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103-546: It was the first council not to be recognised by any Oriental Orthodox church; for this reason these churches may be classified as Non-Chalcedonian . The Council of Chalcedon was summoned to consider the Christological question in light of the "one-nature" view of Christ proposed by Eutyches , archimandrite at Constantinople, which prevailed at the Second Council of Ephesus in 449, sometimes referred to as

206-539: A preexistent figure who becomes human and then returns to God ", versus adoptionism – that Jesus was human who was "adopted" by God at his baptism, crucifixion, or resurrection. While there was a consensus as of 2007 that the divinity of Christ was a later development, there are scholars now who argue that the historical Jesus claimed to be God. Most scholars now argue that a high Christology existed prior to Paul. Brant Pitre 's argument that Jesus claimed to be divine has been particularly well received, obtaining

309-628: A crucial event in his adoption by God. Historically in the Alexandrian school of thought (fashioned on the Gospel of John ), Jesus Christ is the eternal Logos who already possesses unity with the Father before the act of Incarnation . In contrast, the Antiochian school viewed Christ as a single, unified human person apart from his relationship to the divine. The notion of pre-existence

412-614: A magisterial leader like the Catholic Church , nor does the communion have a leader who can convene ecumenical synods like the Eastern Orthodox Church. Meanwhile its ecumenical dialogues and internal church relations are led by the Standing Conference of Oriental Orthodox Churches, which acts as the permanent representative council of its member churches. The schism between Oriental Orthodoxy and

515-576: A majority of scholars argue that this "high Christology" existed already before the writings of Paul. According to the "New Religionsgeschichtliche Schule ", or the Early High Christology Club, which includes Martin Hengel , Larry Hurtado , N. T. Wright , and Richard Bauckham , this "incarnation Christology" or "high Christology" did not evolve over a longer time, but was a "big bang" of ideas which were already present at

618-451: A more complex understanding of the idea of God in first century Judaism. However, Andrew Loke argues that if Jesus did not claim and show himself to be truly divine and rise from the dead, the earliest Christian leaders who were devout ancient monotheistic Jews would have regarded Jesus as merely a teacher or a prophet; they would not have come to the widespread agreement that he was truly divine, which they did. Brant Pitre also argues that

721-628: A number of the existing issues. In his Christology from above, Aquinas also championed the principle of perfection of Christ 's human attributes. The Middle Ages also witnessed the emergence of the "tender image of Jesus" as a friend and a living source of love and comfort, rather than just the Kyrios image. Article 10 of the Belgic Confession , a confessional standard of the Reformed faith , subscribes to Nicene orthodoxy regarding

824-671: A possible repudiation of the Trinity or a concession to Nestorianism . The break in communion between the imperial Roman and Oriental Orthodox Churches did not occur suddenly, but rather gradually over two to three centuries following the Council of Chalcedon. Eventually the two communions developed separate institutions, and the Oriental Orthodox did not participate in any of the later ecumenical councils. The Oriental Orthodox Churches maintain ancient apostolic succession and

927-754: A theological iota, they took place in controversial political circumstances, reflecting the relations of temporal powers and divine authority, and certainly resulted in schisms, among others that separated the Church of the East from the Church of the Roman Empire. In 325, the First Council of Nicaea defined the persons of the Godhead and their relationship with one another, decisions which were ratified at

1030-676: Is a branch of theology that concerns Jesus . Different denominations have different opinions on questions such as whether Jesus was human, divine, or both, and as a messiah what his role would be in the freeing of the Jewish people from foreign rulers or in the prophesied Kingdom of God , and in the salvation from what would otherwise be the consequences of sin . The earliest Christian writings gave several titles to Jesus, such as Son of Man , Son of God , Messiah , and Kyrios , which were all derived from Hebrew scripture. These terms centered around two opposing themes, namely "Jesus as

1133-447: Is a list of the six autocephalous Oriental Orthodox churches forming the main body of Oriental Orthodox Christianity. Based on the definitions, the list is in the alphabetical order, with some of their constituent autonomous churches and exarchates listed as well. There are a number of churches considered non-canonical, but whose members and clergy may or may not be in communion with the greater Oriental Orthodox communion. Examples include

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1236-572: Is a prevailing religion in Ethiopia (43.1%), while Protestants account for 19.4% and Islam – 34.1%. It is most widespread in two regions in Ethiopia : Amhara (82%) and Tigray (96%), as well as the capital city of Addis Ababa (75%). It is also one of two major religions in Eritrea (40%). It is a minority in Egypt (<20%), Syria (2–3% out of the 10% of total Christians), Lebanon (10% of

1339-550: Is also conjectured to be the Greek translation of Aramaic Mari , which in everyday Aramaic usage was a very respectful form of polite address, which means more than just 'teacher' and was somewhat similar to ' rabbi '. While the term Mari expressed the relationship between Jesus and his disciples during his life, the Greek Kyrios came to represent his lordship over the world. The early Christians placed Kyrios at

1442-693: Is also underway between Oriental Orthodoxy and the Catholic Church and others. In 2017, the mutual recognition of baptism was restored between the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria and the Catholic Church. Also baptism is mutually recognized between the Armenian Apostolic Church and the Catholic Church. The Oriental Orthodox Churches are generally considered to be more conservative with regard to social issues . All Oriental Orthodox Churches are members of

1545-530: Is called God, the Word, the Son, and Jesus Christ did exist at that time, when all things were created by him. Therefore, the prophet Micah says, "His goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting" ( Micah 5:2 ). And the apostle: " He has neither beginning of days, nor end of life" ( Hebrews 7:3 ). He therefore is that true, eternal, and almighty God, whom we invoke, worship and serve. John Calvin maintained there

1648-895: Is composed of six autocephalous national churches: the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria ; the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch and its constituent autonomous Malankara Jacobite Syrian Church ; the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church ; the Armenian Apostolic Church comprising the autocephalous Catholicosate of Etchmiadzin in Armenia and the Catholicosate of Cilicia in the Levant and of diaspora;

1751-475: Is deeply rooted in Jewish thought, and can be found in apocalyptic thought and among the rabbis of Paul's time, but Paul was most influenced by Jewish-Hellenistic wisdom literature, where " 'Wisdom' is extolled as something existing before the world and already working in creation. According to Witherington, Paul "subscribed to the christological notion that Christ existed prior to taking on human flesh[,] founding

1854-709: Is offering prayer before a holy God. In this Christian tradition, it is customary for women to wear a Christian headcovering when praying. Some Oriental Orthodox Churches such as the Coptic Orthodox , Ethiopian Orthodox , and Eritrean Orthodox , also place a heavier emphasis on Old Testament teachings than one might find in other Christian denominations, and its followers adhere to certain practices: following dietary rules that are similar to Jewish Kashrut , require that their male members undergo circumcision , and observes ritual purification . The Oriental Orthodox Churches also maintain differing compilations of

1957-416: Is one with God, he must have been united with God from the very beginning. Two fundamentally different Christologies developed in the early Church, namely a "low" or adoptionist Christology, and a "high" or "incarnation" Christology. The chronology of the development of these early Christologies is a matter of debate within contemporary scholarship. The "low Christology" or "adoptionist Christology"

2060-405: Is the forgiving or pardoning of sin in general and original sin in particular through the suffering, death and resurrection of Jesus , enabling the reconciliation between God and his creation . Due to the influence of Gustaf Aulèn 's (1879–1978) Christus Victor (1931), the various theories or paradigmata of atonement are often grouped as "classical paradigm", "objective paradigm", and

2163-460: Is the belief "that God exalted Jesus to be his Son by raising him from the dead", thereby raising him to "divine status". According to the "evolutionary model" or evolutionary theories, the Christological understanding of Jesus developed over time, as witnessed in the Gospels, with the earliest Christians believing that Jesus was a human who was exalted, or else adopted as God's Son, when he

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2266-557: The Armenian Apostolic Church (see Oriental Orthodoxy ) from other churches. Oriental Orthodoxy The Oriental Orthodox Churches are Eastern Christian churches adhering to Miaphysite Christology , with approximately 50 million members worldwide. The Oriental Orthodox Churches adhere to the Nicene Christian tradition. Oriental Orthodoxy is one of the oldest branches in Christianity . As some of

2369-636: The Catholicosate of the Great House of Cilicia . The division between the two sees intensified during the Soviet period. The Holy See of Etchmiadzin was seen as a captive communist puppet by some Western bishops and clergy. Sympathizers of this established congregations independent of Etchmiadzin, declaring loyalty instead to the see based in Antelias in Lebanon . The division was formalized in 1956 when

2472-542: The Chalcedonian Creed did not put an end to all christological debate, it did clarify the terms used and became a point of reference for many future Christologies. But it also broke apart the church of the Eastern Roman Empire in the fifth century, and unquestionably established the primacy of Rome in the East over those who accepted the Council of Chalcedon. This was reaffirmed in 519, when

2575-715: The Church of the East until the Synod of Beth Lapat in AD 484, separating primarily over differences in Christology. The majority of Oriental Orthodox Christians live in Egypt , Ethiopia , Eritrea , India , Syria , Turkey and Armenia , with smaller Syriac communities in Western Asia decreasing due to persecution . There are also many in other parts of the world, formed through diaspora , conversions , and missionary activity. The name "Oriental Orthodox Churches"

2678-721: The Creed of Nicaea (325) and the further definitions of the Council of Constantinople (381). In one of the translations into English, the key section, emphasizing the double nature of Christ (human and divine), runs: Following, then, the holy Fathers, we all unanimously teach that our Lord Jesus Christ is to us One and the same Son, the Self-same Perfect in Godhead, the Self-same Perfect in Manhood; truly God and truly Man ;

2781-741: The Encyclopedia of Religion , Oriental Orthodoxy is the Christian tradition "most important in terms of the number of faithful living in the Middle East", which, along with other Eastern Christian communions , represent an autochthonous Christian presence whose origins date further back than the birth and spread of Islam in the Middle East. As of 2011 , it was the dominant religion in Armenia (94%) and ethnically Armenian unrecognized Nagorno-Karabakh Republic (95%). Oriental Orthodoxy

2884-842: The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church , and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church . The Malabar Independent Syrian Church —based in India—and the British Orthodox Church in the UK are independent Oriental Orthodox churches, having formerly been part of one of the mainstream Oriental Orthodox churches. Oriental Orthodox Christians consider themselves to be the one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church founded by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission , and its bishops as

2987-565: The First Council of Constantinople in 381. The language used was that the one God exists in three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit); in particular, it was affirmed that the Son was homoousios (of the same being) as the Father. The Nicene Creed declared the full divinity and full humanity of Jesus. After the First Council of Nicaea in 325 the Logos and the second Person of the Trinity were being used interchangeably. In 431,

3090-518: The First Council of Ephesus was initially called to address the views of Nestorius on Mariology , but the problems soon extended to Christology, and schisms followed. The 431 council was called because in defense of his loyal priest Anastasius, Nestorius had denied the Theotokos title for Mary and later contradicted Proclus during a sermon in Constantinople . Pope Celestine I (who

3193-548: The Historical Jesus claimed to be divine and was the origin of high Christology. The study of the various Christologies of the Apostolic Age is based on early Christian documents. The oldest Christian sources are the writings of Paul . The central Christology of Paul conveys the notion of Christ's pre-existence and the identification of Christ as Kyrios . Both notions already existed before him in

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3296-804: The Malabar Independent Syrian Church , the Celtic Orthodox Church , the Orthodox Church of the Gauls , the British Orthodox Church , and the Tigrayan Orthodox Tewahedo Church . These organizations have passed in and out of official recognition, but members rarely face excommunication when recognition is ended. The primates of these churches are typically referred to as episcopi vagantes or vagantes in short. According to

3399-575: The New Testament regarding the dual nature of the Person of Christ as both divine and human, and since the early days of Christianity, theologians have debated various approaches to the understanding of these natures, at times resulting in ecumenical councils, and schisms. Some historical christological doctrines gained broad support: Influential Christologies which were broadly condemned as heretical are: Various church councils , mainly in

3502-719: The Nicene Creed . The primary theological difference between the two communions is the differing Christology. Oriental Orthodoxy rejects the Chalcedonian Definition , and instead adopts the miaphysite formula, believing that the human and divine natures of Christ are united in one Incarnate Nature. Historically, the early prelates of the Oriental Orthodox Churches thought that the Chalcedonian Definition implied

3605-522: The World Council of Churches . To the hierarchs who would lead the Oriental Orthodox, the description of Christ as "one person in two natures" was tantamount to accepting Nestorianism, which expressed itself in a terminology incompatible with their understanding of Christology. Nestorianism was understood as seeing Christ in two separate natures, human and divine, each with different actions and experiences; in contrast Cyril of Alexandria advocated

3708-546: The canonical hours seven times a day while facing in the eastward direction towards Jerusalem, in anticipation of the Second Coming of Jesus ; this Christian practice has its roots in Psalm 119:164 , in which the prophet David prays to God seven times a day. Before praying, they wash their hands and face in order to be clean before and to present their best to God; shoes are removed in order to acknowledge that one

3811-488: The historic episcopacy . The various churches are governed by holy synods , with a primus inter pares bishop serving as primate . The primates hold titles such as patriarch , catholicos , and pope . The Alexandrian Patriarchate , the Antiochian Patriarchate along with Patriarchate of Rome , was one of the most prominent sees of the early Christian Church . Oriental Orthodoxy does not have

3914-479: The hypostatic union ) versus dyophysitism (coexisting natures after the hypostatic union) versus monophysitism (only one nature) versus Nestorianism (two hypostases). From the Christological viewpoint, the council adopted Mia Physis ('but being made one', κατὰ φύσιν ) – Council of Ephesus, Epistle of Cyril to Nestorius, i.e. 'one nature of the Word of God incarnate' ( μία φύσις τοῦ θεοῦ λόγου σεσαρκωμένη , mía phýsis toû theoû lógou sesarkōménē ). In 451,

4017-744: The successors of Christ's apostles . Three rites are practiced by the churches: the western-influenced Armenian Rite , the West Syriac Rite of the Syriac Church and the Malankara Syrian Church of India, and the Alexandrian Rite of the Copts , Ethiopians and Eritreans . Oriental Orthodox Churches shared communion with the imperial Roman church before the Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD, and with

4120-414: The veneration of icons while forbidding their worship. It is often referred to as "The Triumph of Orthodoxy". The Franciscan piety of the 12th and 13th centuries led to "popular Christology". Systematic approaches by theologians, such as Thomas Aquinas , are called "scholastic Christology". In the 13th century , Thomas Aquinas provided the first systematic Christology that consistently resolved

4223-533: The " cosmic Christology " later developed in the Gospel of John, elaborating the cosmic implications of Jesus' existence as the Son of God: "Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation. The old has passed away; behold, the new has come." Paul writes that Christ came to draw all back to God: "Through him God was pleased to reconcile to himself all things, whether on earth or in heaven" (Colossians 1:20); in

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4326-416: The "Robber Synod". The Council first solemnly ratified the Nicene Creed adopted in 325 and that creed as amended by the First Council of Constantinople in 381. It also confirmed the authority of two synodical letters of Cyril of Alexandria and the letter of Pope Leo I to Flavian of Constantinople . The full text of the definition reaffirms the decisions of the Council of Ephesus , the pre-eminence of

4429-535: The "subjective paradigm": Other theories are the "embracement theory" and the "shared atonement" theory. The earliest christological reflections were shaped by both the Jewish background of the earliest Christians, and by the Greek world of the eastern Mediterranean in which they operated. The earliest Christian writings give several titles to Jesus, such as Son of Man , Son of God , Messiah , and Kyrios , which were all derived from Hebrew scripture. According to Matt Stefon and Hans J. Hillerbrand: Until

4532-749: The 40% of Christians in Lebanon or 200,000 Armenians and members of the Church of the East) and Kerala , India (7% out of the 20% of total Christians in Kerala). In terms of total number of members, the Ethiopian Church is the largest of all Oriental Orthodox churches, and is second among all Orthodox churches among Eastern and Oriental Churches (exceeded in number only by the Russian Orthodox Church ). Also of particular importance are

4635-463: The 4th and 5th centuries, resolved most of these controversies, making the doctrine of the Trinity orthodox in nearly all branches of Christianity. Among them, only the Dyophysite doctrine was recognized as true and not heretical, belonging to the Christian orthodoxy and deposit of faith . In Christian theology , atonement is the method by which human beings can be reconciled to God through Christ 's sacrificial suffering and death . Atonement

4738-430: The Antelias (Cilician) See broke away from the Etchmiadzin See. In 1992, following the abdication of Abune Merkorios and election of Abune Paulos , some Ethiopian Orthodox bishops in the United States maintained that the new election was invalid, and declared their independence from the Addis Ababa administration forming separate synod. On 27 July 2018, representatives from both synods reached an agreement. According to

4841-402: The Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople in Turkey and the Armenian Apostolic Church of Iran . These Oriental Orthodox churches represent the largest Christian minority in both of these predominantly Muslim countries, Turkey and Iran . The Oriental Orthodox Churches are distinguished by their recognition of only the first three ecumenical councils during the period of the state church of

4944-415: The Chalcedonian Definition tended towards Nestorianism. This was in part because of the restoration of a number of bishops deposed at the Second Council of Ephesus, bishops who had previously indicated what appeared to be support of Nestorian positions. The Coptic Church of Alexandria dissented, holding to Cyril of Alexandria 's preferred formula for the oneness of Christ's nature in the incarnation of God

5047-433: The Christological doctrine that Christ was two distinct persons, one divine (the Logos ) and one human (Jesus), who happened to inhabit the same body. Twenty years after Ephesus, the Council of Chalcedon reaffirmed the view that Jesus Christ was a single person, but at the same time declared that this one person existed "in two complete natures", one human and one divine. At times, Chalcedonian Christians have referred to

5150-412: The Church of the East was affiliated with the doctrine of Nestorianism , and thus rejected the Council of Ephesus , which declared Nestorianism heretical in 431. The Christology of the Oriental Orthodox Churches in fact developed as a reaction against Nestorian Christology, which emphasizes the distinctness of the human and divine natures of Christ. Christology In Christianity , Christology

5253-414: The Council of Chalcedon affirmed dyophysitism . The Oriental Orthodox rejected this and subsequent councils and continued to consider themselves as miaphysite according to the faith put forth at the Councils of Nicaea and Ephesus . The council also confirmed the Theotokos title and excommunicated Nestorius. The 451 Council of Chalcedon was highly influential, and marked a key turning point in

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5356-405: The Council of Chalcedon. However, despite the progress made in ecumenical dialogue, many Oriental Orthodox authorities like Pope Shenouda III remained skeptical about the Chalcedonian churches, continuing to view their Christology as Nestorian . The Oriental Orthodox Churches are a communion of six autocephalous (that is, administratively completely independent) regional churches. Below

5459-450: The East is sometimes incorrectly described as an Oriental Orthodox church, though its origins lie in disputes that predated the Council of Chalcedon and it follows a different Christology from Oriental Orthodoxy. The historical Church of the East was the church of Greater Iran and declared itself separate from the state church of the Roman Empire in 424–27, years before the Ecumenical Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon. Theologically,

5562-404: The East". Today, Oriental Orthodox Churches are in full communion with each other, but not with the Eastern Orthodox Church or any other churches. Like Catholics or Eastern Orthodox, the Oriental Orthodox Churches includes several self-governing churches. Slow dialogue towards restoring communion between the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox groups was renewed in the mid-20th century, and dialogue

5665-409: The Eastern Chalcedonians accepted the Formula of Hormisdas , anathematizing all of their own Eastern Chalcedonian hierarchy, who died out of communion with Rome from 482 to 519. The Second Council of Constantinople in 553 interpreted the decrees of Chalcedon, and further explained the relationship of the two natures of Jesus. It also condemned the alleged teachings of Origen on the pre-existence of

5768-485: The Gospels do not claim to be an exhaustive list of his works. Christologies that can be gleaned from the three synoptic Gospels generally emphasize the humanity of Jesus, his sayings, his parables , and his miracles . The Gospel of John provides a different perspective that focuses on his divinity. The first 14 verses of the Gospel of John are devoted to the divinity of Jesus as the Logos , usually translated as "Word", along with his pre-existence, and they emphasize

5871-415: The Indian Orthodox Church, is an autocephalous church. It is headed by the Catholicos of the East and Malankara Metropolitan . The Jacobite Syrian Christian Church is an autonomous maphrianate of the Syriac Orthodox Church in India. The Malabar Independent Syrian Church also follows the Oriental Orthodox tradition, but is not in communion with other Oriental Orthodox churches. The Assyrian Church of

5974-483: The Lord Jesus Christ Himself hath taught us, and as the Symbol of the Fathers hath handed down to us. The Definition implicitly addressed a number of popular heretical beliefs. The reference to "co-essential with the Father" was directed at Arianism ; "co-essential with us" is directed at Apollinarianism ; "Two Natures unconfusedly, unchangeably" refutes Eutychianism ; and "indivisibly, inseparably" and " Theotokos " are against Nestorianism . The Chalcedonian Definition

6077-418: The Oriental Orthodox as being monophysites —that is to say, accusing them of following the teachings of Eutyches ( c.  380  – c.  456 ), who argued that Jesus Christ was not human at all, but only divine. Monophysitism was condemned as heretical alongside Nestorianism, and to accuse a church of being monophysite is to accuse it of falling into the opposite extreme from Nestorianism. However,

6180-417: The Oriental Orthodox themselves reject this description as inaccurate, having officially condemned the teachings of both Nestorius and Eutyches. They define themselves as miaphysite instead, holding that Christ has one nature, but this nature is both human and divine. Oriental Orthodox Christians, such as Copts, Syrians and Indians, use a breviary such as the Agpeya and Shehimo , respectively, to pray

6283-403: The Roman Empire : the First Council of Nicaea in 325, the First Council of Constantinople in 381 and the Council of Ephesus in 431. Oriental Orthodoxy shares much theology and many ecclesiastical traditions with the Eastern Orthodox Church ; these include a similar doctrine of salvation and a tradition of collegiality between bishops, as well as reverence of the Theotokos and use of

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6386-506: The Self-same of a rational soul and body; co-essential with the Father according to the Godhead, the Self-same co-essential with us according to the Manhood; like us in all things, sin apart; before the ages begotten of the Father as to the Godhead, but in the last days, the Self-same, for us and for our salvation (born) of Mary the Virgin Theotokos as to the Manhood; One and the Same Christ, Son, Lord, Only-begotten; acknowledged in Two Natures unconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably;

6489-478: The Son of God by his resurrection from the dead", which sounds like an adoptionistic Christology, where Jesus was a human being who was "adopted" after his death. Different views would be debated for centuries by Christians and finally settled on the idea that he was both fully human and fully divine by the middle of the 5th century in the Council of Ephesus . Paul's thoughts on Jesus' teachings, versus his nature and being, are more defined, in that Paul believed Jesus

6592-518: The Word as "out of two natures". Cyril's language is not consistent and he may have countenanced the view that it is possible to contemplate in theory two natures after the incarnation, but the Church of Alexandria felt that the Definition should have stated that Christ be acknowledged "out of two natures" rather than "in two natures". The definition defines that Christ is "acknowledged in two natures", which "come together into one person and one hypostasis ". The formal definition of "two natures" in Christ

6695-437: The acts, or proceedings, of the council show that the bishops considered Cyril the great authority and that even the language of "two natures" derives from him. This dyophysite position, historically characterised by Chalcedonian followers as " monophysitism ", though this is denied by the dissenters, formed the basis for the distinction of the Coptic Church of Egypt and Ethiopia and the " Jacobite " churches of Syria , and

6798-444: The adherents of Chalcedonian Christianity was based on differences in Christology. The First Council of Nicaea , in 325, declared that Jesus Christ is God , that is to say, " consubstantial " with the Father. Later, the third ecumenical council, the Council of Ephesus , declared that Jesus Christ, though divine as well as human, is only one being, or person ( hypostasis ). Thus, the Council of Ephesus explicitly rejected Nestorianism ,

6901-454: The authorities of the Holy See and the Oriental Orthodox, reconciling declarations emerged in the common statement of Syriac Patriarch Mar Ignatius Zakka I Iwas and the Roman Pope John Paul II in 1984: The confusions and schisms that occurred between their Churches in the later centuries, they realize today, in no way affect or touch the substance of their faith, since these arose only because of differences in terminology and culture and in

7004-400: The biblical canon including the Peshitta , Coptic and Orthodox Tewahedo canons, and the Armenian canon . There are numerous ongoing internal disputes within the Oriental Orthodox Churches. These disputes result in lesser or greater degrees of impaired communion. The least divisive of these disputes is within the Armenian Apostolic Church , between the Catholicosate of Etchmiadzin and

7107-550: The brightness of His glory" ( Hebrews 1:3 ), equal unto him in all things. He is the Son of God, not only from the time that He assumed our nature, but from all eternity, as these testimonies, when compared together, teach us. Moses says that God created the world; and John saith that "all things were made by that Word" ( John 1:3 ), which he calls God. And the apostle says that God made the worlds by His Son ( Hebrews 1:2 ); likewise, that "God created all things by Jesus Christ" ( Ephesians 3:9 ). Therefore, it must needs follow, that he who

7210-456: The center of their understanding, and from that center attempted to understand the other issues related to the Christian mysteries. The question of the deity of Christ in the New Testament is inherently related to the Kyrios title of Jesus used in the early Christian writings and its implications for the absolute lordship of Jesus. In early Christian belief, the concept of Kyrios included the pre-existence of Christ , for they believed if Christ

7313-463: The christological debates. It is the last council which many Lutherans , Anglicans and other Protestants consider ecumenical. The Council of Chalcedon fully promulgated the Western dyophysite understanding put forth by Pope Leo I of Rome of the hypostatic union , the proposition that Christ has one human nature ( physis ) and one divine nature (physis) , each distinct and complete, and united with neither confusion nor division. Most of

7416-437: The cosmic significance of Christ, e.g.: "All things were made through him, and without him was not any thing made that was made." In the context of these verses, the Word made flesh is identical with the Word who was in the beginning with God, being exegetically equated with Jesus. Following the Apostolic Age , from the second century onwards, a number of controversies developed about how the human and divine are related within

7519-403: The deity of Christ. The article places emphasis on the eternal generation of the Son and the eternal divine nature of Christ as Creator. We believe that Jesus Christ, according to his divine nature, is the only begotten Son of God, begotten from eternity, not made nor created (for then He should be a creature), but co-essential and co-eternal with the Father, "the express image of His person, and

7622-572: The difference of the Natures being in no way removed because of the Union, but rather the properties of each Nature being preserved, and (both) concurring into One Person and One Hypostasis; not as though He was parted or divided into Two Persons, but One and the Self-same Son and Only-begotten God, Word, Lord, Jesus Christ; even as from the beginning the prophets have taught concerning Him, and as

7725-531: The early Christian communities, and Paul deepened them and used them for preaching in the Hellenistic communities. What exactly Paul believed about the nature of Jesus cannot be determined decisively. In Philippians 2 , Paul states that Jesus was preexistent and came to Earth "by taking the form of a servant, being made in human likeness". This sounds like an incarnation Christology. In Romans 1:4, however, Paul states that Jesus "was declared with power to be

7828-494: The endorsement of noted scholars Dale C. Allison Jr. , Chris Tilling, Tucker Ferda, and Christine Jacobi. From the second to the fifth centuries, the relation of the human and divine nature of Christ was a major focus of debates in the early church and at the first seven ecumenical councils . The Council of Chalcedon in 451 issued a formulation of the hypostatic union of the two natures of Christ, one human and one divine, "united with neither confusion nor division". Most of

7931-488: The formula "One Nature of God the Incarnate Logos" (or as others translate, "One Incarnate Nature of the Word" ). The Oriental Orthodox Churches were therefore often called "monophysite", although they reject this label, as it is associated with Eutychian monophysitism ; they prefer the term "miaphysite". In the years following Chalcedon the patriarchs of Constantinople intermittently remained in communion with

8034-420: The human aspects and the ministry of Jesus (including the miracles, parables, etc.) and move towards his divinity and the mystery of incarnation. A basic Christological teaching is that the person of Jesus Christ is both human and divine. The human and divine natures of Jesus Christ apparently ( prosopic ) form a duality, as they coexist within one person ( hypostasis ). There are no direct discussions in

8137-514: The idea of the pre-existence of Christ as the Logos ('the Word'), as expressed in the prologue to the Gospel of John . These approaches interpret the works of Christ in terms of his divinity. According to Pannenberg, Christology from above "was far more common in the ancient Church, beginning with Ignatius of Antioch and the second century Apologists." The term Christology from below or low Christology refers to approaches that begin with

8240-546: The idea. John Hick , writing in 1993, mentioned changes in New Testament studies, citing "broad agreement" that scholars do not today support the view that Jesus claimed to be God, quoting as examples Michael Ramsey (1980), C. F. D. Moule (1977), James Dunn (1980), Brian Hebblethwaite (1985) and David Brown (1985). Larry Hurtado , who argues that the followers of Jesus within a very short period developed an exceedingly high level of devotional reverence to Jesus, at

8343-427: The influence of Gentile Christians, who brought their pagan Hellenistic traditions to the early Christian communities, introducing divine honours to Jesus. According to Casey and Dunn, this "high Christology" developed after the time of Paul, at the end of the first century CE when the Gospel of John was written. Since the 1970s, these late datings for the development of a "high Christology" have been contested, and

8446-489: The major branches of Western Christianity ( Roman Catholicism , Anglicanism , Lutheranism , and Reformed ), Church of the East , Eastern Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy subscribe to the Chalcedonian Christological formulation, while many branches of Oriental Orthodox Churches ( Syrian Orthodoxy , Coptic Orthodoxy , Ethiopian Orthodoxy , and Armenian Apostolicism ) reject it. Although

8549-526: The major branches of Western Christianity and Eastern Orthodoxy subscribe to this formulation, while many branches of Oriental Orthodox Churches reject it, subscribing to miaphysitism . Christology (from the Greek Χριστός , Khristós and -λογία , -logia ), literally 'the understanding of Christ', is the study of the nature (person) and work (role in salvation) of Jesus Christ . It studies Jesus Christ's humanity and divinity, and

8652-484: The middle of the 2nd century, such terms emphasized two themes: that of Jesus as a preexistent figure who becomes human and then returns to God and that of Jesus as a creature elected and "adopted" by God. The first theme makes use of concepts drawn from Classical antiquity, whereas the second relies on concepts characteristic of ancient Jewish thought. The second theme subsequently became the basis of "adoptionist Christology" (see adoptionism ), which viewed Jesus' baptism as

8755-435: The non-Chalcedonian patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch (see Henotikon ), while Rome remained out of communion with the latter and in unstable communion with Constantinople. It was not until 518 that the new Byzantine Emperor, Justin I (who accepted Chalcedon), demanded that the church in the Roman Empire accept the council's decisions. Ecumenical dialogue increased in the 20th century, and from several meetings between

8858-400: The oldest Christology. The other early Christology is "high Christology", which is "the view that Jesus was a pre-existent divine being who became a human, did the Father's will on earth, and then was taken back up into heaven whence he had originally come", and from where he appeared on earth . According to Bousset, this "high Christology" developed at the time of Paul's writing, under

8961-509: The oldest religious institutions in the world, the Oriental Orthodox Churches have played a prominent role in the history and culture of Armenia , Egypt , Eritrea , Ethiopia , Sudan , Western Asia and the Malabar region of India . As autocephalous churches, their bishops are equal by virtue of episcopal ordination . Their doctrines recognize the validity of only the first three ecumenical councils . The Oriental Orthodox communion

9064-405: The person of Jesus. As of the second century, a number of different and opposing approaches developed among various groups. In contrast to prevailing monoprosopic views on the Person of Christ, alternative dyoprosopic notions were also promoted by some theologians, but such views were rejected by the ecumenical councils . For example, Arianism did not endorse divinity, Ebionism argued Jesus

9167-577: The relation between these two aspects; and the role he plays in salvation . " Ontological Christology" analyzes the nature or being of Jesus Christ. "Functional Christology" analyzes the works of Jesus Christ, while " soteriological Christology" analyzes the " salvific " standpoints of Christology. Several approaches can be distinguished within Christology. The term Christology from above or high Christology refers to approaches that include aspects of divinity, such as Lord and Son of God, and

9270-469: The same epistle, he writes that "He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation" (Colossians 1:15). The synoptic Gospels date from after the writings of Paul. They provide episodes from the life of Jesus and some of his works, but the authors of the New Testament show little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life, and as in John 21:25 ,

9373-487: The same time rejects the view that Jesus made a claim to messiahship or divinity to his disciples during his life as "naive and ahistorical". According to Gerd Lüdemann , the broad consensus among modern New Testament scholars is that the proclamation of the divinity of Jesus was a development within the earliest Christian communities. N. T. Wright points out that arguments over the claims of Jesus regarding divinity have been passed over by more recent scholarship, which sees

9476-545: The soul, and other topics. The Third Council of Constantinople in 681 declared that Christ has two wills of his two natures, human and divine, contrary to the teachings of the Monothelites , with the divine will having precedence, leading and guiding the human will. The Second Council of Nicaea was called under the Empress Regent Irene of Athens in 787, known as the second of Nicaea. It supports

9579-410: The start of Christianity, and took further shape in the first few decades of the church, as witnessed in the writings of Paul. Some 'Early High Christology' proponents scholars argue that this "high Christology" may go back to Jesus himself. There is a controversy regarding whether Jesus himself claimed to be divine. In Honest to God , then- Bishop of Woolwich , John A. T. Robinson , questioned

9682-591: The story of Christ   [...] on the story of divine Wisdom". The title Kyrios for Jesus is central to the development of New Testament Christology. In the Septuagint it translates the Tetragrammaton , the holy Name of God. As such, it closely links Jesus with God – in the same way a verse such as Matthew 28:19, "The Name (singular) of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit". Kyrios

9785-651: The terms of the agreement, Abune Merkorios was reinstated as patriarch alongside Abune Mathias (successor of Abune Paulos), who would continue to be responsible for administrative duties, and the two synods were merged into one synod, with any excommunications between them lifted. Indians who follow the Oriental Orthodox faith belong to the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church and the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church . The two churches were united before 1912 and after 1958, but again separated in 1975. The Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, also known as

9888-410: The various formulae adopted by different theological schools to express the same matter. Accordingly, we find today no real basis for the sad divisions and schisms that subsequently arose between us concerning the doctrine of Incarnation. In words and life we confess the true doctrine concerning Christ our Lord, notwithstanding the differences in interpretation of such a doctrine which arose at the time of

9991-654: Was already upset with Nestorius due to other matters) wrote about this to Cyril of Alexandria , who orchestrated the council. During the council, Nestorius defended his position by arguing there must be two persons of Christ, one human, the other divine, and Mary had given birth only to a human, hence could not be called the Theotokos , i.e. "the one who gives birth to God". The debate about the single or dual nature of Christ ensued in Ephesus. The First Council of Ephesus debated miaphysitism (two natures united as one after

10094-421: Was an ordinary mortal, while Gnosticism held docetic views which argued Christ was a spiritual being who only appeared to have a physical body. The resulting tensions led to schisms within the church in the second and third centuries, and ecumenical councils were convened in the fourth and fifth centuries to deal with the issues. Although some of the debates may seem to various modern students to be over

10197-643: Was formally adopted at the Conference of Addis Ababa in 1965. At the time there were five participating churches, the Eritrean Church not yet being autocephalous. Other names by which the churches have been known include Old Oriental , Ancient Oriental , Lesser Eastern , Anti-Chalcedonian , Non-Chalcedonian , Pre-Chalcedonian , Miaphysite or Monophysite . The Catholic Church has referred to these churches as "the Ancient Churches of

10300-513: Was resurrected. Later beliefs shifted the exaltation to his baptism, birth, and subsequently to the idea of his pre-existence, as witnessed in the Gospel of John. This "evolutionary model" was proposed by proponents of the Religionsgeschichtliche Schule , especially Wilhelm Bousset 's influential Kyrios Christos (1913). This evolutionary model was very influential, and the "low Christology" has long been regarded as

10403-472: Was sent as an atonement for the sins of everyone. The Pauline epistles use Kyrios to identify Jesus almost 230 times, and express the theme that the true mark of a Christian is the confession of Jesus as the true Lord. Paul viewed the superiority of the Christian revelation over all other divine manifestations as a consequence of the fact that Christ is the Son of God . The Pauline epistles also advanced

10506-469: Was understood by the critics of the council at the time, and is understood by many historians and theologians today, to side with western and Antiochene Christology and to diverge from the teaching of Cyril of Alexandria , who always stressed that Christ is "one". However, a modern analysis of the sources of the creed (by A. de Halleux, in Revue Theologique de Louvain 7, 1976) and a reading of

10609-710: Was written amid controversy between the Western and Eastern churches over the meaning of the Incarnation (see Christology ). The Western church readily accepted the creed, but some Eastern churches did not. Political disturbances prevented the Armenian bishops from attending. Even though Chalcedon reaffirmed the Third Council's condemnation of Nestorius , the Non-Chalcedonians always suspected that

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