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73-531: The Ottonians are associated with the notable military success that transformed the political situation in contemporary Western Europe: "It was the success of the Ottonians in molding the raw materials bequeathed to them into a formidable military machine that made possible the establishment of Germany as the preeminent kingdom in Europe from the tenth through the mid-thirteenth century." They are also associated with

146-796: A Saxon vassal, Valdemar allowed the Rani prince Jaromar to rule as a Christian Danish vassal. After Valdemar refused to share Rugia with Henry, the Saxon duke enlisted the aid of the Obotrite confederacy and the Liutizi against the Danes; Valdemar ended the conflict by paying Henry in 1171. Alarmed at the expansion of Henry the Lion's power, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa deposed the Saxon duke and redistributed his lands in 1180/81. The withdrawal of Saxon support left

219-531: A daughter of the Babenberg duke Henry of Franconia . Otto possibly accompanied King Arnulf on his 894 campaign to Italy ; the marriage of his daughter Oda with Zwentibold , Arnulf's illegitimate son, documents the efforts of the Carolingian ruler to win the mighty Saxon dynasty over as an ally. According to the Saxon chronicler Widukind of Corvey , Otto upon the death of the last Carolingian king Louis

292-628: A direct Holy and Imperial lineage as a source of legitimized power linked from Constantine and Justinian. In this atmosphere the masterpieces that were created fused the traditions which the new art was based on: paintings from Late Antiquity , the Carolingian period, and Byzantium . In this way, the term is used as an analogue to the Carolingian Renaissance which accompanied Charlemagne 's coronation in 800. A small group of Ottonian monasteries received direct sponsorship from

365-741: A family monastery and burial ground. Liudolf already held the high social position of a Saxon dux , documented by the marriage of his daughter Liutgard with Louis the Younger , son of the Carolingian king Louis the German in 869. Liudolf's sons Bruno and Otto the Illustrious ruled over large parts of Saxon Eastphalia , moreover, Otto acted as lay abbot of the Imperial abbey of Hersfeld with large estates in Thuringia. He married Hedwiga ,

438-859: A list of the tribes in Central Europe to the east of the Elbe. Among other tribes it lists the Uuilci ( Veleti ) with 95 civitates , the Nortabtrezi ( Obotrites ) with 53 civitates, the Surbi ( Sorbs ) with 50 civitates, the Milzane ( Milceni ) with 30 civitates, the Hehfeldi ( Hevelli ) with 14 civitates and so on. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia classifies the Polabian Slavs in three main tribes,

511-752: A notable cultural movement (especially new literary traditions) known as the Ottonian Renaissance . After the end of Ottonian rule in 1024, the Salian dynasty went on to occupy the Imperial throne for just over a century, until 1125. In the 9th century, the Saxon count Liudolf held large estates on the Leine river west of the Harz mountain range and in the adjacent Eichsfeld territory of Thuringia . His ancestors probably acted as ministeriales in

584-413: A revolt in 1066 led to the murder of Gottschalk and his replacement by the pagan Kruto of Wagria. Gottschalk's son Henry eventually killed Kruto in 1093. From 1140 to 1143 Holsatian nobles advanced into Wagria to permanently settle in the lands of the pagan Wagri. Count Adolf II of Holstein and Henry of Badewide took control of Polabian settlements at Liubice and Racisburg . Impressed with

657-665: The Isagoge of Porphyry, the Categories of Aristotle, the distinction between rhetoric and dialectic of Fulbert himself, the Topica of Cicero, the De Interpretatione of Aristotle, Boethius three comments and de Ratione written by Gerbert in 997. The development of dialectics was furthered by Majolus of Cluny . The growing interest in the disciplines of the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy)

730-527: The Archbishopric of Magdeburg at his long-time residence. Co-ruler with his father since 961 and crowned emperor in 967, Otto II ascended the throne at the age of 18. By excluding the Bavarian line of Ottonians from the line of succession, he strengthened Imperial authority and secured his own son's succession to the Imperial throne. During his reign, Otto II attempted to annex the whole of Italy into

803-773: The Baltic Sea in the north, the Saale and the Limes Saxoniae in the west, the Ore Mountains and the Western Sudetes in the south, and Poland in the east. The Polabian Slavs were largely conquered by Saxons and Danes since the 9th century and were subsequently included and gradually assimilated within the Holy Roman Empire . The tribes were gradually Germanized and assimilated in

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876-851: The Billung March to the north and the Marca Geronis to the south. After Gero 's death in 965, the Marca Geronis was divided into the Northern March , the March of Lusatia , and the Thuringian March , the latter being divided into the marches of Zeitz , Merseburg , and Meissen . Bishoprics such as Magdeburg , Brandenburg , and Havelberg were founded to support the conversion of the Slavs to Christianity . After

949-705: The Bishopric of Bamberg in 1007, intertwining the secular and ecclesiastical authority over the Empire. Henry II was canonized by Pope Eugene III in 1146. As his marriage with Cunigunde of Luxembourg remained childless, the Ottonian dynasty became extinct with the death of Henry II in 1024. The crown passed to Conrad II of the Salian dynasty , great-grandson of Liutgarde , a daughter of Otto I. When King Rudolph III of Burgundy died without heirs on 2 February 1032, Conrad II successfully claimed also this kingship on

1022-672: The Congress of Gniezno in Poland , establishing the Archdiocese of Gniezno and confirming the royal status of the Piast ruler Bolesław I the Brave . Expelled from Rome in 1001, Otto III died at age 21 the next year, without an opportunity to reconquer the city. The childless Otto III was succeeded by Henry II, a son of Duke Henry II of Bavaria and thereby a member of the Bavarian line of

1095-754: The Franks because of their continuous expeditions into Obodrite lands, with the Obodrites being allies of the Franks against the Saxons . German campaigns against the Slavs began in earnest during the Ottonian dynasty . Henry the Fowler attacked the Slavs in several campaigns with his cavalry. During the reigns of Henry and his son Otto I , several marches were established to guard the eastern acquisitions, such as

1168-1049: The Obotrites , the Veleti , and the Lusatian Sorbs . The main tribes of the Obotritic confederation were the Obotrites proper ( Wismar Bay to the Schweriner See ); the Wagrians (eastern Holstein ); the Warnabi ( Warnower ) (the upper Warnow and Mildenitz ); and the Polabians proper (between the Trave and the Elbe ). Other tribes associated with the confederation include the Linones ( Linonen ) near Lenzen ,

1241-695: The Pope at St. Peter's Basilica in Rome . The period is sometimes extended to cover the reign of Emperor Henry II (1014-1024) as well, and, rarely, his Salian successors. The term is generally confined to Imperial court culture conducted in Latin in Germany. - it is sometimes also known as the Renaissance of the 10th Century , or 10th Century Renaissance , so as to include developments outside Germania, or as

1314-478: The Saxon and Danish heavy cavalry . Religion was an important aspect of Polabian society. Much of their territory was dotted with holy places in nature to which the Slavs could pray and make offerings to Slavic gods . The priesthood was an important class which developed images and objects of worship. Polabian towns often included elaborate temples often visited for offerings and pilgrimages. In contrast, priests in

1387-1173: The Uckermark . Smaller tribes included the Došane along the Dosse , the Zamzizi in the Ruppin Land , and the Rěčanen on the upper Havel . Along the lower Havel and near the confluence of the Elbe and the Havel lived the Nelětici, the Liezizi, the Zemzizi, the Smeldingi ( Smeldinger ), and the Bethenici. The middle Havel region and the Havelland were settled by the Hevelli , a tribe loosely connected to

1460-492: The Year 1000 Renewal , due to coming right at the end of the 10th century. It was shorter than the preceding Carolingian Renaissance and to a large extent a continuation of it - this has led historians such as Pierre Riché to prefer evoking it as a 'third Carolingian renaissance', covering the 10th century and running over into the 11th century, with the 'first Carolingian renaissance' occurring during Charlemagne 's own reign and

1533-709: The knes took overall command. The prince's voivot ensured military service from the warriors and taxes from the peasantry. While the countryside provided land forces, the towns were known for their longships , which were lighter and lower than those used by the Danes and Swedes . From a distance, Polabian fleets resembled those of the Scandinavians, although targets would recognize the Slavs' closely cropped hair and shrieking battle cries when they grew close. Polabian cavalry used small horses which were effective in quick raiding campaigns, but less effective against

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1606-553: The 'second Carolingian renaissance' happening under his successors. Libraries were created and enriched during the Ottonian Renaissance through the intense activity of the monastic scriptoria and were the subject of further developments in the 10th century, as evidenced by the catalogs that have survived. The catalog of Bobbio Abbey lists almost 600 works, that of Fleury Abbey nearly the same count. Gerbert (the future Pope Sylvester II) played an important role in

1679-632: The 1140s, Saxon nobles attempted to expel the "native" Slavs and replace them with Saxon and Flemish settlers. The 1164 Obotrite revolt led by Niklot's son Pribislav convinced Henry the Lion that keeping the Slavs as allies would be less troublesome. The duke returned the Christian Pribislav to power as Prince of Mecklenburg , Kessin , and Rostock , and a vassal of the Saxons. Tactics and weaponry were decisive in Denmark's campaigns against

1752-442: The Child in 911 was already a candidate for the East Frankish crown, which however passed to the Franconian duke Conrad I . Upon Otto's death in 912, his son Henry the Fowler succeeded him as Duke of Saxony . Henry had married Matilda of Ringelheim , a descendant of the legendary Saxon ruler Widukind and heiress to extended estates in Westphalia . The Ottonian kings Holy Roman emperors were: Although never emperor, Henry

1825-463: The Drevani in the area of the lower Elbe until the early 18th century. A Polabian prince was known as a knez . His power was relatively greater in Slavic society than those of Danish or Swedish kings in their kingdoms, although it was not absolute. He was the general leader of his tribe and was foremost among its nobles, holding much of the forested hinterland and expecting reverence from his warriors. However, his authority largely extended only to

1898-443: The Emperor and bishops and produced some magnificent medieval illuminated manuscripts, the premier art form of the time. Corvey produced some of the first manuscripts, followed by the scriptorium at Hildesheim after 1000. The most famous Ottonian scriptorium was at the island monastery of Reichenau on Lake Constance: hardly any other works have formed the image of Ottonian art as much as the miniatures which originated there. One of

1971-436: The Empire, bringing him into conflict with the Byzantine emperor and with the Saracens of the Fatimid Caliphate . His campaign against the Saracens ended in 982 with a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Stilo . Moreover, in 983 Otto II experienced a Great Slav Rising against his rule. Otto II died in 983 at the age of 28 after a ten-year reign. Succeeded by his three-year-old son Otto III as king, his sudden death plunged

2044-409: The Fowler was arguably the founder of the imperial dynasty. While East Francia under the rule of the last Carolingian kings was ravaged by Hungarian invasions , he was chosen to be primus inter pares among the German dukes. Elected Rex Francorum in May 919, Henry abandoned the claim to dominate the whole disintegrating Carolingian Empire and, unlike his predecessor Conrad I, succeeded in gaining

2117-444: The German historian Hans Naumann - more precisely, his work published in 1927 grouped the Carolingian and Ottonian periods together under the title Karolingische und ottonische Renaissance ( The Carolingian and Ottonian Renaissance ). This was only two years after Erna Patzelt's coining of the term 'Carolingian Renaissance' ( Die Karolingische Renaissance: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Kultur des frühen Mittelalters , Vienna, 1924), and

2190-405: The Great and were incorporated into the Kingdom of Germany . By the 14th century, the majority of Slavs living there had been Germanized and assimilated. However, the Sorbs , the descendants of the Milceni and the Lusici, have retained their identity within Lusatia , a region divided between the German states of Brandenburg and Saxony . The Slavic language was spoken by the descendants of

2263-435: The Leubuzzi who were associated with medieval Poland. Small groups of West Slavs lived on the Main and the Regnitz near Bamberg , in northeastern Bavaria . The Polabian Slavs partly replaced the Germanic tribes who had emigrated by the 6th century during the migration period . According to radiocarbon dating , the first Slavs reached Southwestern Hungary, Suchohrad in Western Slovakia and Prague in Czechia in

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2336-417: The Liutizi and their Pomeranian supporters vulnerable to the Danish fleet. A Slavic fleet attempting to reclaim Rugia was crushed at the Bay of Greifswald on 19 May 1184. Danish monks engaged in missionary activity in Pomeranian abbeys, and Prince Bogislaw I surrendered to King Canute VI in 1185 to become the Danish king's vassal. Pribislav , a Christian prince of the Hevelli , bequeathed his lands to

2409-407: The Ottonian dynasty into crisis. During her regency for Otto III, Empress Theophanu abandoned her late husband's imperialistic policy and devoted herself entirely to furthering her own agenda in Italy. When Otto III came of age, he concentrated on securing the rule in the Italian domains, installing his confidants Bruno of Carinthia and Gerbert of Aurillac as popes. In 1000 he made a pilgrimage to

2482-410: The Ottonians revitalised the cathedral school network which promoted learning based on the seven liberal arts. Ottonian intellectual activity was largely a continuation of Carolingian works, but circulated mainly in the cathedral schools and the courts of bishops (such as Liège, Cologne and Magdeburg), rather than the royal court. The concept of a renaissance was first applied to the Ottonian period by

2555-434: The Ottonians. Duke of Bavaria since 995, he was crowned king on 7 June 1002. Henry II spent the first years of his rule consolidating his political power on the borders of the German kingdom. He waged several campaigns against Bolesław I of Poland and then moved successfully to Italy where he was crowned emperor by Pope Benedict VIII on 14 February 1014. He reinforced his rule by endowing and founding numerous dioceses, such as

2628-414: The Redarier south and east of the Tollensesee on the upper Havel . The Redarier were the most important of the Veleti tribes. The Rani of Rügen , not to be confused with the older Germanic Rugians , are sometimes considered to be part of the Veleti. South of the Rani were the Ucri ( Ukranen ) along the Ucker and the Morici ( Morizani , Müritzer ) along the Müritz ; the former gave their name to

2701-414: The Saale. Joachim Herrmann considered that the core Sorbian tribes surely were Colodici, Siusler and Glomaci, and that they also settled and influenced around Magdeburg , Havelland, Thuringia and northeast Bavaria. To the East possibly later included the Lusici of Lower Lusatia and the Milceni of Upper Lusatia , while to the East of them were the Selpoli and the Besunzanen, and on the middle Oder

2774-405: The Saxon Albert the Bear upon his death, thereby leading to the establishment of the Margraviate of Brandenburg . The Lusatian Sorbs remained independent to a large extent. They were temporarily subdued by Charlemagne , but upon his death the links with the Franks were broken. In a series of bloody wars between 929 and 963 their lands were conquered by King Henry the Fowler and his son Otto

2847-519: The Saxon stem duchy, which had been incorporated into the Carolingian Empire after the Saxon Wars of Charlemagne . The family's substantial holdings in Thuringia suggest that they originated from that region, and their Saxon lands may have been granted as a reward for their service to the Carolingians. Liudolf married Oda , a member of the Frankish House of Billung . About 852 the couple together with Bishop Altfrid of Hildesheim founded Brunshausen Abbey, which, once relocated to Gandersheim , rose to

2920-436: The Slavic territories between the Elbe and the Oder. Despite the efforts of Christian missionaries, most Polabian Slavs saw Jesus as a " German god " and remained pagan . The Obotrite prince Udo and his son Gottschalk expanded their realm by unifying the Obotrite tribes and conquering some Liutizi tribes in the 11th century. They encouraged the establishments of bishoprics to support Christian missionary activity. However,

2993-413: The Travnjane near the Trave , and the Drevani in the Hanoverian Wendland and the northern Altmark . The Veleti , also known as the Liutizians or Wilzians, included the Kessinians ( Kessiner , Chyzzini ) along the lower Warnow and Rostock ; the Circipani ( Zirzipanen ) between the Recknitz , Trebel , and Peene Rivers; the Tollenser east and south of the Peene along the Tollense River; and

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3066-434: The Veleti. East of the Hevelli lived the Sprevane of the lower Dahme and Spree rivers. Small tribes on the middle Elbe included the Morizani and the Zerwisti. The Sorbs confederation in the Elbe-Saale region included Citici, Serimunt, Colodici, Siusler, Nizici, Glomaci ( Daleminzier ) and Nisanen who lived along the upper Elbe, while the Chutici, Plisni, Gera, Puonzowa, Tucharin, Weta, and groups of Nelětici lived near

3139-406: The West. The globus cruciger became a symbol of kingly power and the Holy Roman Emperors were represented as crowned by Christ in the Byzantine fashion. It was in trying to revive the "glory that was Rome" that Otto III made the Eternal City his capital and increased in Greco-Roman fashion the ceremony of the court. Schools also revived under the influence of the Dukes of Naples and Capua where

3212-410: The acquisition and inventory of the library of Bobbio, and spent his wealth to fund his collection. Adso of Montier-en-Der 's book chest included a large number of books such as those of Porphyry, Aristotle, Terence, Cicero, and Virgil. The Logica vetus (consisting of translations of Aristotle by Boethius and Porphyry and the Topica of Cicero) remained the basis of dialectic education; Gerbert,

3285-419: The basis of an inheritance Emperor Henry II had extorted from the former in 1006, having invaded Burgundy to enforce his claim after Rudolph attempted to renounce it in 1016. Historians have written extensively about how the Ottonian kings and emperors ruled their lands. For some historians, following in the wake of Karl Leyser, Ottonian government was primarily conducted through oral and ritual means, in which

3358-452: The changes which took place during the time. She was a nun who composed verse and drama , based on the classical works of Terence . The architecture of the period was also innovative and represents a predecessor to the later Romanesque . Politically, theories of Christian unity and empire thrived, as well as revived classical notions of Imperial grandeur in the West. By Otto II's Greek wife Theophanu, Byzantine iconography entered

3431-460: The defeat of Otto II at the Battle of Stilo in 982, the pagan Slavs rebelled against the Germans the following year; the Hevelli and Liutizi destroyed the Bishoprics of Havelberg and Brandenburg, and Obotrites (Mstivoj) destroyed Hamburg. Some Slavs advanced across the Elbe into Saxon territory, but retreated when the Christian Duke of Poland, Mieszko I , attacked them from the east. The Holy Roman Empire retained only nominal control over

3504-450: The eastern Polabian Slavs. The Danes utilized quick coastal and river raids, tactics similar to those of the Vikings . Although they lacked siege experience, the Danes were able to cripple Slavic regions by burning crops and unwalled suburbs. Slav counterattacks were repulsed by crossbows and Norwegian longbows . The Danes occupied Rugia in 1168, conquering the Rani stronghold of Arkona . Similar to Henry's reinstatement of Pribislav as

3577-439: The first-third of the 6th century, and Regensburg of Northeast Bavaria in 568. The earliest dating of Prague -type pottery and sites between Elbe and Saale and Sukow -type in Northeastern Germany was found to be from 590s. However, palynology and other evidence show that the land in Germany became forested and not well resettled by the Slavs, with most material and sites dating since the 8th century. Slavic settlement area

3650-475: The following centuries; the Sorbs are the only descendants of the Polabian Slavs to have retained their identity and culture. The Polabian language is now extinct. However, the two Sorbian languages are spoken by approximately 22,000–30,000 inhabitants of the region and the languages are regarded by the government of Germany as official languages of the region. The Bavarian Geographer , an anonymous medieval document compiled in Regensburg in 830, contains

3723-501: The future Pope Sylvester II was familiar with these books and was noted for his mastery of dialectics during the dispute of Ravenna against Otric in 980, and in his treatise De rationalis et ratione uti (Of the rational and the use of reason), composed in 997 and dedicated to Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor . Abbo of Fleury wrote commentaries on these works through two treatises. An anthology of dialectical works dating from Fulbert of Chartres and probably from his library, contains

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3796-453: The greatest Reichenau works was the Codex Egberti , containing narrative miniatures of the life of Christ, the earliest such cycle, in a fusion of styles including Carolingian traditions as well as traces of insular and Byzantine influences. Other well known manuscripts included the Reichenau Evangeliary , the Liuther Codex , the Pericopes of Henry II , the Bamberg Apocalypse and the Hitda Codex . Hroswitha of Gandersheim characterises

3869-430: The illustrious Bishop St Alfanus I , an imitator of ancient writers, was closely involved in music, astronomy and medicine. Polabian Slavs Polabian Slavs , also known as Elbe Slavs and more broadly as Wends , is a collective term applied to a number of Lechitic ( West Slavic ) tribes who lived scattered along the Elbe river in what is today eastern Germany . The approximate territory stretched from

3942-498: The late 1150s, King Valdemar the Great of Denmark enlisted the aid of Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony against the Slavs; their cooperation led to the death of the Obotrite prince, Niklot , in 1160. The two Christian lords distributed much of the conquered territory among their vassals. When Niklot's exiled son, Pribislav , engineered an Obotrite rebellion, the pair retaliated by occupying Demmin and warding off Pribislav's Liutizian allies. After conquering Wagria and Polabia during

4015-404: The marriage of Otto II with Princess Theophanu , who upon her husband's death in 983 ruled as Empress dowager for her minor son Otto III until 991. After Otto I's Imperial coronation, there emerged a renewed faith in the idea of Empire in Otto's immediate circle and a reformed church, creating a period of heightened cultural and artistic fervor. Ottonian art was a court art, created to confirm

4088-514: The patronage of Otto and his immediate successors caused a limited cultural renaissance of the arts and architecture. He confirmed the 754 Donation of Pepin and, with recourse to the concept of translatio imperii in the succession of Charlemagne , proceeded to Rome to have himself crowned Holy Roman emperor by Pope John XII in 962. He even reached a settlement with the Byzantine emperor John I Tzimiskes by marrying his son and heir Otto II to John's niece Theophanu . In 968 he established

4161-566: The peasantry. With the exception of Arkona on Rügen , few Polabian towns on the Baltic coast were built near the shore, out of concern for pirates and raiders. While not highly populated compared to Flanders or Italy , the Polabian towns were relatively large for the Baltic region, such as in comparison to those of Scandinavia. The majority of Polabian Slavs were peasants in small villages who engaged in agriculture (rich in grains, flax) and animal husbandry (poultry, cattle). Some villagers were fishermen, beekeepers, or trappers. Farmland

4234-430: The production of illuminated manuscripts from a handful of elite scriptoria , such as Quedlinburg Abbey , founded by Otto in 936, and in political ideology. The Imperial court became the center of religious and spiritual life, led by the example of women of the royal family: Matilda the literate mother of Otto I, his sister Gerberga of Saxony , or his consort Adelaide . The Byzantine influence further increased with

4307-520: The reigns of the first three Holy Roman Emperors of the Ottonian (or Saxon ) dynasty: Otto I (936–973), Otto II (973–983), and Otto III (983–1002), and which in large part depended upon their patronage. The leading figures in this movement were Pope Sylvester II and Abbo of Fleury . Renewed contact between the Ottonian court and Byzantine Constantinople spurred the hybridisation of Eastern-Byzantine and Western-Latin cultures, particularly in arts, architecture and metalwork, while

4380-426: The same year as Charles H. Haskins published The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century (Cambridge Mass., 1927) One of three medieval renaissances , the Ottonian Renaissance began after King Otto's marriage to Adelaide of Italy (951) united the Italian and German kingdoms, and thus brought the West closer to Byzantium . He furthered the cause of Christian (political) unity with his Imperial coronation in 962 by

4453-468: The savior of Christendom and the epithet "the Great". He transformed the Church in Germany into a kind of proprietary church and major royal power base to which he donated charity and for the creation of which his family was responsible. By 961, Otto had conquered the Kingdom of Italy , which was a troublesome inheritance that none wanted, and extended his kingdom's borders to the north, east, and south. In control of much of central and southern Europe,

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4526-472: The success of the First Crusade , Saxons began calling for a crusade against their Slav neighbors. The Wendish Crusade of 1147, concurrent to the Second Crusade , was largely unsuccessful, resulting in devastation to the Liutizi lands and forced baptisms . The campaign did secure Saxon control of Wagria and Polabia , however. The Obotrites were largely at peace with the Saxons during the following decade, although Slavic pirates raided Denmark. Beginning in

4599-427: The support of the Franconian , Bavarian , Swabian and Lotharingian dukes. In 933 he led a German army to victory over the Hungarian forces at the Battle of Riade and campaigned both the land of the Polabian Slavs and the Duchy of Bohemia . Because he had assimilated so much power through his conquest, he was able to transfer power to his son Otto I . Otto I, duke of Saxony upon the death of his father in 936,

4672-405: The territory controlled by his governor, or voivod . Each voivod governed small territories based around fortifications. Princely power often differed between tribes. The Obodrite prince Henryk was able to maintain a sizable army ca. 1100 at the expense of the towns, and the importance of knez within the Obodrites only increased after his death. The prince of the Rani , on the other hand,

4745-514: The use of the monochord for musical study, and construction of the abacus for arithmetic studies. Fulbert of Chartres introduced the use of Arabic numerals . Hermann of Reichenau , of the school of Reichenau, was famed for his treatises on the astrolabe, calculus and music. The Ottonian Renaissance is recognized especially in the arts and architecture , invigorated by renewed contact with Constantinople , in some revived cathedral schools, such as that of Archbishop Bruno of Cologne , in

4818-455: The written word took a back seat. Other historians, such as David Bachrach, have argued strongly for the continuing use of writing in administering the Ottonians' far-flung lands. Attention has recently focused on how the rulers took advantage of their royal estates, known as the fisc. Ottonian Renaissance The Ottonian Renaissance was a renaissance of Byzantine and Late Antique art in Central and Southern Europe that accompanied

4891-406: Was able to suppress their uprisings, in consequence, the various dukes, who had previously been co-equals with the king, were reduced to royal subjects under the king's authority. Otto's decisive victory over the Magyars at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 ended the threat of Hungarian invasions and secured his hold over his kingdom. The defeat of the pagan Magyars earned King Otto the reputation as

4964-678: Was divided into a unit called a kuritz ( Latin : uncus ), for which peasants paid grain taxes to the voivot . Polabian society developed during the 9th and 10th centuries under pressure from the Holy Roman Empire and the Vikings of Scandinavia . They were often forced to pay tribute to the kings of Denmark , Catholic bishops, and imperial margraves . Polabian society became militarized and its leaders began organizing armed forces and defenses. Many Polabian magnates lived in forest fortresses, while towns were inhabited by warriors and burghers . The magnates often raided Germanic territories or engaged in piracy. In times of large-scale war,

5037-519: Was elected king within a few weeks. He continued the work of unifying all of the German tribes into a single kingdom, greatly expanding the powers of the king at the expense of the aristocracy. Through strategic marriages and personal appointments, he installed members of his own family in the kingdom's most important duchies. This, however, did not prevent his relatives from entering into civil war: both Otto's brother Duke Henry I of Bavaria and his son Duke Liudolf of Swabia revolted against his rule. Otto

5110-504: Was largely stable by the 8th century. Charlemagne enlisted the Obotrites as allies in his campaign against the rebellious Saxons of Holstein . Many of the Slavic tribes became dependencies of the Carolingian Empire and the Franks created the Sorbian March to defend against the Sorbs . Einhard in Vita Karoli Magni describes an expedition into Slavic territory led by Charlemagne himself, in 798. The Veleti noted as Wilzi (referred to themselves as Welatabians ) were invaded by

5183-420: Was limited by the local senate , which was led by the high priest at Cape Arkona ; the Rani knez was essentially first among the tribe's landowners. The power of the prince and his governors was often restricted by the river towns, known to chroniclers as civitates , especially within the territory of the Veleti. Polabian towns were centered on small earthworks arranged in circles or ovals. The gord

5256-411: Was situated at the highest altitude of the town and held a barracks, citadel, and princely residence. It was often protected by a moat, walls, and wooden towers. Below the gord , but still within the town walls, was the urbs or suburbium , which held the residences for the nobility and merchants. The towns often held wooden temples for Slavic gods within the urbs . Outside of the walls were homes for

5329-429: Was translated to the teachings of the leading scholars of their time, such as Abbo of Fleury who wrote many treatises on the calculation of the computus , astronomical subjects such as the trajectories of the sun, moon and planets, and a star catalogue. The future Pope Sylvester II , introduced the use of wooden terrestrial spheres for the astronomical study of the movement of the earth, planets and constellations,

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