimes extended to cover the reign of Emperor Henry II (1014-1024) as well, and, rarely, his Salian successors. The term is generally confined to Imperial court culture conducted in Latin in Germany. - it is sometimes also known as the Renaissance of the 10th Century , or 10th Century Renaissance , so as to include developments outside Germania, or as

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2090-507: The Primate of Germany and Otto's long-time domestic rival, also returned to Germany alongside Liudolf. Disturbances in northern Germany forced Otto to return with the majority of his army back across the Alps in 952. Otto did leave a small portion of his army behind in Italy and appointed his son-in-law Conrad, Duke of Lorraine , as his regent and tasked him with subduing Berengar II. In

2185-643: The Western Slavic tribes of the Lutici , Obotrites , and Wagri . Hermann's appointment angered his brother, Count Wichmann the Elder . As the elder and wealthier of the two, Wichmann believed his claim to the office was superior to his brother's. Additionally, Wichmann was related by marriage to the dowager queen Matilda. In 937, Otto further offended the nobility through his appointment of Gero to succeed his older brother Siegfried as Count and Margrave of

2280-492: The Year 1000 Renewal , due to coming right at the end of the 10th century. It was shorter than the preceding Carolingian Renaissance and to a large extent a continuation of it - this has led historians such as Pierre Riché to prefer evoking it as a 'third Carolingian renaissance', covering the 10th century and running over into the 11th century, with the 'first Carolingian renaissance' occurring during Charlemagne 's own reign and

2375-553: The 'second Carolingian renaissance' happening under his successors. Libraries were created and enriched during the Ottonian Renaissance through the intense activity of the monastic scriptoria and were the subject of further developments in the 10th century, as evidenced by the catalogs that have survived. The catalog of Bobbio Abbey lists almost 600 works, that of Fleury Abbey nearly the same count. Gerbert (the future Pope Sylvester II) played an important role in

2470-458: The Alps. Conrad believed that a client state relationship with Italy would be in Germany's best interest. He offered a peace treaty in which Berengar II would remain King of Italy on the condition that he recognized Otto as his overlord. Berengar II agreed and the pair traveled north to meet with Otto to seal the agreement. Conrad's treaty was met with disdain by Adelaide and Henry. Though Adelaide

2565-702: The Catalan mercenaries who had taken shelter in the castle. This led to the admission of the Este to Ferrara. The castle was then rebuilt by Alberto d'Este in 1395. In 1597-1608, this castle and the churches of San Giovanni Battista and Sant'Agata were razed to build a papal fortress. The Castel Nuovo was razed in 1562. The papal fortress was razed in the 19th century. 44°50′20″N 11°36′25″E  /  44.83885501°N 11.60690986°E  / 44.83885501; 11.60690986 Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor Otto I (23 November 912 – 7 May 973), known as Otto

2660-498: The Emperor and bishops and produced some magnificent medieval illuminated manuscripts, the premier art form of the time. Corvey produced some of the first manuscripts, followed by the scriptorium at Hildesheim after 1000. The most famous Ottonian scriptorium was at the island monastery of Reichenau on Lake Constance: hardly any other works have formed the image of Ottonian art as much as the miniatures which originated there. One of

2755-720: The Great ( German : Otto der Große Italian : Ottone il Grande ) or Otto of Saxony ( German : Otto von Sachsen Italian : Ottone di Sassonia ), was East Frankish ( German ) king from 936 and Holy Roman Emperor from 962 until his death in 973. He was the eldest son of Henry the Fowler and Matilda of Ringelheim . Otto inherited the Duchy of Saxony and the kingship of the Germans upon his father's death in 936. He continued his father's work of unifying all German tribes into

2850-488: The Red as Duke of Lorraine and brought him into his extended family through his marriage to Otto's daughter Liutgarde in 947. A Salian Frank by birth, Conrad was a nephew of former king Conrad I of Germany. Following the death of Otto's uncle Berthold, Duke of Bavaria, in 947, Otto satisfied his brother Henry's ambition through his marriage to Judith, Duchess of Bavaria , daughter of Arnulf, Duke of Bavaria, and appointed him as

2945-979: The Romans" in 800, Otto was crowned emperor in 962 by Pope John XII in Rome. Otto's later years were marked by conflicts with the papacy and struggles to stabilize his rule over Italy. Reigning from Rome, Otto sought to improve relations with the Byzantine Empire , which opposed his claim to emperorship and his realm's further expansion to the south. To resolve this conflict, the Byzantine princess Theophanu married his son Otto II in April 972. Otto finally returned to Germany in August 972 and died at Memleben in May 973. Otto II succeeded him. Otto has been consistently depicted in historiography through different eras as

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3040-712: The Saxons (originally titled in Latin as Res gestae saxonicae sive annalium libri tres ) by the Saxon chronicler Widukind of Corvey , Conrad persuaded his younger brother Eberhard of Franconia , the presumptive heir, to offer the crown of East Francia to Otto's father Henry. Although Conrad and Henry had been at odds with one another since 912, Henry had not openly opposed the king since 915. Furthermore, Conrad's repeated battles with German dukes, most recently with Arnulf, Duke of Bavaria , and Burchard II, Duke of Swabia , had weakened

3135-493: The Slavs quickly proclaimed Tugumir as their prince. Upon assuming the throne, Tugumir murdered his chief rival and proclaimed his loyalty to Otto, incorporating his territory into the German kingdom. Otto granted Tugumir the title of "duke" and allowed Tugumir to rule his people, subject to Otto's suzerainty , in the same manner as the German dukes. After the coup by Gero and Tugumir, the Slavic federation broke apart. In control of

3230-700: The West. The globus cruciger became a symbol of kingly power and the Holy Roman Emperors were represented as crowned by Christ in the Byzantine fashion. It was in trying to revive the "glory that was Rome" that Otto III made the Eternal City his capital and increased in Greco-Roman fashion the ceremony of the court. Schools also revived under the influence of the Dukes of Naples and Capua where

3325-410: The acquisition and inventory of the library of Bobbio, and spent his wealth to fund his collection. Adso of Montier-en-Der 's book chest included a large number of books such as those of Porphyry, Aristotle, Terence, Cicero, and Virgil. The Logica vetus (consisting of translations of Aristotle by Boethius and Porphyry and the Topica of Cicero) remained the basis of dialectic education; Gerbert,

3420-496: The advancing Slavs; Otto then returned west to subdue his brother's rebellion. In 941, Gero initiated another plot to subdue the Slavs. He recruited a captive Slav named Tugumir, a Hevelli chieftain, to his cause. Gero promised to support him in claiming the Hevellian throne, if Tugumir would later recognize Otto as his overlord. Tugumir agreed and returned to the Slavs. Due to Gero's massacre, few Slavic chieftains remained, and

3515-452: The changes which took place during the time. She was a nun who composed verse and drama , based on the classical works of Terence . The architecture of the period was also innovative and represents a predecessor to the later Romanesque . Politically, theories of Christian unity and empire thrived, as well as revived classical notions of Imperial grandeur in the West. By Otto II's Greek wife Theophanu, Byzantine iconography entered

3610-698: The city willingly opened its gate to the German king, who was crowned king of the Lombards . Otto assumed the titles of Rex Italicorum and Rex Langobardorum in his acts from the 10 October onwards. Like Charlemagne before him, Otto was now concurrent King of Germany and King of Italy. Otto sent a message to his brother Henry in Bavaria to escort his bride from Canossa to Pavia, where the two married. Soon after his father's marriage in Pavia, Liudolf left Italy and returned to Swabia. Archbishop Frederick of Mainz,

3705-452: The claims and ranks of the nobility, who wanted dynastic succession in the assignment of office, by freely appointing individuals of his choice to the kingdom's offices. Loyalty to Otto, not lineage, was the pathway towards advancement under his rule. His mother Matilda disapproved of this policy and was accused by Otto's royal advisers of undermining his authority. After Otto briefly exiled her to her Westphalian manors at Enger in 947, Matilda

3800-516: The conspirators into Franconia and Lorraine. Otto recruited allies from the Duchy of Alsace who crossed the Rhine River and surprised Eberhard and Gilbert at the Battle of Andernach on 2 October 939. Otto's forces claimed an overwhelming victory: Eberhard was killed in battle, and Gilbert drowned in the Rhine while attempting to escape. Left alone to face his brother, Henry submitted to Otto and

3895-550: The daughter of Dietrich of Ringelheim , a Saxon count in Westphalia . Henry had previously married Hatheburg of Merseburg , also a daughter of a Saxon count, in 906, but this marriage was annulled, probably in 909 after she had given birth to Henry's first son and Otto's half-brother Thankmar . Otto had four full siblings: Hedwig , Gerberga , Henry and Bruno . On 23 December 918, Conrad I , King of East Francia and Duke of Franconia , died. According to The Deeds of

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3990-616: The daughter of one of Henry's chief advisers, in 922. Burgundy was originally a part of Middle Francia , the central portion of Charlemagne's empire according to its division under the Treaty of Verdun in 843. On 11 July 937, Rudolf II died and Hugh of Provence , the King of Italy and Rudolf II's chief domestic opponent, claimed the Burgundian throne. Otto intervened in the succession and with his support, Rudolf II's son, Conrad of Burgundy ,

4085-515: The decisive power behind the throne . Lothair married the sixteen-year-old Adelaide in 947 and became nominal king when Hugh died on 10 April 948, but Berengar II continued to hold power as mayor of the palace or viceroy . Lothair's brief "reign" came to an end with his death on 22 November 950, and Berengar II was crowned king on 15 December, with his son Adalbert of Italy as co-ruler. Failing to receive widespread support, Berengar II attempted to legitimize his reign and tried to force Adelaide,

4180-435: The dukes signaled cooperation with the new king, and clearly showed their submission to his reign. Despite his peaceful transition, the royal family was not harmonious during his early reign. Otto's younger brother Henry also claimed the throne, contrary to his father's wishes. According to her biography, Vita Mathildis reginae posterior , their mother had favored Henry as king: in contrast to Otto, Henry had been " born in

4275-429: The dukes to maintain complete internal control of their holdings as long as his superior status was recognized. Otto, on the other hand, had accepted Church anointment and regarded his kingdom as a feudal monarchy with himself holding the " divine right " to rule it. He reigned without concern for the internal hierarchy of the various kingdoms' noble families. This new policy ensured Otto's position as undisputed master of

4370-520: The east. During his early reign, Otto fostered close relations with Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus , who ruled over the Byzantine Empire from 913 until his death in 959; East Francia and Byzantium sent several ambassadors to one another. Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg , a medieval chronicler, records: "After this [Gilbert's defeat in 939], legates from the Greeks [Byzantines] twice brought gifts from their emperor to our king, both rulers being in

4465-560: The effective ruler of Lower Burgundy , competed with military means to gain dominion over Italy. In 926, Hugh's armies defeated Rudolf, Hugh could so establish de facto control over the Italian Peninsula and had himself crowned as King of Italy. His son Lothair was elevated to co-ruler in 931. Hugh and Rudolf II eventually concluded a peace treaty in 933; four years later Lothair was betrothed to Rudolf's infant daughter Adelaide . In 940, Berengar II , Margrave of Ivrea ,

4560-403: The efforts of their mother. Henry returned to East Francia, and Otto appointed him as the new Duke of Lorraine to succeed Gilbert. Henry had not dropped his ambitions for the German throne and initiated another conspiracy against his older brother. With the assistance of Archbishop Frederick of Mainz, Henry planned to have Otto assassinated on Easter Day, 941, at Quedlinburg Abbey. Otto discovered

4655-455: The feuding parties to his court at Magdeburg , where Eberhard was ordered to pay a fine, and his lieutenants were sentenced to carry dead dogs in public, which was considered a particularly shameful punishment. Infuriated with Otto's actions, Eberhard joined Otto's half-brother Thankmar, Count Wichmann, and Archbishop Frederick of Mainz and rebelled against the king in 938. Duke Herman I of Swabia, one of Otto's closest advisors, warned him of

4750-400: The four other dukes of the kingdom (from the duchies of Franconia , Swabia , Bavaria and Lorraine ) act as his personal attendants at the coronation banquet: Arnulf I of Bavaria as marshal (or stablemaster), Herman I, Duke of Swabia as cupbearer , Eberhard of Franconia as steward (or seneschal ) and Gilbert of Lorraine as Chamberlain . By performing this traditional service,

4845-501: The future Pope Sylvester II was familiar with these books and was noted for his mastery of dialectics during the dispute of Ravenna against Otric in 980, and in his treatise De rationalis et ratione uti (Of the rational and the use of reason), composed in 997 and dedicated to Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor . Abbo of Fleury wrote commentaries on these works through two treatises. An anthology of dialectical works dating from Fulbert of Chartres and probably from his library, contains

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4940-831: The greatest Reichenau works was the Codex Egberti , containing narrative miniatures of the life of Christ, the earliest such cycle, in a fusion of styles including Carolingian traditions as well as traces of insular and Byzantine influences. Other well known manuscripts included the Reichenau Evangeliary , the Liuther Codex , the Pericopes of Henry II , the Bamberg Apocalypse and the Hitda Codex . Hroswitha of Gandersheim characterises

5035-649: The integration of important vassals took place through marriage connections. King Louis IV of France had married Otto's sister Gerberga in 939, and Otto's son Liudolf had married Ida, the daughter of Hermann I, Duke of Swabia , in 947. The former dynastically tied the royal house of West Francia to that of East Francia, and the latter secured his son's succession to the Duchy of Swabia, as Hermann had no sons. Otto's plans came to fruition when, in 950, Liudolf became Duke of Swabia , and in 954 Otto's nephew Lothair of France became King of France . In 944, Otto appointed Conrad

5130-490: The key Hevelli stronghold of Brandenburg , Gero was able to attack and defeat the divided Slavic tribes. Otto and his successors extended their control into Eastern Europe through military colonization and the establishment of churches. Upon the death of Emperor Charles the Fat in 888, the empire of Charlemagne was divided into several territories: East Francia , West Francia , the kingdoms of Lower and Upper Burgundy , and

5225-583: The king's position to claim the Italian throne and ultimately the emperorship. Knowing of her great intelligence and immense wealth, Otto accepted Adelaide's marriage proposal and prepared for an expedition into Italy. In the early summer of 951, before his father marched across the Alps, Otto's son Liudolf , Duke of Swabia, invaded Lombardy in Northern Italy . The exact reasons for Liudolf's action are unclear, and historians have proposed several possible motives. Liudolf may have tried to help Adelaide,

5320-462: The kingdom to his son Liudolf upon his death. Otto called together all leading figures of the kingdom and had them swear an oath of allegiance to Liudolf, thereby promising to recognize his sole claim to the throne as Otto's heir apparent. Relying on recent archaeological evidences, Bachrach estimates that the armies he mobilized in 953 and 954 should have been in the range of 20,000 to 25,000 men, which were needed to besiege cities such as Mainz, which

5415-400: The kingdom. Members of his family and other aristocrats who rebelled against Otto were forced to confess their guilt publicly and unconditionally surrender to him, hoping for a pardon from their king. For nobles and other high-ranking officials, Otto's punishments were typically mild and the punished were usually restored to a position of authority afterwards. His brother Henry rebelled twice and

5510-455: The marriage of Otto II with Princess Theophanu , who upon her husband's death in 983 ruled as Empress dowager for her minor son Otto III until 991. After Otto I's Imperial coronation, there emerged a renewed faith in the idea of Empire in Otto's immediate circle and a reformed church, creating a period of heightened cultural and artistic fervor. Ottonian art was a court art, created to confirm

5605-665: The new Duke of Bavaria in 948. This arrangement finally achieved peace between the brothers, as Henry thereafter abandoned his claims to the throne. Through his familial ties to the dukes, Otto had strengthened the sovereignty of the crown and the overall cohesiveness of the kingdom. On 29 January 946, Eadgyth died suddenly at the age of 35, and Otto buried his wife in the Cathedral of Magdeburg . The union had lasted sixteen years and produced two children; with Eadgyth's death, Otto began to make arrangements for his succession. Like his father before him, Otto intended to transfer sole rule of

5700-487: The northern side of the German-Italian border. Henry had hope that, with Berengar II being deposed, his own fiefdom would be greatly expanded by incorporating territory south of the Alps. Conrad and Henry were already not on good terms, and the proposed treaty drove the two dukes further apart. Adelaide and Henry conspired together to persuade Otto to reject Conrad's treaty. Conrad and Berengar II arrived at Magdeburg to meet Otto, but had to wait three days before an audience

5795-419: The one which best pleased him. Henry selected Eadgyth as Otto's bride and the two were married in 930. Several years later, shortly before Henry's death, an Imperial Diet at Erfurt formally ratified the king's succession arrangements. Some of his estates and treasures were to be distributed among Thankmar, Henry, and Bruno. But departing from customary Carolingian inheritance, the king designated Otto as

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5890-402: The peace treaty Henry had established with Boleslaus' brother and predecessor, Wenceslaus I . Boleslaus attacked an ally of the Saxons in northwest Bohemia in 936 and defeated two of Otto's armies from Thuringia and Merseburg . After this initial large-scale invasion of Bohemia, hostilities were pursued, mainly in the form of border raids. The war was not concluded until 950, when Otto besieged

5985-431: The peace treaty between King Henry and Arnulf. Refusing to recognize Otto's supremacy, Eberhard rebelled against the king. In two campaigns in the spring and fall of 938, Otto defeated and exiled Eberhard from the kingdom and stripped him of his titles. In his place, Otto appointed Eberhard's uncle Berthold , a count in the March of Carinthia , as the new Duke of Bavaria on the condition that Berthold would recognize Otto as

6080-448: The plot and had the conspirators arrested and imprisoned at Ingelheim . The king later released and pardoned both men only after they publicly performed penance on Christmas Day that same year. The decade between 941 and 951 was marked by Otto's exercise of undisputed domestic power. Through the subordination of the dukes under his authority, Otto asserted his power to make decisions without their prior agreement. He deliberately ignored

6175-409: The position and resources of the Conradines . After several months of hesitation, Eberhard and the other Frankish and Saxon nobles elected Henry as king at the Imperial Diet of Fritzlar in May 919. For the first time, a Saxon instead of a Frank reigned over the kingdom. Burchard II of Swabia soon swore fealty to the new king, but Arnulf of Bavaria did not recognize Henry's position. According to

6270-481: The powerful vassal accepted Louis IV as king; the opponents were not fully reconciled until March 953. Otto left the sorting out of West Frankish affairs to his son-in-law Conrad the Red and later Bruno the Great , together with Otto's sisters Gerberga and Hadwig who were regents for their sons King Lothar and Duke Hugh. Otto had received the feudal commendation of several west Frankish magnates, and like his father had settled royal and episcopal succession disputes in

6365-430: The production of illuminated manuscripts from a handful of elite scriptoria , such as Quedlinburg Abbey , founded by Otto in 936, and in political ideology. The Imperial court became the center of religious and spiritual life, led by the example of women of the royal family: Matilda the literate mother of Otto I, his sister Gerberga of Saxony , or his consort Adelaide . The Byzantine influence further increased with

6460-418: The purple " during his father's reign and shared his name. Otto also faced internal opposition from various local aristocrats. In 936, Otto appointed Hermann Billung as Margrave , granting him authority over a march north of the Elbe River between the Limes Saxoniae and Peene Rivers . As military governor, Hermann extracted tribute from the Polabian Slavs inhabiting the area and often fought against

6555-402: The rebellion and the king moved quickly to put down the revolt. Wichmann was soon reconciled with Otto and joined the king's forces against his former allies. Otto besieged Thankmar at Eresburg and although the latter surrendered, he was killed by a common soldier named Maincia or Meginzo at the altar of the Church of St. Peter. Otto mourned his half-brother and praised his courage but the killer

6650-439: The rebellion ended. With Eberhard dead, Otto assumed direct rule over the Duchy of Franconia and dissolved it into smaller counties and bishoprics accountable directly to him. The same year, Otto made peace with Louis IV, whereby Louis recognized his suzerainty over Lorraine. In return Otto withdrew his army and arranged for his sister Gerberga (the widow of Gilbert) to marry Louis IV. In 940, Otto and Henry were reconciled through

6745-614: The rebellion. Gilbert was married to Otto's sister Gerberga of Saxony, but had sworn fealty to King Louis IV of West Francia . Otto exiled Henry from East Francia, and he fled to the court of King Louis. The West Frankish king, in hopes of regaining dominion over Lorraine once again, joined forces with Henry and Gilbert. In response, Otto allied with Louis's chief antagonist, Hugh the Great , Count of Paris , and husband of Otto's sister Hedwige . Henry captured Merseburg and planned to join Gilbert in Lorraine, but Otto besieged them at Chevremont near Liège . Before he could defeat them, he

6840-502: The respective daughter, daughter-in-law and widow of the last three Italian kings, into marriage with Adalbert. Adelaide fiercely refused and was imprisoned by Berengar II at Garda Lake . With the help of Count Adalbert Atto of Canossa , she managed to escape from imprisonment. Besieged by Berengar II in Canossa , Adelaide sent an emissary across the Alps seeking Otto's protection and marriage. A marriage to Adelaide would have strengthened

6935-552: The rightful Duke of Lorraine due to his marriage to Gerberga of Saxony, Otto's sister and the widow of Gilbert, Duke of Lorraine. Otto did not recognize Louis IV's claim and appointed his brother Henry as duke instead. In the following years, both sides tried to increase their influence in Lorraine, but the duchy remained a part of Otto's kingdom. Despite their rivalry, Louis IV and Hugh were both tied to Otto's family through marriage bonds. Otto intervened for peace in 942 and announced

7030-545: The same year as Charles H. Haskins published The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century (Cambridge Mass., 1927) One of three medieval renaissances , the Ottonian Renaissance began after King Otto's marriage to Adelaide of Italy (951) united the Italian and German kingdoms, and thus brought the West closer to Byzantium . He furthered the cause of Christian (political) unity with his Imperial coronation in 962 by

7125-557: The sole heir apparent without a prior formal election by the various dukes. Henry died from the effects of a cerebral stroke on 2 July 936 at his palace, the Kaiserpfalz in Memleben , and was buried at Quedlinburg Abbey . At the time of his death, all of the various German tribes were united in a single realm. At the age of almost 24, Otto assumed his father's position as Duke of Saxony and King of Germany . His coronation

7220-559: The sole authority to appoint bishops and to administer royal property within the duchy. At the same time, Otto had to settle a dispute between Bruning, a Saxon noble, and Duke Eberhard of Franconia, the brother of the former king Conrad I of Germany . After the rise of a Saxon to kingship, Bruning, a local lord with possessions in the borderland between Franconia and Saxony, refused to swear fealty to any non-Saxon ruler. Eberhard attacked Bruning's Helmern castle near Peckelsheim , killed all of its inhabitants and burned it down. The king called

7315-460: The start of new, vigorous literary traditions. The patronage of Otto and his immediate successors facilitated a so-called " Ottonian Renaissance " of arts and architecture. As one of the most notable Holy Roman emperors, Otto's footprint in artistic depictions is also considerable. Otto was born on 23 November 912, the oldest son of the Duke of Saxony , Henry the Fowler and his second wife Matilda ,

7410-452: The title "King of Italy" to him. The Italian king had to pay an enormous annual tribute and was required to cede the Duchy of Friuli south of the Alps. Otto reorganized this area into the March of Verona and put it under Henry's control as reward for his loyalty. The Duchy of Bavaria therefore grew to become the most powerful domain in Germany. Ottonian Renaissance The concept of

7505-417: The urging of his sister Gerberga, Otto invaded France on behalf of Louis IV, but his armies were not strong enough to take the key cities of Laon, Reims , and Paris. After three months, Otto finally lifted the siege without defeating Hugh, but managed to depose Hugh of Vermandois from his position as Archbishop of Reims , restoring Artald of Reims to his former office. To settle the issue of control over

7600-514: The use of the monochord for musical study, and construction of the abacus for arithmetic studies. Fulbert of Chartres introduced the use of Arabic numerals . Hermann of Reichenau , of the school of Reichenau, was famed for his treatises on the astrolabe, calculus and music. The Ottonian Renaissance is recognized especially in the arts and architecture , invigorated by renewed contact with Constantinople , in some revived cathedral schools, such as that of Archbishop Bruno of Cologne , in

7695-645: The western kingdom. Bruno intervened militarily in West Francia in 958, as well as against the Reginarids in Lotharingia. However, this Ottonian hegemony from 940 to 965 was personal rather than institutional, and quickly disappeared after the accession of Hugh Capet in 987. Otto continued the peaceful relationship between Germany and the Kingdom of Burgundy initiated by his father. King Rudolf II of Burgundy had previously married Bertha of Swabia ,

7790-422: Was Burgundian by birth, she was raised as an Italian. Her father Rudolf II of Burgundy was briefly king of Italy prior to being deposed and she herself had briefly been queen of Italy until her husband Lothair II of Italy's death. Berengar II imprisoned her when she refused to marry his son, Adalbert of Italy. Henry had other reasons to disapprove of the peace treaty. As Duke of Bavaria , he controlled territory on

7885-531: Was able to secure the throne. Burgundy had become an integral, but formally independent, part of Otto's sphere of influence and remained at peace with Germany during his reign. Boleslaus I, Duke of Bohemia , assumed the Bohemian throne in 935. The next year, following the death of Otto's father, King Henry the Fowler, Boleslaus stopped paying tribute to the German Kingdom (East Francia) in violation of

7980-423: Was brought back to court at the urging of his wife Eadgyth. The nobility found it difficult to adapt to Otto, as the kingdom had never before followed individual succession to the throne. Whereas tradition dictated that all the sons of the former king were to receive a portion of the kingdom, Henry's succession plan placed Otto at the head of a united kingdom at the expense of his brothers. Otto's authoritarian style

8075-457: Was charged with the subjugation of the pagan Polabian Slavs. According to Widukind, Gero invited about thirty Slavic chieftains to a banquet; after the feast his soldiers attacked and massacred the unsuspecting drunken guests. The Slavs demanded revenge and marched against Gero with an enormous army. Otto agreed to a brief truce with his rebellious brother Henry and moved to support Gero. After fierce fighting, their combined forces were able to repel

8170-434: Was defended by armies in excess of 30,000. The West Frankish kings had lost considerable royal power after internal struggles with their aristocracy, but still asserted their authority over the Duchy of Lorraine, a territory also claimed by East Francia. The German king was supported by Louis IV's chief domestic rival, Hugh the Great. Louis IV's second attempt to reign over Lorraine in 940 was based on his asserted claim to be

8265-438: Was forced to abandon the siege and moved against Louis, who had seized Verdun . Otto subsequently drove Louis back to his capital at Laon . While Otto gained some initial victories against the rebels, he was unable to capture the conspirators and end the rebellion. Archbishop Frederick sought to mediate peace between the combatants, but Otto rejected his proposal. Under Otto's direction, Duke Herman of Swabia led an army against

8360-531: Was granted. This was a humiliating offense for the man Otto had named his regent. Though Adelaide and Henry urged the treaty's immediate rejection, Otto referred the issue to an Imperial Diet for further debate. Appearing before the Diet in August 952 in Augsburg , Berengar II and his son Adalbert were forced to swear fealty to Otto as his vassals. In return, Otto granted Berengar II Italy as his fiefdom and restored

8455-687: Was held on 7 August 936 in Charlemagne 's former capital of Aachen , where Otto was anointed and crowned by Hildebert, the Archbishop of Mainz. Though he was a Saxon by birth, Otto appeared at the coronation in Frankish dress in an attempt to demonstrate his sovereignty over the Duchy of Lotharingia and his role as true successor to Charlemagne, whose last heirs in East Francia had died out in 911. According to Widukind of Corvey, Otto had

8550-442: Was in stark contrast to that of his father. Henry had purposely waived Church anointment at coronation as a symbol of his election by his people and governing his kingdom on the basis of "friendship pacts" (Latin: amicitia ). Henry regarded the kingdom as a confederation of duchies and saw himself as a first among equals . Instead of seeking to administer the kingdom through royal representatives, as Charlemagne had done, Henry allowed

8645-472: Was not punished. Following their defeats, Eberhard and Frederick sought reconciliation with the king. Otto pardoned both after a brief exile in Hildesheim and restored them to their former positions. Shortly after his reconciliation, Eberhard planned a second rebellion against Otto. He promised to assist Otto's younger brother Henry in claiming the throne and recruited Gilbert, Duke of Lorraine, to join

8740-550: Was pardoned twice after his surrenders. He was even appointed Duke of Lorraine and later Duke of Bavaria. Rebellious commoners were treated far more harshly; Otto usually had them executed. Otto continued to reward loyal vassals for their service throughout his tenure as king. Although appointments were still gained and held at his discretion, they were increasingly intertwined with dynastic politics. Where Henry relied upon "friendship pacts", Otto relied upon family ties. Otto refused to accept uncrowned rulers as his equal. Under Otto,

8835-468: Was the success of the Ottonians in molding the raw materials bequeathed to them into a formidable military machine that made possible the establishment of Germany as the preeminent kingdom in Europe from the tenth through the mid-thirteenth century." Bachrach highlights in particular the achievements of the first two Ottonian rulers, Henry I and Otto the Great in creating this situation. Their rules also marked

8930-429: Was translated to the teachings of the leading scholars of their time, such as Abbo of Fleury who wrote many treatises on the calculation of the computus , astronomical subjects such as the trajectories of the sun, moon and planets, and a star catalogue. The future Pope Sylvester II , introduced the use of wooden terrestrial spheres for the astronomical study of the movement of the earth, planets and constellations,

9025-773: Was unable to sustain his troops. His army was near destruction until Otto's troops crossed the Alps. The king reluctantly received Liudolf's forces into his command, angry at his son for his independent actions. Otto and Liudolf's troops arrived in northern Italy in September 951 without opposition from Berengar II. As they descended into the Po River valley, the Italian nobles and clergy withdrew their support for Berengar and provided aid to Otto and his advancing army. Recognizing his weakened position, Berengar II fled from his capital in Pavia . When Otto arrived at Pavia on 23 September 951,

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