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178-593: Charles Edward Louis John Sylvester Maria Casimir Stuart (31 December 1720 – 30 January 1788) was the elder son of James Francis Edward Stuart making him the grandson of James VII and II , and the Stuart claimant to the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1766 as Charles III . During his lifetime, he was also known as " the Young Pretender " and " the Young Chevalier "; in popular memory, he

356-669: A warming pan . Protestants found it suspicious that everyone attending the birth was Catholic. Another rumour was that James II had not been the father; he was said to be impotent after a bout with venereal disease years earlier. In an attempt to quash these rumours, James published the testimonies of over seventy witnesses to the birth. The line of succession to the throne was thrust into doubt. James II's eldest legitimate daughters, Mary and Anne , had been raised as Protestants. British Protestants had expected Mary, from his father's first marriage, to succeed their father. This possibility had kept Protestants somewhat content, with his rule

534-629: A French-backed independent Ireland, though that too was aborted after Charles showed up at a meeting with the French to discuss the plan late, argumentative, and idealistic in expectations, so that the French dismissed the possibility of Jacobite assistance. After a lingering illness, James died aged 77 on 1 January 1766, at his home, the Palazzo Muti in Rome, and was buried in the crypt of St. Peter's Basilica in present-day Vatican City . His grave

712-492: A German-speaking Lutheran who was the closest Protestant relative of the now-deceased Queen Anne, became king of the recently created Kingdom of Great Britain as George I. James denounced him, noting "we have beheld a foreign family, aliens to our country, distant in blood, and strangers even to our language, ascend the throne". Following George's coronation in October 1714, major riots broke out in provincial England. In

890-669: A Power and Jurisdiction to examine, correct and amend" judgements of the Irish courts and declared that as the Kingdom of Ireland was subordinate to and dependent upon the crown of Great Britain, the King , through the Parliament of Great Britain, had "full power and authority to make laws and statutes of sufficient validity to bind the Kingdom and people of Ireland". The Act was repealed by

1068-439: A boat disguised as her maid "Betty Burke". Charles remained on Skye until July, when he then crossed back to the mainland. With the aid of a few loyal servants and local supporters, Charles hid from government forces in the western Grampian Mountains for several weeks. He ultimately evaded capture and on 19 September, he left the country aboard the French frigate L'Heureux , commanded by Richard Warren . The Prince's Cairn marks

1246-570: A church in the Strand. and biographers such as Kybett who have suggested St Martin-in-the-Fields . Charles lived for several years in exile with his Scottish mistress, Clementina Walkinshaw (later known as Countess von Alberstrof), whom he met, and may have begun a relationship with, during the 1745 rebellion. She was suspected by many of Charles's supporters of being a spy planted by the Hanoverian government of Great Britain. On 29 October 1753,

1424-521: A considerable part of his reign abroad. These visits were also occasions both for significant negotiations and for the exchange of information and opinion....The visits to Hanover also provided critics with the opportunity...to argue that British interests were being neglected....George could not speak English, and all relevant documents from his British ministers were translated into French for him....Few British ministers or diplomats...knew German, or could handle it in precise discussion." George I supported

1602-632: A decisive Allied victory at the Battle of Minden . The victory over the French navy at the Battle of Lagos and the decisive Battle of Quiberon Bay ended threats of a French invasion, and confirmed Britain's reputation as the world's foremost naval power. The Treaty of Paris of 1763 marked the high point of the First British Empire. France's future in North America ended, as New France (Quebec) came under British control. In India,

1780-718: A descendant of the Electress Sophia of Hanover and not a Roman Catholic; this brought about the Hanoverian succession of George I of Great Britain in 1714. Legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain , which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland . In practice, it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the same location in Westminster, expanded to include representation from Scotland. As with

1958-524: A devout Catholic, replied to Torcy: "I have chosen my own course, therefore it is for others to change their sentiments." In March came James's refusal to convert, following which Harley and Bolingbroke reached the opinion that James's accession was not feasible, though they maintained their correspondence with him. As a result, in August 1714, James's second cousin, the Elector of Hanover , George Louis ,

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2136-612: A fondness for alcohol and fine clothes, often in excess of his allowance. He had become increasingly distant from his brother due to Henry's devotion to prayer and religious study. His father continued to rely on foreign aid in his attempts to restore himself to the British and Irish thrones. However, Charles became increasingly supportive of the idea of rebellion unassisted by invasion or by support of any kind from abroad. On 23 December 1743, owing to his limited ability to travel to Britain, James named his son Charles prince regent , giving him

2314-406: A good impression, being argumentative and idealistic in his expectations. Choiseul was planning a full-scale invasion of England involving upwards of 100,000 men, to which he hoped to add a number of Jacobites led by Charles. However, he was so little impressed with Charles that he dismissed the prospect of Jacobite assistance. The French invasion , which was Charles's last realistic chance to recover

2492-469: A growing evangelical, revivalist faction in the "Low Church". Its leaders included William Wilberforce and Hannah More . It reached the upper class through the Clapham Sect . It did not seek political reform, but rather the opportunity to save souls through political action by freeing slaves, abolishing the duel, prohibiting cruelty to children and animals, stopping gambling, and avoiding frivolity on

2670-620: A half-sister, came from Wisbech in England to visit him. Learning of the approach of government forces, he returned to France, sailing from Montrose on 5 February 1716. The abandonment of his rebel allies caused ill-feeling against him in Scotland; nor was he welcomed on his return to France. His patron, Louis XIV , had died on 1 September 1715, and the French government found him a political embarrassment. When France, hitherto his main protector, allied with Britain , this effectively secured

2848-562: A larger economy, and the Scots began to provide soldiers and colonial officials to the new British forces and Empire. However, one notable difference at the outset was that the new Scottish members of parliament and representative peers were elected by the outgoing Parliament of Scotland, while all existing members of the Houses of Commons and Lords at Westminster remained in office. During the War of

3026-625: A legacy today. Charles was born in the Palazzo Muti in Rome , Italy, on 31 December 1720, where his father had been given a residence by Pope Clement XI . Historians differ as to who carried out his baptism ceremony. Kybett reports that it was presided over by Pope Clement, whereas Douglas and Pininski state it was carried out by the Bishop of Montefiascone . Regardless, he was given the names Charles for his great-grandfather , Edward after Edward

3204-512: A little more tolerance for Protestant Dissenters. He avoided controversy and high-intensity disputes, as his middle way attracted moderates from both the Whig and Tory camps. H.T. Dickinson summed up his historical role: Walpole was one of the greatest politicians in British history. He played a significant role in sustaining the Whig party, safeguarding the Hanoverian succession, and defending

3382-455: A major battle to impose excise taxes on wine and tobacco . To reduce the threat of smuggling, the tax was to be collected not at ports but at warehouses. This new proposal, however, was extremely unpopular with the public, and aroused the opposition of the merchants because of the supervision it would involve. Walpole was defeated as his strength in Parliament dropped a notch. Historians hold Walpole's record in high regard, though there has been

3560-588: A major impact on British, American, and European thinking. As a result of Poynings' Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England , and after 1707 to the Parliament of Great Britain. The Westminster parliament's Declaratory Act 1719 (also called the Dependency of Ireland on Great Britain Act 1719) noted that the Irish House of Lords had recently "assumed to themselves

3738-554: A major war and keep the peace. Both sides wanted peace, which allowed both countries enormous cost savings, and recovery from expensive wars. Henry Pelham became prime minister in 1744 and continued Walpole's policies. He worked for an end to the War of the Austrian Succession . His financial policy was a major success once peace had been signed in 1748. He demobilised the armed forces, and reduced government spending from £12 million to £7 million. He refinanced

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3916-435: A master of the effective use of patronage, as were Pelham and Lord Newcastle. They each paid close attention to the work of bestowing upon their political allies high places, lifetime pensions, honours, lucrative government contracts, and help at election time. In turn the friends enabled them to control Parliament. Thus in 1742, over 140 members of parliament held powerful positions thanks in part to Walpole, including 24 men at

4094-463: A number of mistresses before marrying Princess Louise of Stolberg-Gedern in 1772. In his later life, Charles's health declined greatly and he was said to be an alcoholic. However, his escapades during the 1745 and 1746 uprising, as well as his escape from Scotland, led to his portrayal as a romantic figure of heroic failure. His life and the once possible prospects of a restored Stuart monarchy have left an enduring historical legend that continues to have

4272-672: A planned French invasion in 1759, Charles was unable to restore the Stuart monarchy. With the Jacobite cause lost, Charles spent the remainder of his life on the continent, except for one secret visit to London. On his return, Charles lived briefly in France before he was exiled in 1748 under the terms of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle . Charles eventually returned to Italy, where he spent much of his later life living in Florence and Rome. He had

4450-405: A political union between the two mainland British kingdoms had been repeatedly attempted and aborted by both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland . Queen Anne ( r.  1702–1714 ) did not produce a clear Protestant heir and endangered the line of succession , with the laws of succession differing in the two kingdoms and threatening a return to the throne of Scotland of

4628-497: A poor state of declining health for many months; however, Charles was said to have been deeply distressed after his mother passed. As Charles grew older, he was introduced by his father and the Pope to Italian society. In 1737, James sent his son on a tour through major Italian cities to complete his education as a prince and man of the world. Charles proceeded to visit Genoa , Florence , Parma , Bologna and Venice . The Italian tour

4806-436: A popular stop for English travellers making a Grand Tour , regardless of political affiliation. For many, it functioned as an unofficial consulate. Those in need of medical attention preferred being treated by one of their own countrymen. In 1735 court physicians tended to Edmund Sheffield, 2nd Duke of Buckingham and Normanby , and thirty years later to James Boswell . James remained well-treated in Rome until his death. He

4984-467: A position behind the front lines, which prevented him from gaining a clear view of the battlefield. He hoped that Cumberland's army would attack first, and he had his men stand exposed to the accurate fire from government artillery batteries. Seeing the error in this, he quickly ordered an attack, but his messenger was killed before the order could be delivered. The Jacobite attack was uncoordinated, charging into withering musket fire and grapeshot fired from

5162-598: A priest sworn to celibacy, remained as the only male heir. The French also wished to continue the Stuart line as a potential weapon against the government in Britain. In 1771, while he was in Paris, Charles dispatched Sir Edmund Ryan, an Irish officer in Berwick's regiment, to seek out a bride for him. Despite some potential negotiations with prospective brides, he was unable to find a wife. A few months later, Charles's companion,

5340-714: A prominent example being Prince Charlie's Targe . Allan Ramsay painted a portrait of Charles while he was in Edinburgh, which survived in the collection of the Earl of Wemyss at Gosford House and, as of 2016, was on display at the Scottish National Portrait Gallery. Meanwhile, Sir John Cope had brought his forces by sea to Dunbar , a decision he would soon regret. On 20 September, Charles mustered and joined his forces at Duddingston . On 21 September, Charles and his forces defeated Cope's army,

5518-400: A recent tendency to share credit more widely among his allies. W. A. Speck wrote that Walpole's uninterrupted run of 20 years as Prime Minister is rightly regarded as one of the major feats of British political history... Explanations are usually offered in terms of his expert handling of the political system after 1720, [and] his unique blending of the surviving powers of the crown with

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5696-455: A regime of exercise and dancing to help improve his constitution, which strengthened his legs by later years. Charles spent much of his early childhood in Rome and Bologna in the company of a small retinue and a close but often argumentative family. His brother Henry Benedict Stuart was born 5 years later on 6 March 1725. His mother and father were regularly at disagreement with each other, leading to one notable incident in which Clementina left

5874-579: A relationship with his first cousin Marie Louise de La Tour d'Auvergne , wife of Jules, Prince of Guéméné , that resulted in a short-lived son named Charles (born 28 July 1748, died 18 January 1749). In December 1748, he was arrested by the French authorities while attending the opera at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal . Briefly imprisoned at the Château de Vincennes , he was then expelled from France under

6052-486: A separate parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws and system of courts, as also its own established Presbyterian Church and control over its own schools. The social structure was highly hierarchical, and the same ruling class remained in control after 1707. Scotland continued to have its own universities, and with its intellectual community, especially in Edinburgh, the Scottish Enlightenment had

6230-528: A small German state that was opposed to Prussian supremacy. George I and George II saw a French alliance as the best way to neutralise Prussia. They forced a dramatic reversal of British foreign policy, which for centuries had seen France as England's greatest enemy. However, the bellicose King Louis XIV died in 1715, and the regents who ran France were preoccupied with internal affairs. King Louis XV came of age in 1726, and his elderly chief minister Cardinal Fleury collaborated informally with Walpole to prevent

6408-599: A stay of some four days at Kilravock Castle . Charles and his troops were then required to move after word reached them of the pursuit against them by the forces of George II 's son Prince William, Duke of Cumberland . Government forces caught up with Charles and his army at the ensuing Battle of Culloden on 16 April. Charles ignored the advice of his subordinate Lord George Murray and chose to fight on flat, open, marshy ground, where his forces were exposed to superior firepower from government troops. To ensure his safety, his officers requested that Charles command his army from

6586-588: A superb Royal Navy, which not only protected the British colonies but threatened the colonies of the other empires, and sometimes seized them. Thus the Royal Navy captured New Amsterdam (later New York City ) in 1664. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country. During the 1760s and 1770s, relations with the Thirteen Colonies turned from benign neglect to outright revolt, primarily because of

6764-558: A temporary inconvenience. Now that Mary or Anne's succession was in doubt with this new Catholic son and heir, discontent grew, already stoked by James II's actions which had alienated Tory Anglicans who had previously been inclined to honour him as sovereign even if they differed in religion. This movement would become the Glorious Revolution ; Mary's husband William of Orange landed in England, backed by an army of English and Scottish exiles, as well as Dutch soldiers. Much of

6942-504: A warm welcome from these clans to start an insurgency by Jacobites throughout Britain. However, receiving a cool reception from the clan leaders there, many of those contacted advised him to return to France, including MacDonald of Sleat and Norman MacLeod . Aware of the potential impact of defeat, they felt that by arriving without French military support, Charles had failed to keep his commitments and were unconvinced by his personal qualities. Undeterred, Charles set sail again and arrived at

7120-537: A way to refer to him but also to any woman. It was covered by Tony Sheridan and the Beatles in 1961. During his pretence as Prince of Wales, Charles claimed a coat of arms consisting of those of the kingdom, differenced by a label argent of three points . James Francis Edward Stuart James Francis Edward Stuart (10 June 1688 – 1 January 1766) was the House of Stuart claimant to

7298-537: Is known as Bonnie Prince Charlie . Born in Rome to the exiled Stuart court, he spent much of his early and later life in Italy. In 1744, he travelled to France to take part in a planned invasion to restore the Stuart monarchy under his father. When the French fleet was partly wrecked by storms, Charles resolved to proceed to Scotland following discussion with leading Jacobites. This resulted in Charles landing by ship on

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7476-519: Is marked by the Monument to the Royal Stuarts . His claimed reign had lasted for 64 years, 3 months and 16 days, longer than any British monarch until Queen Elizabeth II 's reign surpassed it on 23 May 2016. Following James's death the pope refused to recognise the claim to the British and Irish thrones of his elder son Charles, which had severely exacerbated the hostility between England and

7654-412: Is recorded that during this time, Charles began to take lessons in conversational Gaelic under the tutorship of Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair . On 19 August, he raised his father's standard at Glenfinnan and gathered a force large enough to enable him to march towards Edinburgh . The force proceeded eastwards, reaching Invergarry Castle by the last week of August. Charles's forces continued on via

7832-524: Is the least criminal part of his ministry. For what is the loss of allies to the alienation of the people from the government, or the diminution of trade to the destruction of our liberties? Walpole's allies defeated a censure motion by a vote of 209 to 106, but Walpole's coalition lost seats in the election of 1741, and by a narrow margin he was finally forced out of office in early 1742. Walpole secured widespread support with his policy of avoiding war. He used his influence to prevent George II from entering

8010-558: The Act of Settlement , the " Jacobite Cause " had striven to return the Stuarts to the thrones of England and Scotland, which had been united in 1603 under James VI and I, with the parliaments joined by the Acts of Union in 1707 as the Kingdom of Great Britain . Charles was said to have suffered from weak legs at an early age, possibly as a result of rickets . However, Charles was instructed in

8188-577: The Acts of Union 1800 took effect. The Union of 1707 provided for a Protestant-only succession to the throne in accordance with the English Act of Settlement of 1701 ; rather than Scotland's Act of Security of 1704 and the Act anent Peace and War 1703 , which ceased to have effect by the Repeal of Certain Scotch Acts 1707 . The Act of Settlement required that the heir to the English throne be

8366-534: The Church of England gained strength in the late 18th and early 19th century. The movement challenged the traditional religious sensibility that emphasized a code of honour for the upper class, and suitable behaviour for everyone else, together with faithful observances of rituals. John Wesley (1703–1791) and his followers preached revivalist religion, trying to convert individuals to a personal relationship with Christ through Bible reading, regular prayer, and especially

8544-481: The Clifton Moor Skirmish allowing them to continue north through Carlisle and back into Scotland. Charles and his forces reached Glasgow on 26 December where they rested until 3 January 1746. The decision was then made to lay siege to Stirling and Stirling Castle . However, while the town surrendered immediately, the castle's artillery proved too strong for the Jacobite forces to approach and seize

8722-544: The Corrieyairack Pass , where their control of the pass persuaded advancing government forces to withdraw from the area. Stopping briefly first at Blair Castle , Charles and his forces reached Perth on 4 September. At Perth, his ranks were joined by more sympathisers, including Lord George Murray . Previously pardoned for his participation in the 1715 and 1719 risings, Murray took over from O'Sullivan due to his better understanding of Highland military customs, and

8900-769: The Earl of Sunderland , and Robert Walpole . Many Tories were driven out of national and local government, and new laws were passed to impose greater national control. The right of habeas corpus was restricted; to reduce electoral instability, the Septennial Act 1715 increased the maximum life of a parliament from three years to seven. During his reign, George I spent only about half as much of his time overseas as had William III, who also reigned for thirteen years. Jeremy Black has argued that George wanted to spend even more time in Hanover: "His visits, in 1716, 1719, 1720, 1723 and 1725, were lengthy, and, in total, he spent

9078-490: The Firth of Forth on 23 March 1708. The fleet of Admiral Sir George Byng intercepted the French ships, which, combined with bad weather, prevented a landing. James served for a time as a volunteer in the French army, as his father had done during the interregnum. Between August and September 1710, Queen Anne appointed a new Tory administration led by Robert Harley , who entered into a secret correspondence with de Torcy ,

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9256-521: The French Minister of Foreign Affairs , in which he claimed to desire James's accession to the throne should James convert to Protestantism. A year later, however, the British government pushed for James's expulsion from France as a precondition for a peace treaty with France. In accordance with the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), Harley and Lord Bolingbroke , the Secretary of State, colluded with

9434-463: The Georgian era and the term " Georgian " is typically used in the contexts of social and political history for Georgian architecture . The term " Augustan literature " is often used for Augustan drama , Augustan poetry and Augustan prose in the period 1700–1740s. The term "Augustan" refers to the acknowledgement of the influence of classical Latin from the ancient Roman Empire . Victory in

9612-564: The Hanoverian dynasty 's monarchy over the Kingdom of Great Britain . After the unsuccessful invasion of 1715, James lived in Papal territory , first at Avignon (April 1716 – February 1717), then at Pesaro (1717) and Urbino (July 1717 – November 1718). Pope Clement XI offered James the Palazzo Muti or Palazzo del Re in Rome as his residence, which he accepted. Pope Innocent XIII , like his predecessor, showed much support. Thanks to his friend Cardinal Filippo Antonio Gualterio , James

9790-488: The Hanoverian kings resulted in a growth in the powers of Parliament and a new role, that of " prime minister ", emerged in the heyday of Robert Walpole . The "South Sea Bubble" economic crisis was brought on by the failure of the South Sea Company , an early joint-stock company . The campaigns of Jacobitism ended in defeat for the Stuarts' cause in 1746 . The Hanoverian line of monarchs gave their names to

9968-698: The Jacobite rising of 1719 was defeated at the Battle of Glen Shiel . James had gone to Spain in the hope he could take part in the invasion, but following its abandonment was forced to return to Italy. A further attempt was planned in 1722, but following the exposure of the Atterbury Plot it came to nothing. In exercise of his pretended position, James purported to create titles of nobility, now referred to as Jacobite Peerages , for his British supporters and members of his court, none of which have ever been recognised in Britain. The court-in-exile became

10146-579: The Kingdom of Ireland . The name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia , the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne (whence also Modern French Bretagne ) and Middle English Bretayne , Breteyne . The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474. The use of the word "Great" before "Britain" originates in

10324-654: The Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782 . The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom. However, the Irish Rebellion of 1798 , which sought to end the subordination and dependency of the country on the British crown and to establish a republic, was one of the factors that led to the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. The deeper political integration of her kingdoms

10502-540: The Roman Catholic House of Stuart , exiled in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. The resulting kingdom was in legislative and personal union with the Kingdom of Ireland from its inception, but the Parliament of Great Britain resisted early attempts to incorporate Ireland in the political union. The early years of the newly united kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings , particularly the Jacobite rising of 1715 . The relative incapacity or ineptitude of

10680-750: The Seven Years' War led to the dominance of the British Empire , which was to become the foremost global power for over a century. Great Britain dominated the Indian subcontinent through the trading and military expansion of the East India Company in colonial India . In wars against France , it gained control of both Upper and Lower Canada , and until suffering defeat in the American War of Independence , it also had dominion over

10858-660: The Sobieski crown jewels of his great-grandfather John III Sobieski , which had passed down to him through his mother. He used these extensive funds to purchase weapons and fit out the Elisabeth , an old man-of-war of 66 guns, and the Du Teillay (sometimes called Doutelle ), a 16-gun privateer. Encouraged by the French victory in May 1745 at the Battle of Fontenoy , Charles and his party set sail on 5 July for Scotland. During

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11036-598: The Thirteen Colonies . From 1787, Britain began the colonisation of New South Wales with the departure of the First Fleet in the process of penal transportation to Australia . Britain was a leading belligerent in the French Revolutionary Wars . Great Britain was merged into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 January 1801, with the Acts of Union 1800 , enacted by Great Britain and Ireland, under George III , to merge with it

11214-423: The War of the Polish Succession in 1733, because it was a dispute between the Bourbons and the Habsburgs. He boasted, "There are 50,000 men slain in Europe this year, and not one Englishman." Walpole himself let others, especially his brother-in-law Lord Townshend , handle foreign policy until about 1726, then took charge. A major challenge for his administration was the royal role as simultaneous ruler of Hanover,

11392-400: The major uprising of 1745. With the failure of this second rebellion, the Stuart hopes of regaining the British throne were effectively destroyed. James and Charles later clashed repeatedly, and relations between them broke down completely when James played a role in the appointment of his son Henry as a cardinal. Henry then took holy orders, which required him to maintain celibacy , ending

11570-447: The third Carnatic War had left France still in control of several small enclaves , but with military restrictions and an obligation to support the British client states, effectively leaving the future of India to Great Britain. The British victory over France in the Seven Years' War therefore left Great Britain as the world's dominant colonial power, with a bitter France thirsting for revenge. The evangelical movement inside and outside

11748-413: The 1,500 muskets he had purchased. The Du Teillay successfully landed him and seven companions at Eriskay on 23 July 1745. The group would later be known as the Seven Men of Moidart and included John O'Sullivan , an Irish exile and former French officer, and Charles's secretary George Kelly . Many Highland clans, both Catholic and Protestant, still supported the Jacobite cause, and Charles hoped for

11926-459: The 36 men honoured were peers and members of parliament who would provide him with useful connections. Walpole himself became enormously wealthy, investing heavily in his estate at Houghton Hall and its large collection of European master paintings. Walpole's methods won him victory after victory, but aroused furious opposition. Historian John H. Plumb wrote: Walpole's policy had bred distrust, his methods hatred. Time and time again his policy

12104-405: The 9th century (with England incorporating Wales in the 16th century), were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a personal union in 1603, when James VI of Scotland became king of England under the name of James I . This Union of the Crowns under the House of Stuart meant that the whole of the island of Great Britain was now ruled by a single monarch, who by virtue of holding

12282-421: The Americas. The First British Empire, based upon the English overseas possessions , was enlarged. From France, Great Britain gained Newfoundland and Acadia , and from Spain Gibraltar and Menorca . Gibraltar became a major naval base which allowed Great Britain to control the entrance from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean. The war marks the weakening of French military, diplomatic and economic dominance, and

12460-425: The Catholic Church. Instead, from 14 January 1766, in stages over the following decade, Rome accepted the Hanoverian dynasty as the legitimate rulers of Britain and Ireland; this was accompanied by a gradual relaxation and reform of the anti-Catholic "penal laws" in Britain and Ireland. Two months after James's death, on 14 March, the royal arms of England were removed from the doorway of the Palazzo Muti. In 1792,

12638-468: The Catholic faith and conformed to the Protestant faith by receiving Anglican communion, likely at one of the remaining non-juring chapels. Bishop Robert Gordon, a staunch Jacobite whose house in Theobald's Row was one of Charles's safe-houses for the visit, is the most likely to have celebrated the communion. A chapel in Gray's Inn, used by the nonjurors, was suggested as the venue as early as 1788. This rebuts David Hume 's suggestion that it took place at

12816-519: The Company at a par value of £100—the idea was that they would profit by the rising price of their stock. Everyone with connections wanted in on the bonanza, and many other outlandish schemes found gullible takers. South Sea stock peaked at £1,060 on 25 June 1720. Then the bubble burst, and by the end of September it had fallen to £150. Hundreds of prominent men had borrowed to buy stock high; their apparent profits had vanished, but they were liable to repay

12994-628: The Confessor , Louis for the King of France, Casimir after the kings of Poland, and Sylvester as he was born on Saint Sylvester's Day . Charles was the son of the Old Pretender, James Francis Edward Stuart (himself son of the exiled Stuart King James II and VII ), and Maria Clementina Sobieska , a Polish noblewoman (the granddaughter of John III Sobieski ). Charles Edward's grandfather, James II of England and Ireland and VII of Scotland, ruled

13172-577: The Duc d'Aiguillion , and his cousin Charles Fitz-James Stuart suggested the latter's sister-in-law Princess Louise of Stolberg-Gedern as a prospective bride. Accordingly, on 28 March 1772, Charles married Princess Louise by proxy . The couple met shortly after for the first time at Macerata on 17 April 1772, where the marriage was reported to have been consummated. They lived first in Rome and then moved to Florence in 1774, where he

13350-408: The Duc de Choiseul, who once again wished to discuss the possibility of a Jacobite invasion. However, on the day of the meeting, Charles was reported to be so intoxicated that he was unable to speak coherently, so the discussions were abandoned. By the time Charles entered his 51st year, concern was raised by his Jacobite supporters and the French that he had not yet married, and that only his brother,

13528-428: The English army promptly defected to William's cause, causing James II and his family to flee rather than stay and fight. On 9 December, Mary of Modena disguised herself as a laundress and escaped with the infant James to France. Young James was brought up at the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye , which Louis XIV had turned over to the exiled James II. Both the ex-king and his family were held in great consideration by

13706-581: The English crown also ruled over the Kingdom of Ireland . Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws. Various smaller islands were in the king's domain, including the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands . This disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until

13884-480: The French government had agreed to support a planned invasion of England , hoping to remove British forces from the War of the Austrian Succession . Charles then travelled to Dunkirk with the purpose of accompanying a French Army across to England. The invasion never materialised, as the French fleet was scattered by a storm in the spring equinox, losing 11 ships. By the time it regrouped, the British fleet realised

14062-542: The French in exiling James to the Duchy of Lorraine . Queen Anne became severely ill at Christmas 1713 and seemed close to death. In January 1714, she recovered but clearly had little time to live. Through de Torcy and his London agent, Abbé François Gaultier, Harley maintained the correspondence with James and Bolingbroke entered into a separate correspondence with him. They both stated to James that his conversion to Protestantism would facilitate his accession. However, James,

14240-525: The French king (who was his first cousin), and they were frequent visitors at Versailles where Louis XIV and his court treated them as ruling monarchs. In June 1692 his sister Louisa Maria was born. He later received a military education overseen by Richard Hamilton and Dominic Sheldon , two veterans of the Irish Army . On his father's death in 1701, James was proclaimed as rightful king by Louis XIV of France , despite having previously recognised

14418-452: The French language, which uses Bretagne for both Britain and Brittany . French therefore distinguishes between the two by calling Britain la Grande Bretagne , a distinction which was transferred into English. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be "United into One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain", and as such "Great Britain"

14596-465: The French to encourage him to leave the Paris region. However, Charles continued to travel regularly to Paris during this period, often incognito and frequenting the hotels of the city to meet with supporters. In both Rome and Paris, Charles met numerous supporters of the Stuart cause; he was aware that there were Jacobite representatives in every key European court. He had now taken a considerable share in correspondence and other actual work connected with

14774-550: The Jacobite cause in England that, accepting the impossibility of his recovering the English and Scottish crowns while he remained a Catholic, he was willing to commit himself to reigning as a Protestant. Accordingly, he visited London incognito in 1750, staying for several weeks primarily at the Essex Street London residence of Lady Primrose, the widow of the 3rd Viscount of Primrose . While in London, Charles abjured

14952-505: The Jacobites spent the next week re-organising their forces. On 14 September, Charles and his forces took Falkirk and Charles stayed at Callendar House , where he persuaded the Earl of Kilmarnock to join him. Charles's progress onto Edinburgh was helped by the action of the British leader, General Sir John Cope , who had marched to Inverness , leaving the south country undefended. On 16 September, Charles and his army encamped outside

15130-593: The Jacobites. Charles's departure from Scotland in 1746 is depicted in an engraving of a painting by Francis William Topham , [REDACTED] Prince Charles Edward, bidding adieu to his friends . In 1892, John Pettie painted Charles entering the Ballroom at Holyroodhouse. Charles and the Jacobites would also be depicted in numerous drawings, prints and on objects, his likeness and coat of arms even depicted on objects such as engraved drinking glasses. Charles has been depicted on stage as well as in film and television. He

15308-560: The Philippines, and coastal Africa. The results were highly favourable for Britain, and a major disaster for France. Key decisions were largely in the hands of William Pitt the Elder . The war started poorly. Britain lost the island of Minorca in 1756 , and suffered a series of defeats in North America. After years of setbacks and mediocre results, British luck turned in the "miracle year" ("Annus Mirabilis") of 1759. The British had entered

15486-485: The Pope's permission, Charles moved into the Palazzo Muti , which his father had lived in for over 40 years. Charles wrote to both the Kings of France and Spain on his accession, but recognition as King Charles III was not granted by either monarch. Charles returned to his social life in Rome, making visits to the Pope and indulging in pastimes such as hunting, shooting, balls, concerts, operas and plays. One notable occasion,

15664-796: The Sabbath; evangelicals read the Bible every day. All souls were equal in God's view, but not all bodies, so evangelicals did not challenge the hierarchical structure of English society. The first British Empire was based largely in mainland North America and the West Indies, with a growing presence in India. Emigration from Britain went mostly to the Thirteen Colonies and the West Indies, with some to Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. Few permanent settlers went to British India , although many young men went there in

15842-625: The Spanish Succession (1702–14) England continued its policy of forming and funding alliances, especially with the Dutch Republic and the Holy Roman Empire against their common enemy, King Louis XIV of France. Queen Anne , who reigned 1702–1714, was the central decision maker, working closely with her advisers, especially her remarkably successful senior general, John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough . The war

16020-477: The arrival on the world scene of Britain as a major imperial, military and financial power. British historian G. M. Trevelyan argued: In the 18th century England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rose to become the world's dominant colonial power , with France as its main rival. The pre-1707 English overseas possessions became the nucleus of the First British Empire . "In 1714 the ruling class

16198-471: The authority to act in his name. In January 1744, his father believed he had managed to obtain the de facto renewed support of the French government. Following this mistaken belief, Charles Edward travelled covertly to France from Rome, initially under the guise of a hunting party. However, neither the French Government nor King Louis XV had officially invited Charles. Nevertheless, by February,

16376-433: The bay of Loch nan Uamh . He had hoped for support from a French fleet, but it was not forthcoming and he decided to raise an army in Scotland. Although several clan chiefs initially discouraged him, he gained the crucial support of Donald Cameron of Lochiel , Chief of Clan Cameron , after Charles provided "security for the full value of his estate should the rising prove abortive." Thereafter, support continued to grow. It

16554-554: The cannons, and it met with little success. In the centre, the Jacobites reached the first line of government troops, but this attack was eventually repulsed by a second line of soldiers. The remaining Jacobite survivors in the front line then fled. However, the Jacobite Army units fighting on the north-eastern side of the battlefield, as well as Irish and Scots regulars in the second line, retired in good order, allowing Charles and his personal retinue to escape northwards. After

16732-474: The castle. Government forces also attempted a relief of the siege, which resulted in a victory for Charles in the ensuing Battle of Falkirk Muir in January 1746. A failure to take the castle, however, resulted in the abandonment of the siege and the Jacobite forces moving northward to Crieff , then Inverness. With a halt in operations until the weather improved, Charles forces then rested at Inverness, including

16910-482: The city at Gray's Mill in Longstone . Lord Provost Archibald Stewart controlled the city, which quickly surrendered, although the castle under the command of George Preston did not surrender and was blockaded until Charles later called off the siege owing to a lack of artillery. On 17 September, Charles entered Edinburgh, accompanied by around 2,400 men. During this time, Charles also gave trophies to his supporters,

17088-464: The couple had a daughter, Charlotte . Charles's inability to cope with the collapse of the Jacobite cause led to his problem with alcohol, and mother and daughter separated from Charles with his father James 's assistance. In 1759, at the height of the Seven Years' War , Charles was summoned to a meeting in Paris with the French foreign minister, the Duc De Choiseul . Charles failed to make

17266-411: The defeat, Murray managed to lead a group of Jacobites to Ruthven, intending to continue the fight. Charles thought that he was betrayed, however, and decided to abandon the Jacobite cause. Some 20 miles from the battlefield, Charles rested briefly at Gorthleck, the home of his dubious supporter Lord Lovat , before retreating to Invergarry Castle, by way of Fort Augustus , on 16 April. Charles then hid in

17444-550: The diversion that had deceived them and resumed their position in the Channel. After the failure of the planned invasion, Charles remained in France, staying at several places, including Gravelines , Chantilly and Paris , leasing a hilltop house in Montmartre in May 1744. Owing to his expenditure on his wardrobe, attendants and drinking, Charles became in debt to the amount of 30,000 livres . With news of this and following

17622-557: The engagement to preserve his relations with Hanover and Great Britain. On 3 September 1719, James married Maria Clementina Sobieska (1702–1735), granddaughter of King John III Sobieski of Poland. The wedding was held in the chapel of the Episcopal Palace in Montefiascone , near Viterbo . By his wife he had two sons: Following James's failure, attention turned to his son Charles, " the Young Pretender ", who led

17800-622: The expulsion of the Tories from power; they remained in the political wilderness until his great-grandson George III came to power in 1760 and began to replace Whigs with Tories. George I has often been caricatured in the history books, but according to his biographer Ragnhild Hatton : ...on the whole he did well by Great Britain, guiding the country calmly and responsibly through the difficult postwar years and repeated invasions or threatened invasions... He liked efficiency and expertise, and had long experience of running an orderly state... He cared for

17978-493: The extent that he was given the Sacraments . Although Charles recovered, he agreed to create a new will, and signed an act of legitimation for his illegitimate daughter Charlotte . Charles also gave her the title "Duchess of Albany" in the peerage of Scotland and the style "Her Royal Highness", but these honours did not give Charlotte any right of succession to the throne. Charlotte lived with her father in Florence and Rome for

18156-427: The extent that the household servants intervened. In the years that followed, the Pope awarded Louise half of Charles's papal pension, and Charles's international reputation was greatly damaged. He was said to live an increasingly isolated and unhappy life, especially after his brother Henry agreed to house Louise at his estate. By 1783, Charles's health continued to decline, and for a time, he fell seriously ill such to

18334-601: The failed invasion, the French attempted to encourage Charles to return to Italy by refusing to pay him a monthly subsidy. However, when he could no longer afford the rent on the house in Montmartre, the Archbishop of Cambrai agreed to lend him his country estate near Paris where he stayed until January 1745. Charles then moved to the country house of Anne, Duchess of Berwick in Soissons , following repeated attempts by

18512-527: The folk songs " Óró sé do bheatha abhaile ", " Bonnie Charlie ", " Wha'll be King but Charlie? " and " Charlie is my darling ". Charles's subsequent flight from Scotland is commemorated in " The Skye Boat Song " by the English author Sir Harold Edwin Boulton and in the Irish song " Mo Ghile Mear " by Seán Clárach Mac Domhnaill . The popular song My Bonnie Lies over the Ocean could be in reference to him as

18690-473: The following year, Jacobites started uprisings in Scotland and Cornwall aimed at putting "James III and VIII" on the throne. On 22 December 1715, James reached Scotland after the Jacobite defeats at the Battle of Sheriffmuir (13 November 1715) and Battle of Preston (1715) . He landed at Peterhead and soon fell ill with fever, his illness made more severe by the icy Scottish winter. In January 1716, he set up court at Scone Palace . Reputedly Jane Stuart ,

18868-695: The former Parliament of England and the modern Parliament of the United Kingdom , the Parliament of Great Britain was formally constituted of three elements: the House of Commons , the House of Lords , and the Crown . The right of the English peers to sit in the House of Lords remained unchanged, while the disproportionately large number of Scottish peers were permitted to send only sixteen Scottish representative peers , elected from amongst their number for

19046-747: The full amount of the loans. Many went bankrupt, and many more lost fortunes. Confidence in the entire national financial and political system collapsed. Parliament investigated and concluded that there had been widespread fraud by the company directors and corruption in the Cabinet. Among Cabinet members implicated were the Chancellor of the Exchequer , the Postmaster General , and a Secretary of State, as well as two other leading men, Lord Stanhope and Lord Sunderland . Walpole had dabbled in

19224-487: The hope of making money and returning home. Mercantilism was the basic policy imposed by Great Britain on its overseas possessions. Mercantilism meant that the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other empires. The government protected its merchants—and kept others out—by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries to maximise exports from and minimise imports to

19402-645: The increasing influence of the Commons. He was a Whig from the gentry class, who first arrived in Parliament in 1701, and held many senior positions. He was a country squire and looked to country gentlemen for his political base. Historian Frank O'Gorman said his leadership in Parliament reflected his "reasonable and persuasive oratory, his ability to move both the emotions as well as the minds of men, and, above all, his extraordinary self-confidence." Julian Hoppit has said Walpole's policies sought moderation: he worked for peace, lower taxes, growing exports, and allowed

19580-674: The kingdoms from 1685 to 1688. He was deposed when the English Parliament invited the Dutch Protestant William III and his wife, Princess Mary , King James's eldest daughter, to replace him in the Revolution of 1688 . Many Protestants, including a number of prominent parliamentarians, had been worried that King James aimed to return England fully to the Catholic faith. Since the exile of James and

19758-507: The lack of English Jacobite and French support, as well as rumours that large government forces were being amassed. Charles admitted that he had not heard from the English Jacobites since leaving France despite claiming the contrary; this caused his relationship with some of the Scots to become irretrievably damaged. On 6 December, the Jacobites and Charles left Derby and began their march north back to Scotland. Charles's route north

19936-525: The leaders were executed, many others dispossessed of their lands, and some 700 prominent followers deported to forced labour on sugar plantations in the West Indies. A key decision was the refusal of the Pretender to change his religion from Roman Catholic to Anglican, which would have mobilised much more of the Tory element. The Whigs came to power, under the leadership of James Stanhope , Charles Townshend ,

20114-588: The legitimacy of William III under the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick . Spain, the Papal States , and Modena also recognised him as king of England , Ireland and Scotland and refused to recognise William III , Mary II , or Anne as legitimate sovereigns. As a result of his claiming his father's lost thrones, James was attainted for treason in London on 2 March 1702, and his titles were forfeited under English law. Though delayed in France by an attack of measles , James attempted invasion , trying to land at

20292-570: The life of each parliament. Similarly, the members of the former English House of Commons continued as members of the British House of Commons, but as a reflection of the relative tax bases of the two countries the number of Scottish representatives was fixed at 45. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain , and their successors, had the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of

20470-465: The majority of his last years living between Florence and Rome. However, he left Florence for the last time in 1785 and returned to Rome. It was reported that he was limited to light travelling by his doctors owing to his fragility. Charles died in Rome of a stroke on 30 January 1788, aged 67. His brother the Cardinal Duke of York, who was present at the death, had the record read that he died on

20648-399: The margin of three votes he saved several key government officials from impeachment. Stanhope and Sunderland died of natural causes, leaving Walpole alone as the dominant figure in British politics. The public hailed him as the saviour of the financial system, and historians credit him with rescuing the Whig government, and indeed the Hanoverian dynasty, from total disgrace. Walpole was

20826-634: The moors of the Highlands of Scotland, before making a flight to the Hebrides , always barely ahead of the government forces. Many Highlanders aided him during his escape, and none of them betrayed him for the £30,000 reward. While Charles was in the Hebrides, funds had arrived from Spain and France on two ships that called at Lochaber . Too late to assist Charles following Culloden, only the Spanish gold

21004-411: The morning of 31 January, as it was deemed unlucky to have him declared dead on the same date as the execution of his great-grandfather, King Charles I . Charles's will left most of his estate to his heir, his daughter Charlotte. There were a few exceptions, including some plates for his brother Henry, as well as some annuities for his servants. On his death, a cast of his face was made, and his body

21182-497: The national debt, dropping the interest rate from 4% p.a. to 3% p.a. Taxes had risen to pay for the war, but in 1752 he reduced the land tax from four shillings to two shillings in the pound: that is, from 20% to 10%. By avoiding wars, Walpole could lower taxes. He reduced the national debt with a sinking fund, and by negotiating lower interest rates. He reduced the land tax from four shillings in 1721, to 3s in 1728, 2s in 1731 and finally to only 1s (i.e. 5%) in 1732. His long-term goal

21360-525: The next five years. Eventually, she survived her father by less than two years, dying unmarried at Bologna in November 1789. In April 1784, Charles was persuaded by the visiting King Gustav III of Sweden to grant Louise a decree of separation. While not a formal divorce, as no such legal procedure existed in the Papal States , Louise was thereby legally permitted to live separately from her husband, even though she had been doing so for some time. Charles spent

21538-448: The only government army in Scotland, at the Battle of Prestonpans . Charles was said to have been only 50 paces from the front-line of the battle, and he later expressed remorse that the victory involved killing his own subjects. It was reported during the battle that Charles and Lord Murray had argued with each other over the disposition of forces. The historian Hugh Douglas argues this was to result in an ever worsening relationship between

21716-447: The palace shortly after Henry's birth in 1725 and moved to a convent, not returning until 1727. As the legitimate heirs to the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland—according to the Jacobite succession , James and his household lived with a sense of pride, and staunchly believed in the divine right of kings . Charles spent much of his early years in the company of older men, several of whom acted as his tutors. Charles Edward's governor

21894-545: The papacy specifically referred to George III as the "King of Great Britain and Ireland", which elicited a protest from James's younger son Henry , who was by then the Jacobite claimant. James was created Prince of Wales on 4 July 1688. As Prince of Wales, James bore a coat of arms consisting of those of the kingdom, differenced by a label argent of three points . Kingdom of Great Britain The Kingdom of Great Britain , officially known as Great Britain ,

22072-618: The popular hero and idol of many Parisians on account of his exploits in Scotland. In March 1747, he travelled briefly to Madrid via Lyon for an audience with Ferdinand VI of Spain , but the King rejected the idea of Spain providing help to restore the Stuarts. His relationship with his brother Henry deteriorated during this time, when Henry accepted a cardinal's hat in July 1747. He also deliberately broke off communication with his father in Rome (who had approved of his brother's action). While back in France, Charles had numerous mistresses. He had

22250-476: The possibility that he would produce a legitimate heir, infuriating Charles, who had not been consulted. After the 1745 rising, there were no other plots to restore the Stuart dynasty except for when, in 1759, the French government briefly considered a scheme to have James (then aged 70) crowned King of Ireland as part of their plans to invade Britain , but the offer was never formally made to James. Several separate plans also involved Charles being given control of

22428-520: The principles of the Glorious Revolution (1688) ... He established a stable political supremacy for the Whig party and taught succeeding ministers how best to establish an effective working relationship between Crown and Parliament. The Seven Years' War , which began in 1756, was the first war waged on a global scale and saw British involvement in Europe, India , North America, the Caribbean,

22606-605: The process, which removed all 33 company directors and stripped them of, on average, 82% of their wealth. The money went to the victims. The government bought the stock of the South Sea Company for £33 and sold it to the Bank of England and the East India Company, the only other two corporations big enough to handle the challenge. Walpole made sure that King George and his mistresses were not embarrassed, and by

22784-486: The promotion of his own and his father's interests. While in Paris and Soissons, Charles sought funding and support for the restoration of the monarchy. Following conversations with Irish and Scottish exiles such as Sir Thomas Sheridan who assured him of the strength of the Jacobite movement in Scotland, as well as following receipt of a petition to Charles from Sir Hector Maclean on behalf of intervention, Charles resolved to launch an expedition to Scotland. The ultimate aim

22962-418: The quality of his ministers and his officers, army and naval, and the strength of the navy in fast ships grew during his reign... He showed political vision and ability in the way in which he used British power in Europe. Robert Walpole (1676–1745) was a son of the landed gentry who rose to power in the House of Commons from 1721 to 1742. He became the first "prime minister", a term in use by 1727. In 1742, he

23140-463: The realm. The government had to fight smuggling—which became a favourite American technique in the 18th century to circumvent the restrictions on trading with the French, Spanish or Dutch. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold and silver would pour into London. The government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in London and other British ports. The government spent much of its revenue on

23318-642: The revival experience. Wesley himself preached 52,000 times, calling on men and women to "redeem the time" and save their souls. Wesley always operated inside the Church of England, but at his death, it set up outside institutions that became the Methodist Church . It stood alongside the traditional nonconformist churches, Presbyterians, Congregationalist, Baptists, Unitarians and Quakers. The nonconformist churches, however, were less influenced by revivalism. The Church of England remained dominant, but it had

23496-578: The royal court, 50 in the government agencies, and the rest with sinecures or other handsome emoluments, often in the range of £500 – £1000 per year. Usually there was little or no work involved. Walpole also distributed highly attractive ecclesiastical appointments. When the Court in 1725 instituted a new order of chivalry, the Order of the Bath , Walpole immediately seized the opportunity. He made sure that most of

23674-497: The speculation himself but was not a major player. He rose to the challenge, as the new First Lord of the Treasury , of resolving the financial and political disaster. The economy was basically healthy, and the panic ended. Working with the financiers he successfully restored confidence in the system. However, public opinion, as shaped by the many prominent men who had lost so much money so quickly, demanded revenge. Walpole supervised

23852-507: The state created on 1 May 1707 as the United Kingdom of Great Britain . Both the Acts and the Treaty describe the country as "One Kingdom" and a "United Kingdom", leading some publications to treat the state as the "United Kingdom". The term United Kingdom was sometimes used informally during the 18th century to describe the state. The kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from

24030-512: The succession by the Act of Settlement 1701 . Raised primarily in France and Italy , when his father died in September 1701 James claimed the thrones. As part of the War of the Spanish Succession , in 1708 Louis XIV of France backed a landing in Scotland on his behalf. This failed, as did further attempts in 1715 and 1719 . Led by his elder son Charles Edward Stuart , the 1745 Rising

24208-464: The terms of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle that ended the War of the Austrian Succession . He moved first to the Papal territory at Avignon , and then in 1749 to Lunéville in the Duchy of Lorraine . In the following years, he was reported to have made several visits in secret to Paris, but was not discovered by the French authorities. After his defeat, Charles indicated to the remaining supporters of

24386-423: The thrones of England , Ireland and Scotland from 1701 until his death in 1766. The only son of James II of England and his second wife, Mary of Modena , he was Prince of Wales and heir until his Catholic father was deposed and exiled in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 . His Protestant half-sister Mary II and her husband William III became co-monarchs. As a Catholic, he was subsequently excluded from

24564-422: The thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland for the Stuart dynasty, was ultimately thwarted by naval defeats at Quiberon Bay and Lagos . Charles's father died on 1 January 1766. Pope Clement XI had recognised James as King of England, Scotland, and Ireland as "James III and VIII", but over 40 years later Pope Clement XIII did not give Charles the same recognition as "Charles III". However, on 23 January, with

24742-474: The traditional spot on the shores of Loch nan Uamh in Lochaber from which he made his final departure from Scotland. Charles landed back in France on 10 October [ O.S. 29 September] 1746. On his return, he was initially received warmly by King Louis XV, but as far as obtaining additional military or political assistance was concerned, his efforts proved fruitless. However, he became at once

24920-433: The two kingdoms into a kingdom called Great Britain. Anne became the first monarch to occupy the unified British throne, and in line with Article 22 of the Treaty of Union Scotland and England each sent members to the new House of Commons of Great Britain . The Scottish and English ruling classes retained power, and each country kept its legal and educational systems, as well as its established Church. United, they formed

25098-503: The two that would culminate with ultimate defeat later at Culloden. Morale was high following the battle at Prestonpans, and Charles returned to Edinburgh, holding court at Holyrood Palace . Jacobite morale was further boosted in mid-October when the French landed with supplies of money and weapons, together with an envoy, which seemed to validate claims of French backing. However, Lord Elcho later claimed that his fellow Scots were already concerned by Charles's autocratic style and fears he

25276-435: The very term "patriot". The opposition Country Party attacked Walpole relentlessly, primarily targeting his patronage, which they denounced as corruption. In turn, Walpole imposed censorship on the London theatre and subsidised writers such as William Arnall and others who rejected the charge of political corruption by arguing that corruption is the universal human condition. Furthermore, they argued, political divisiveness

25454-465: The voyage north, Charles's squadron were fired upon by HMS Lion in the Celtic Sea . The Du Teillay , with Charles on board, made sail to escape, while the Elisabeth , with her greater firepower, engaged Lion . When Lion withdrew, the Elisabeth was forced to return to Brest for repairs, taking the majority of Charles's supplies, including some 1,800 broadswords, 8 artillery pieces and most of

25632-410: The west coast of Scotland, leading to the Jacobite rising of 1745 . The Jacobite forces under Charles initially achieved several victories in the field, including the Battle of Prestonpans in September 1745 and the Battle of Falkirk Muir in January 1746. However, by April 1746, Charles was defeated at Culloden , which effectively ended the Stuart cause. Although there were subsequent attempts such as

25810-775: The year anxious about a French invasion , but by the end of the year, they were victorious in all theatres. In the Americas, they captured Fort Ticonderoga (Carillon) , drove the French out of the Ohio Country , captured Quebec City in Canada as a result of the decisive Battle of the Plains of Abraham , and captured the rich sugar island of Guadeloupe in the West Indies. In India, the John Company repulsed French forces besieging Madras . In Europe, British troops partook in

25988-491: Was a sovereign state in Western Europe from 1707 to the end of 1800. The state was created by the 1706 Treaty of Union and ratified by the Acts of Union 1707 , which united the kingdoms of England (including Wales ) and Scotland to form a single kingdom encompassing the whole island of Great Britain and its outlying islands, with the exception of the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands . The unitary state

26166-441: Was a financial drain, for Britain had to finance its allies and hire foreign soldiers. Stalemate on the battlefield and war weariness on the home front set in toward the end. The anti-war Tory politicians won control of Parliament in 1710 and forced a peace. The concluding Treaty of Utrecht was highly favourable for Britain. Spain lost its empire in Europe and faded away as a great power, while working to better manage its colonies in

26344-463: Was a foreign prince and had a small English standing army to support him, with military support from his native Hanover and from his allies in the Netherlands. In the Jacobite rising of 1715 , based in Scotland, the Earl of Mar led eighteen Jacobite peers and 10,000 men, with the aim of overthrowing the new king and restoring the Stuarts. Poorly organised, it was decisively defeated. Several of

26522-407: Was a key policy of Queen Anne , the last Stuart monarch of England and Scotland and the first monarch of Great Britain. A Treaty of Union was agreed in 1706, following negotiations between representatives of the parliaments of England and Scotland, and each parliament then passed separate Acts of Union to ratify it. The Acts came into effect on 1 May 1707, uniting the separate Parliaments and uniting

26700-511: Was a new phenomenon, not well understood, except for the strong gossip among financiers that fortunes could be made overnight. The South Sea Company, although originally set up to trade with the Spanish Empire, quickly turned most of its attention to very high risk financing, involving £30 million, some 60 per cent of the entire British national debt. It set up a scheme that invited stock owners to turn in their certificates for stock in

26878-457: Was a shock for Charles, who had believed he would be welcomed as a royal prince. Instead, most European courts would only receive him as the " Duke of Albany " (an historic title adopted by Scottish royals in the 14th century). Despite being Catholic, many European states wished to avoid antagonising Britain, the only exception being Venice. By the time he had reached 20, he had become a notable member of upper-class society in Rome and had developed

27056-511: Was allowed to hold Protestant services at Court, and was given land where his Protestant adherents could receive a public burial. Louise Adélaïde d'Orléans ( Mademoiselle d'Orléans ), daughter of Philippe II, Duke of Orléans , was at one time suggested as a wife for James, but nothing came of it. In March 1717, while James was visiting Modena , he became engaged to his cousin Benedetta d'Este , but her father Duke Rinaldo put an end to

27234-465: Was also known to be an alcoholic, a condition that worsened with age. Charles and Louise left Florence in 1777 and returned to Rome. Their relationship had become increasingly quarrelsome. One cause was said to be the speculation regarding Louise's adulterous relationships with the courtiers Carl Bonstetten and the Italian poet Count Vittorio Alfieri . Another cause was stated to be Charles himself, who

27412-595: Was also universal and inevitable because of selfish passions that were integral to human nature. Arnall argued that government must be strong enough to control conflict, and in that regard Walpole was quite successful. This style of "court" political rhetoric continued through the 18th century. Lord Cobham , a leading soldier, used his own connections to build up an opposition after 1733. Young William Pitt and George Grenville joined Cobham's faction —they were called "Cobham's Cubs". They became leading enemies of Walpole and both later became prime minister. By 1741, Walpole

27590-481: Was appointed general of artillery by Don Carlos. On 30 July 1734, he departed Rome with an escort and proceeded with his cousin to the French and Spanish siege of Gaeta , his first exposure to war. While at Gaeta, he observed the final stages of the siege and was said to have come under fire in the trenches of the siegeworks. He returned to Rome in late 1734. In January 1735, shortly after his fourteenth birthday, Charles's mother Clementina died of scurvy . She had been in

27768-421: Was below the spot where the monument to the Royal Stuarts by Antonio Canova would later be erected. His mother Maria is also buried nearby at St Peter's. Charles's heart remained in Frascati Cathedral, where it is contained in a small urn beneath the floor, under a monument. Charles has been depicted in painting since the 18th century, much of it belonging to Romanticism and later Victorian representations of

27946-417: Was created Earl of Orford and was succeeded as prime minister by two of his followers, Henry Pelham (1743–1754) and Pelham's brother the Duke of Newcastle (1754–1762). Clayton Roberts summarizes Walpole's new functions: He monopolized the counsels of the King, he closely superintended the administration, he ruthlessly controlled patronage, and he led the predominant party in Parliament. Corporate stock

28124-474: Was embalmed and placed in a coffin of cypress wood. Adorned with the Order of the Thistle , the Cross of St Andrew, the Order of the Garter and the Cross of St George, Charles was first buried in Frascati Cathedral near Rome, where his brother Henry was bishop. At Henry's death in 1807, Charles's remains (except his heart) were moved to the crypt of St Peter's Basilica in the Vatican , where they were laid to rest next to those of his brother and father. This

28302-441: Was facing mounting criticism on foreign policy—he was accused of entangling Britain in a useless war with Spain—and mounting allegations of corruption. On 13 February 1741, Samuel Sandys , a former ally, called for his removal. He said: Such has been the conduct of Sir Robert Walpole, with regard to foreign affairs: he has deserted our allies, aggrandized our enemies, betrayed our commerce, and endangered our colonies; and yet this

28480-412: Was governed by a single parliament at the Palace of Westminster , but distinct legal systems— English law and Scots law —remained in use. The formerly separate kingdoms had been in personal union since the 1603 " Union of the Crowns " when James VI of Scotland became King of England and King of Ireland . Since James's reign, who had been the first to refer to himself as "king of Great Britain",

28658-417: Was granted a life annuity of 12,000 Roman scudi . Such help enabled him to organise a Jacobite court at Rome, where, although he lived in splendour, he continued to suffer from fits of melancholy. Further efforts to restore the Stuarts to the British throne were planned. In 1719 a major expedition left Spain but was forced to turn back due to weather. A small landing took place in the Scottish Highlands, but

28836-417: Was landed but much of it was lost . Charles was assisted by supporters such as the pilot Donald Macleod of Galtrigill and Captain Con O'Neill, who took him to Benbecula. From 16 April until 28 June, Charles travelled through Benbecula , South Uist , North Uist , Harris , and the Isle of Lewis . On 28 June, Charles was aided by Flora MacDonald , who helped him sail to the Isle of Skye by taking him in

29014-510: Was marching south at the head of an army numbering approximately 6,000 men. On 10 November, Carlisle surrendered to Charles. Continuing south, Charles and his army reached Penrith on 21 November, then Preston on the 26 November and Manchester on the 29 November. His army progressed as far south as the River Trent at Swarkestone Bridge in Derbyshire , arriving there on the 4 December. At Derby , despite Charles's objections, his council at Exeter House decided to return to Scotland given

29192-557: Was overly influenced by his Irish advisors. A "Prince's Council" of senior leaders was established; Charles resented it as an imposition by the Scots on their divinely appointed monarch, while the daily meetings accentuated divisions between the factions. The council was said to include Perth , Lord George Murray, Thomas Sheridan, John O'Sullivan, Murray of Broughton , Lochiel, Keppoch , Clanranald , Glencoe , Ardsheal and Lochgarry . After much discussion, Charles persuaded his council to agree to an invasion of England. By November, Charles

29370-502: Was portrayed by David Niven in the 1948 semi-biographical film Bonnie Prince Charlie . Charles was also portrayed by Andrew Gower in the historical dramatic series Outlander , based upon Diana Gabaldon 's book series. His life has formed a component of numerous historical plays, including For Bonnie Prince Charlie (1897), the Young Pretender (1996) and The Glory (2000). The legacy of Charles Stuart and his role in Jacobitism has also influenced songs and music. Examples include

29548-556: Was provided with a residence by Prince Corsini , the Palazzo di San Clemente , now known as the Palazzo del Pretendente . In Florence, he used the title "Count of Albany" as an alias, and his wife Louise was normally referred to as the "Countess of Albany". Charles's health deteriorated in later life, and he was reported to have suffered from asthma, high blood pressure, swollen legs and ulcers. In 1774, while in Florence, he suffered constantly from his illnesses, which required him to be carried by his servants to and from his carriage. Charles

29726-440: Was reported as becoming increasingly irrational and drunk. In November 1780, Louise formally left Charles. After separating, she claimed that Charles had physically abused her. This claim was generally believed by contemporaries. The historian Douglas states that Charles had been drinking following Saint Andrew's Day celebrations, and after accusing Louise of infidelities, may have attempted to rape her, resulting in her screaming to

29904-403: Was said that he never fully mastered any language and was partially illiterate. During his childhood, he was reported to enjoy hunting, horsemanship, a form of golf, music and dancing. In 1734, his cousin, the Duke of Liria , who was proceeding to join Don Carlos in his struggle for the crown of Naples , passed through Rome. He offered to take Charles on his expedition, and the boy of thirteen

30082-444: Was so bitterly divided that many feared a civil war might break out on Queen Anne's death", wrote historian W. A. Speck . A few hundred of the richest ruling class and landed gentry families controlled parliament, but were deeply split, with Tories committed to the legitimacy of the Stuart "Old Pretender" , then in exile. The Whigs strongly supported the Hanoverians, in order to ensure a Protestant succession. The new king, George I

30260-435: Was successful in Parliament only because of the government's absolute control of the Scottish members in the Commons and the Bishops in the Lords. He gave point to the opposition's cry that Walpole's policy was against the wishes of the nation, a policy imposed by a corrupt use of pension and place. The opposition called for "patriotism" and looked at the Prince of Wales as the future "Patriot King". Walpole supporters ridiculed

30438-407: Was the Protestant James Murray, Jacobite Earl of Dunbar . While the Pope had raised initial concerns over Charles's religious education under a Protestant governor, James agreed that Charles would be raised as a Catholic. Among his tutors were the Chevalier Ramsay , Sir Thomas Sheridan and Father Vinceguerra, a Catholic priest. He quickly became conversant in English, French and Italian, although it

30616-430: Was the last serious effort to restore the House of Stuart . James Francis Edward Stuart was born on 10 June 1688, at St. James's Palace , first and only son of James II of England and his second wife, Mary of Modena , both Catholics . As the eldest surviving son of the reigning monarch he was automatically Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay at birth, and was created Prince of Wales in July 1688. His birth

30794-414: Was the official name of the state, as well as being used in titles such as "Parliament of Great Britain". . The term Great Britain had been in use in some official contexts for a century, such as at the proclamation of Charles I 's acession to the throne in 1625 as "King of Great Britain". The websites of the Scottish Parliament , the BBC , and others, including the Historical Association , refer to

30972-433: Was the same as the one that he had taken on the journey south. He returned to Manchester on 9 December and after some light resistance from the local population, Charles demanded £5,000 from the town, eventually receiving £2,500 in payment. Charles then proceeded on through Preston, Lancaster and Kendal, until the Jacobite forces eventually met the government forces at Clifton in Cumbria on 18 December. The Jacobite forces won

31150-413: Was to instigate a rebellion that would place his father on the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland. To assist with funding the expedition, Charles borrowed some 180,000 livres from the Paris bankers John Waters and George Waters. Part of these funds had been raised through support from loyalists in Britain such as Sir Henry Bedingfield of Oxburgh Hall . As security for the loans, Charles was able to use

31328-407: Was to replace the land tax, which was paid by the local gentry, with excise and customs taxes, which were paid by merchants and ultimately by consumers. Walpole joked that the landed gentry resembled hogs, which squealed loudly whenever anyone laid hands on them. By contrast, he said, merchants were like sheep, and yielded their wool without complaint. The joke backfired in 1733 when he was defeated in

31506-415: Was unexpected, coming five years after his mother's tenth and last pregnancy, none of which produced a child that survived more than a few days. The birth reignited controversies of religion, as the new son would be raised Catholic. Wild rumours spread among British Anglicans: that the child had died stillborn , and that the baby feted as the new prince was an impostor smuggled into the royal birth chamber in

31684-424: Was when he met and heard Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart perform at the Chigi Palace on 6 April. However, he would periodically shut himself away in his rooms, and was said to have formed no new friendships in his later life. He made visits to Florence and Pisa in 1770, where he took to the waters at the city's thermal baths . Charles returned to Paris in early 1771 with the permission of the French authorities under

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